FABRICATION OF METALS
Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075–
MOLTEN METAL
1. CASTING
In metalworking, casting involves
pouring liquid metal into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired
shape, and then allowing it to cool and
solidify. The solidified part is also known
as a casting, which is ejected or broken
out of the mold to complete the process.
Casting is most often used for making
complex shapes that would be difficult or
uneconomical to make by other
methods.[1]
Casting processes have been
known for thousands of years, and widely
used for sculpture, especially
in bronze, jewellery in precious metals,
and weapons and tools. Traditional
techniques include lost-wax
casting, plaster mold casting and sand
casting.
The modern casting process is
subdivided into two main categories:
expendable and non-expendable casting.
It is further broken down by the mold
material, such as sand or metal, and
pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum,
or low pressure.
Expendable mold casting 2,300–2,700 kg (5,100–6,000 lb).
Expendable mold casting is a generic
0.1 kg (0.17–0.22 lb). The sand is bonded
classification that includes sand, plastic,
together using clays, chemical binders, or
shell, plaster, and investment (lost-wax
polymerized oils (such as motor oil). Sand
technique) moldings. This method of mold
can be recycled many times in most
casting involves the use of temporary,
operations and requires little
non-reusable molds.
maintenance.
SAND CASTING
PLASTER CASTING
Sand casting is one of the most
Plaster casting is similar to sand
popular and simplest types of casting, and
casting except that plaster of paris is
has been used for centuries. Sand casting
substituted for sand as a mold material.
allows for smaller batches than
Generally, the form takes less than a
permanent mold casting and at a very
week to prepare, after which a
reasonable cost. Not only does this
production rate of 1–10 units/hr·mold is
method allow manufacturers to create
achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg
products at a low cost, but there are
(99 lb) and as small as 30 g (1 oz) with
other benefits to sand casting, such as
very good surface finish and
very small-size operations. From castings [4]
close tolerances. Plaster casting is an
that fit in the palm of your hand to train
inexpensive alternative to other molding
beds (one casting can create the entire
processes for complex parts due to the
bed for one rail car), it can all be done
low cost of the plaster and its ability to
with sand casting. Sand casting also
produce near net shape castings. The
allows most metals to be cast depending
biggest disadvantage is that it can only be
on the type of sand used for the molds.[3]
used with low melting point non-ferrous
Sand casting requires a lead time materials, such as aluminium, copper,
of days, or even weeks sometimes, for magnesium, and zinc.
production at high output rates (1–20
SHELL MOLD CASTING
pieces/hr-mold) and is unsurpassed for
large-part production. Green (moist) sand Shell molding is similar to sand
has almost no part weight limit, whereas casting, but the molding cavity is formed
dry sand has a practical part mass limit of by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a
flask filled with sand. The sand used is
finer than sand casting sand and is mixed
with a resin so that it can be heated by
the pattern and hardened into a shell
around the pattern. Because of the resin
and finer sand, it gives a much finer
surface finish. The process is easily
automated and more precise than sand
casting. Common metals that are cast
include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium,
and copper alloys. This process is ideal
for complex items that are small to
medium-sized.
PRECISION INVESTMENT CASTING
Shell molding is similar to sand
casting, but the molding cavity is formed
by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a
flask filled with sand. The sand used is
finer than sand casting sand and is mixed
with a resin so that it can be heated by
the pattern and hardened into a shell
around the pattern. Because of the resin
and finer sand, it gives a much finer
surface finish. The process is easily
automated and more precise than sand
casting. Common metals that are cast
include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium,
and copper alloys. This process is ideal
for complex items that are small to
medium-sized.
Non-expendable mold casting
Non-expendable mold casting differs The die casting process forces
molten metal under high pressure into
from expendable processes in that the
mold cavities (which are machined into
mold need not be reformed after each
dies). Most die castings are made
production cycle. This technique includes from nonferrous metals, specifically zinc,
at least four different methods: copper, and aluminium-based alloys,
permanent, die, centrifugal, and but ferrous metal die castings are
possible. The die casting method is
continuous casting. This form of casting
especially suited for applications where
also results in improved repeatability in many small to medium-sized parts are
parts produced and delivers Near Net needed with good detail, a fine surface
Shape results. quality and dimensional consistency.
PERMANENT MOLD CASTING CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Permanent mold casting is a metal In this process molten metal is
casting process that employs poured in the mold and allowed to solidify
reusable molds ("permanent molds"), while the mold is rotating. Metal is poured
usually made from metal. The most into the center of the mold at its axis of
common process uses gravity to fill the rotation. Due to centrifugal force the
mold. However, gas pressure or liquid metal is thrown out towards the
a vacuum are also used. A variation on the periphery.
typical gravity casting process,
Centrifugal casting is both
called slush casting, produces hollow
gravity- and pressure-independent since
castings. Common casting metals
it creates its own force feed using a
are aluminum, magnesium,
temporary sand mold held in a spinning
and copper alloys. Other materials
chamber at up to 900 N. Lead time varies
include tin, zinc, and lead alloys
with the application. Semi- and true-
and iron and steel are also cast
centrifugal processing permit 30–50
in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while
pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a
lasting more than one casting still have a
practical limit for batch processing of
limited life before wearing out.
approximately 9000 kg total mass with a
DIE CASTING typical per-item limit of 2.3–4.5 kg.
Industrially, the centrifugal casting of
railway wheels was an early application of
the method developed by
the German industrial company Krupp and
this capability enabled the rapid growth
of the enterprise.
Small art pieces such as jewelry
are often cast by this method using the
lost wax process, as the forces enable
the rather viscous liquid metals to flow
through very small passages and into fine
details such as leaves and petals. This
effect is similar to the benefits from
vacuum casting, also applied to jewelry
casting.
2. INGOT
An ingot is a piece of relatively
pure material, usually metal, that
is cast into a shape suitable for further
processing.[1] In steelmaking, it is the
first step among semi-finished casting
products. Ingots usually require a second
procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot
working, cutting, or milling to produce a
useful final product. Non-metallic and
semiconductor materials prepared in bulk
form may also be referred to as ingots,
particularly when cast by mold based
methods.[2] Precious metal ingots can be
used as currency (with or without being
processed into other shapes), or as a
currency reserve, as with gold bars.
HOT WORKING
Plastic deformation at
temperatures sufficiently high for
recovery and recrystallization to
counteract strain hardening is termed
hot working. The main goal for hot
working an ingot into a semifinished
product is to refine ingot grain
structures such as those shown in Figures
A and B in the sidebar into a fine-grain
structure like that of the transverse
billet in Figure 1, which was generated by
forging a 500 mm diameter ingot. For
many applications, there is a continuing
demand for finer and more uniform grain
structures to achieve improved ultrasonic
inspectability and to meet stringent
mechanical-property requirements in
final components.
The final optimization of component
mechanical properties is usually a
compromise between various
characteristics, biasing toward those
properties considered to be design
limiting. Hot-working conditions are
designed to enhance those
microstructural characteristics known to
favor the more critical properties, but
with minimal jeopardy to other
properties. Grain size is a classic
consideration, with coarser grain size
favoring creep strength and crack-
growth resistance, and a fine-grain
structure favoring improved low-cycle
fatigue life and tensile yield strength.
The major hot-working operations for
ingot breakdown are open-die press
forging, radial forging (such as GFM),
extrusion, and rolling. Combinations of
these operations are also used. For
example, a common process for producing
medium and smaller diameter billets is
press forging to a preform that is radial-
forged to final billet. Extrusion differs
from forging and rolling in that all the
deformation (following possible upset
operations) occurs in a single pass. In
forging and rolling, many passes take
place, and some reheats may also be
involved. The use of extrusion is limited
to specific applications for ingot
breakdown. Open-die press forging is a
versatile operation that can combine
upset and cogging operations, which are
necessary for imparting sufficient
deformation into large diameter billets
and alloys that are resistant to complete
recrystallization.
ROLLING
Rolling is a process where the
metal is compressed between two
rotating rolls for reducing its cross
sectional area. This is one of the most
widely use of all the metal working
processes. Because of its higher
productivity and low cost. Rolling would be
able to produce components having cross
sectional throughout its length. May
shape such as it’ll and channel section are
possible, but not very complex shapes.
Rolling is normally a hot working process
unless specifically mensions as cold
working. The metal is taken into rolls by
friction and subsequently compressed to
obtain the final shape.
The thickness of the metal that can down
into rolls depends on the roughness of the
roll surface. Rougher rolls would be able
to achive greator reduction than
smoother rolls. The reduction that would
be achieve with a given set of roll is
designed as the angle of the bite. Cold
rolling is done bellow the recrystallization
temperature of the metal , hot rolling is
done when the metal pieces at uniform
working temperature.
Types of Rolling mills
Rolling mills may be classified according
to the number and arrangement of the
rolls.
(a): Two high rolling mills
(b): Three high rolling mills
(c): Four high rolling mills
(d): Tandem rolling mills
(e): Cluster rolling mills
1: Two high rolling mills
Two high rolling mills may further
classified as
Reversing mill
Non reversing mill
A two high rolling mill has two rolls only.
Two high reversing mill:
In two high reversing rolling mills the
rolls rotate ist in one direction and then
in the other, so that rolled metal may
pass back and forth through the rolls
several times. This type is used in pluming
and slabing mills and for roughing work in
plate , rail , structural and other mills.
These are more expensive compared to
the non reversing rolling mills. Because of
the reversible drive needed.
Two high non reversing mill:
In two high non reversing mills as two
rolls which revolve continuously in same
direction therefore smaller and less
costly motive power can be used. However
every time material is to be carried back
over the top of the mill for again passing
in through the rolls. Such an arrangement
is used in mills through which the bar
passes once and in open train plate mill.
2: Three high rolling mill:
It consists of a roll stand with three
parallel rolls one above the other.
Adjacent rolls rotates in opposite
direction. So that the material may be
passed between the top and the middle
roll in one direction and the bottom and
middle rolls in opposite one.
In three high rolling mills the work piece
is rolled on both the forward and return
passes. First of all the work piece passes
through the bottom and middle rolls and
the returning between the middle and the
top rolls.
So that thickness is reduced at each
pass. Mechanically operated lifted tables
are used which move vertically or either
side of the stand. So that the work piece
fed automatically into the roll gap.
Since the rolls run in one direction only a
much less powerful motor and
transmission system is required. The rolls
of a three high rolling mills may be either
plain or grooved to produce plate or
sections respectively.
3: Four high rolling mill:
It has a roll stand with four parallel rolls
one above the other. The top and the
bottom rolls rotate in opposite direction
as do the two middle rolls. The two middle
are smaller in size than the top and
bottom rolls which are called backup rolls
for providing the necessary rigidity to
the smaller rolls.
A four high rolling mill is used for the hot
rolling of armor and other plates as well
as cold rolling of plates, sheets and
strips.
4: Tandem rolling mills:
It is a set of two or three stands of roll
set in parallel alignment. So that a
continuous pass may be made through
each one successively with change the
direction of material.
5: Cluster rolling mills:
It is a special type of four high rolling mill
in which each of the two working rolls is
backup by two or more of the larger
backup rolls for rolling hard in materials. extrusion by the use of spider die. Large
It may be necessary to employ work rolls diameters, thin walled, tubler products
of a very small diameter but of with execellent concentricity and
considerable length. In such cases tolerance charasitic can be produced.
adequate of the working rolls can be Types of extrusion:
obtained by using a cluster mill.
1: Direct extrusion or forward extrusion
2: Indirect extrusion or backward
EXTRUSION extrusion
Extrusion is the process of confining the FORGING
metal in a close cavity and then allowing it
to flow from only one opening, so that the Forging is the operation where the metal
metal will take the shape of the opening. is heated and then a force is applied to
The operation is identical to the manipulates the metals in such a way that
sequeezing of toothpaste out of the the required final shape is obtained.
Forging is generally a hot working process
toothpaste tube.
through cold forging is used sometimes.
By the extrusion process, it is possible to
make component which have a constant Type of forging
cross section over any length as can be 1. Smith forging
formed by the rolling process.
2. Drop forging
Compexity of parts that can be obtain by
extrusion is more than that of rolling, 3. Press forging
because the die required being very
4. Machine forging
simple and easier to make. Also extrusion
is a single pass process,unlike rolling the 1: Smith forging
amount of reduction that si possible in
This is the traditional forging operation
extrusion is large. Generally brittle
done openly or in-openly dies by the
materials can be very easily extruded. It
village black smith or modern shop floor
is also possible to produce sharp corners
by manual hammering or by the power
and different angles. It is possible to
hammer. The process involves heating the
gets shapes with internal cavaties in
stock in the black smith hearth and then
beating it over the anvil. To get the
desire shape the operator has to
manipulate the component in between the
blows.
The types of operation available are
fullering, flattering, bending, upsetting
and swaging.
2: Drop forging
Basic definition:
This is the operation done in closed
impression dies by means drop hammer
here the force for shaping the component
is applied in a series of blows.
Drop forging utilizes a closed impression
die to obtain the desire shape of the
component , the shaping is done by the
repeated hammering given to the material
in the die cavity. The equipment use for
delivering for blows are called drop
hammers. The drop forging die consists
of two halves. The lower halve of the die
is fixed to the anvil of the machine, while
the upper halve is fixed to ram. The
heated stock is kept in the lower die,
while the ram delivers 4-5 blows on the
metal spreads and completely fills in the
die cavity. When the two die of halves
closed the complete is formed. The
typical products obtained in drop forging
are cranks, crank shaft, connecting rods,
wrench, crane hooks etc. The types of
operations are fullering, edging, bending,
blocking, finishing and trimming etc.
3: Press forging
Similar to the drop forging, the press
forging is also done in closed impression
dies with the expectation that the force
is continuous squeezing type applied by
the hydraulic press. Press forging dies
are similar to drop forging dies as also
the process in press forging, the metal is
shaped not by means of a series of blows
as in drop forging , but by means of a
single continuous squeezing action. This
squeezing is obtained by means of
hydraulic presses. Because of the
continuous action of by hydraulic presses,
the material gets uniformly deform
through out its entire depth ,the press
forging dies with the various impression ,
such as fuller, bender and finisher
impression properly arranged .
4: Machine forging:
Unlike the press or drop forging where
the material is drawn out, in machine
forging the material is only upset to get
the desire shape. As it involves the
upsetting operation some time it is simply
called as upset forging. Originally this
was develop for making bolts head in a
continuous fashion, but now there are
fairly large number of diverse.
Uses of this process:
Because of the beneficial grain flow
obtain from upsetting. It is used for
making gears, blanks, shafts, excels, and
similar parts. Upsetting machine called up
setter are generally horizontal acting.
The die set consists of die and
corresponding punch or a heading tool.
The die consists of two parts, one called
the stationary gripper die which is fixed
to the machine frame and the other
movable gripper die which moves along
with the die slide of the up setter. The
stock is held then between these two
gripper dies.
The upset forging cycle start with the,
movable die sliding against the stationary
die to grip the stock. The two dies when
in closed position from the necessary die
cavity then the heading tool advance
against the stock and upset it to
completely filled to the die cavity.
Having completed the upsetting the
heading tool moves back to its back
position. Then the movable gripper die
releases the stock by sliding backward.
Similar to drop forging it is not possible
to get the final shape in a single pass in
machine forging also. Therefore the
operation is carried out in number of
stages. The die cavities is required for
the various operations are all arrange
vertically on the gripper dies. The stock
is the move from stage one to another in
proper sequence till the final forging is
ready. A heading tool each for every
upsetting stage is arranged on the
heading slide of the upsetting machine.