VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANA SANGAMA, BELAGAVI-590018, KARNATAKA

A Project Report
On

“MICRO MRCHANICAL MODELING OF

COMPOSITE MATERIALS”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for awarding the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering of
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi

Submitted by

AMIT N B 1RN14ME012
PRADEEP MADHYASTHA C 1RN14ME097
PRAMOD KRISHNA C R 1RN14ME098
RAGHAVENDRA 1RN14ME110

Internal Guide External Guide

Mr. RANGANATHA BHAT Mrs. RASHMI P N

Assistant Professor Technical Marketing Manager
Department of Mechanical Engineering Engineer Materials Inc.
RNS Institute of Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

RNS Institute of Technology
Dr. Vishnuvardhana Road, Channasandra, Rajarajeshwari Nagar Post, Bengaluru-560 098
2017-2018
 RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Dr. Vishnuvardhana Road, Channasandra,
Rajarajeshwari Nagar Post, Bengaluru - 560 098

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project on “MICRO MRCHANICAL MODELING OF

COMPOSITE MATERIALS” has been successfully completed by Amit N B (1RN14ME012),
Pradeep Madhyastha C (1RN14ME097), Pramod Krishna C R (1RN14ME098) and
Raghavendra (1RN14ME110), bonafide students of R.N.S. Institute of Technology in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of degree in Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical
Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, during academic year 2017-
2018. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been
incorporated in the report and deposited in the departmental library. The project report has been
approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of seminar for the said degree.

Mr. Ranganatha Bhat Mrs. Rashmi P N Dr. T Sreenivasan Dr. M K Venkatesha

Internal Project Guide External Project Guide Professor and HOD Principal
Assistant Professor Technical Marketing Manager Department of ME RNSIT
Department of ME Engineer Materials Inc. RNSIT
RNSIT

External Viva

Name of the Examiners Signature with Date

1.
2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our privilege and duty to acknowledge the kind of help and guidance received from
several people in preparation of this report. It would not have been possible to prepare
this report in this form without their valuable help, co-operation and guidance.

First and foremost, we wish to express our sincere gratitude to the Management of R.N.S
Institute of Technology for providing such a healthy environment to carry out this
project work.

We would like to express our thanks to the Director Dr. H N Shivashankar and the
Principal Dr. M K Venkatesha for their encouragement that motivated us for the
successful completion of this project work.

It gives us immense pleasure to thank Dr. T Sreenivasan, Professor and Head of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering for his constant support and encouragement.

Our sincere thanks to Mr. Ranganatha Bhat, Assistant Professor, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, for his valuable suggestions and guidance throughout.

Our sincere thanks to Mrs. Rashmi P N, Technical Markrting Manager, Engineer

Materials Inc for her valuable suggestions and guidance throughout.

We would also like to thank all other teaching and non-teaching staff of Mechanical
Department who have directly or indirectly helped us in the completion of this project
work.

Last, but not the least, we would hereby acknowledge and thank our parents who have
been a source of inspiration and also instrumental in the successful completion of project
report.

Amit N B (1RN14ME012)
Pradeep Madhyastha C (1RN14ME097)
Pramod Krishna C R (1RN14ME098)
Raghavendra (1RN14ME110)

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 DECLARATION

We, the students of VIII Semester BE, Mechanical Engineering, RNS Institute of
Technology hereby declare that the Project entitled “MICRO MRCHANICAL
MODELING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS” has been carried out by us under
Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.N.S Institute of Technology, Bengaluru and
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the VIII semester degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi, during academic year 2017-2018.

Date: 24th May, 2018 Amit N B (1RN14ME012)

Place: Bengaluru Pradeep Madhyastha C (1RN14ME097)
Pramod Krishna C R (1RN14ME098)
Raghavendra (1RN14ME110)

ii
 ABSTRACT

Micromechanics is a study of composite materials by understanding the interaction between

constituent materials on a microscopic scale. It is based on the assumption that composite
possesses a periodic structure and helps to compute material properties of composites. The
Micromechanical analysis method, which is based on Representative Volume Element
(RVE), has been extensively used for prediction of global stress/strain responses and damage
mechanism in composites. In this project, material characterization tests such as uniaxial,
biaxial and shear tests have been performed on a simplified microstructure. The graphs
obtained from these tests are fit with the hyperelastic data for anisotropic materials. The same
exercise is repeated for different ply angles (0, 45, 90 degrees). Finally, one single fit is done
to accommodate all ply angles and the equation obtained after curve fitting will describe the
combined behavior of the matrix and the reinforcement.

Key words: Micromechanics, periodic structure, Representative Volume Element, ply angles,
uniaxial, biaxial and shear tests.

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 CONTENTS

Acknowledgement i
Declaration ii
Abstract iii
Contents iv
List of Figures vi
List of Tables viii

Chapter 1: Introduction to Composites 1

1.1: Composites 1
1.2: Literature Review 5

Chapter 2: Micromechanical Modeling 13

2.1: Micromechanics 13
2.2: Objectives 15
2.3: CAD Modeling 15

Chapter 3: Glare Composite 21

Chapter 4: Structural Analysis 24

4.1: Uni-axial Tensile Test 27

4.2: Bi- axial Tensile Test 29
4.3: Shear Test 32

Chapter 5: Results 35

5.1: Calculations 35
5.2: Curve Fitting 36

iv
Chapter 6: Conclusion 40

References 41

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

number number

1.1 Constituents of a composite. 1

1.2 Classification of composites based on Base-Matrix Material 2
1.3 Classification of composite materials based on shape of reinforcing 3
material
2.1 Actual Microstructure 13
2.2 Homogenized Microstructure 13
2.3 Representative Volume Element 14
2.4 Dimensions of CAD model 17
2.5 Al 7475-T76 and S2 glass fibre 17
2.6 GLARE laminate Composite 18
2.7 Cross-Ply Laminate (900) 18
2.8 Angle-Ply Laminate (±450 ) 19
3.1 Materials used in Airbus A380 21
3.2 GLARE composite used in Airbus 380 22
3.3 Relative comparison between GLARE and Al 2024-T3 alloy 22
4.1 Various kind of Mechanical Tests conducted on the structures 25
4.2 Uni-axial Test Loaded (Isometric View) 27
4.3 Uni-axial Test Loaded (Front View) 27
4.4 Uni-axial Test Displacement for Cross-ply & Angle-ply 28
4.5 Uni-axial Test Stress for Cross-ply 28
4.6 Uni-axial Test Stress for Angle-ply 29
4.7 Bi-axial Test Loaded (Isometric View) 29
4.8 Bi-axial Test Loaded (Front View) 30
4.9 Bi-axial Test Displacement for Cross-ply & Angle-ply 30
4.10 Bi-axial Test Stress for Cross-ply 31

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4.11 Bi-axial Test Stress for Angle-ply 31
4.12 Shear Test Loaded (Isometric View) 32
4.13 Shear Test Loaded (Front View) 32
4.14 Shear Test Displacement for Cross-ply & Angle-ply 33
4.15 Shear Test Stress for Cross-ply 33
4.16 Shear Test Stress for Angle-ply 34
5.1 Curve fitting of Uni-axial Tensile test 37
5.2 Curve fitting of Bi-axial Tensile test 38
5.3 Curve fitting of Shear test 39

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

number number

3.1 Mechanical properties of adhesive system used to manufacture 23

GLARE
3.2 Properties of GLARE components 23
5.1 Results of Analysis 35
5.2 Curve fitting of Uni-axial Tensile test 37
5.3 Curve fitting of Bi-axial Tensile test 38
5.4 Results of Shear test Analysis 39

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Micro Mechanical Modeling of Composite Materials

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES

1.1 Composites

Current engineering applications require materials with broad spectrum of properties like
stronger, lighter and less expensive which are quite difficult to meet using monolithic
material systems. Composites have been noted to offer such tailored property combinations
required in a wide range of engineering applications. Composite materials are multiphase
materials that exhibit a significant proportion of properties of both constituent phases such
that a better combination of properties is realized. The properties of composites depend upon
the type of reinforcement, their amounts, orientation, and the geometry of the reinforcement.
Some of these property combinations include: high specific strength, low coefficient of
thermal expansion, high thermal resistance, good damping capacities, superior wear
resistance, high specific stiffness and satisfactory levels of corrosion resistance.

Composites are defined as combination of two or more materials.

Figure 1.1: Constituents of a composite.

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Micro Mechanical Modeling of Composite Materials

A composite material contains a reinforcement (such as fibers) supported by a binder (matrix)

material. The reinforcement components commonly used in the fabrication of composite
structures are Carbon, Aramid, Glass and Ceramic fibers. The matrix or resin material can be
a Polyester, Vinyl ester, Epoxy, Polymide, or Bismaliamide.

Many manufacturing methods are used to produce composite structures include: Filament
winding, Pultrusion, Resin transfer molding (RTM), Injection molding, Compression
molding, Wet lay-up, Spray-up, Resin infusion, and hand lay-up using prepreg and Autoclave
cure. Aerospace structures are primarily fabricated using hand lay-up of prepreg and
autoclave cure.
There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on the
matrix material and the second is based on the material structure.

Figure 1.2: Classification of composites based on Base-Matrix Material.

1. Metal-Matrix Composites (MMC): Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic

matrix (aluminum, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic
(oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC): Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of

matrix made up of a ceramic material and embedded fibers of other ceramic material
(dispersed phase).

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Micro Mechanical Modeling of Composite Materials

3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC): Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a

matrix from thermo set (Unsaturated Polyester (UP), Epoxy (EP)) or thermoplastic
(Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polystyrene) and embedded glass, carbon,
steel or Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).
a. Thermo-plastic polymers.
b. Thermo-setting Polymers.

Figure 1.3: Classification of composite materials based on shape of reinforcing

material.

The functions of the Reinforcement include:

 The primary function of the reinforcement is to carry load along the length of the
fibre.
 To provide strength and stiffness in one direction.
 Contributing to the desired properties of the composite.
 Transferring the strength to the matrix.
 Reinforcements can be oriented to provide tailored properties in the direction of loads
imparted on the end product.
 The end properties of the composites are controlled by the properties of the fillers.

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The functions of the matrix include:

 The primary function of the matrix is to hold and bind the reinforcement fibres
together in position within it.
 Protecting the reinforcement material from abrasion and from environment.
 Dispersing the reinforcements properly.
 Distributing the Loads evenly between the fibres.
 Enhances transverse properties of the laminates.
 Improves the impact and fracture resistance of the resulting components.
 Providing good surface finish to the product.

Advantages of Composites
1. High specific strength and stiffness.
2. Low specific gravity (Lighter than materials).
3. Multiple load path and damage tolerance.
4. High fatigue strength.
5. Corrosion resistance.
6. Tailoring of strength/stiffness properties.
7. Possibility of moulding complicated shape.
8. Ease of repair.
9. High dimensional stability.
10. Concept of bonded structure.
11. Smooth outer surface.
12. Reduce assembly time by co-moulding ribs and adjacent panels.
13. The sound deadening property reduces the irritating rattling noise.

Limitations of Composites
1. Poor erosion resistance.
2. Poor/non electrical resistance.
3. Degradation of characteristics in moisture.
4. High cost of material.
5. Special efforts for Tooling, Shop facilities, new inspection techniques, skilled
manpower.

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Composite Applications
Each year, composites find their way into hundreds of new applications, from golf clubs and
tennis rackets to jet skis, aircraft, missiles and spacecraft. Composite materials offer
designers an increasing array of as a material and system solution. At the same time,
composite cost trends are highly favourable, especially when the total cost of fabrication is
considered.
The different applications of Composites
1. Aerospace Application like
2. Automotive Uses
3. Civil Engineering Applications
4. Marine Composites Applications

1.2 Literature Review

Zihui Xia et.al [1] conducted Micro mechanical multi-cell models for cross-ply and angle-ply
laminates. The Micromechanical analysis method that is based on Representative Volume
Element (RVE) has been extensively used for prediction of global stress/strain responses and
damage mechanism in composites. Representative Volume Element is a statistical
representation of typical material properties and is used to determine the corresponding
effective properties for the homogenized macroscopic model. The RVE must be large enough
to contain sufficient information about the microstructure in order to be representative and
should be much smaller than the macroscopic body. Generally, two approaches taken in
obtaining global properties of composites are Macro-mechanical modeling and Micro-
mechanical modeling. Micromechanics is a study of composite materials by understanding
the interaction between constituent materials on a microscopic scale. It is based on the known
properties of constituents under the assumption that composite possesses a periodic structure
and helps to theoretically compute material properties along with failure mechanisms of
composites. In this paper, micromechanical multi-cell models for cross-ply and angle-ply
were developed in conjunction with the application of Unified Form of Boundary Conditions
for RVE- models. Composite materials could be envisioned as a periodical array of RVE;
therefore, Periodic Boundary Conditions were applied to the Representative Volume Element
models. This indicated that each RVE in the composite had the same deformation mode and
was no separation or overlap between the neighbouring RVEs.

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The conclusions obtained from the above study was that the method used to evaluate the
average stresses and strains was provided based on the applied boundary conditions and
resultant forces at the boundaries. The basic relations proposed in this paper do not depend on
the properties of the constituent materials of the composite. Therefore, they could be applied
to either linear or non-linear analysis for laminates under multiaxial loads.

Zhiye Lil et.al [2] layed a foundation for characterization and modeling of damage evolution
leading to failure of polymer-matrix composites and their consequent design. This paper
developed an experimentally calibrated and validated 3D finite element model for simulating
strain-rate dependent deformation and damage behaviour in Representative Volume
Elements.
The computational tool was developed in the FEM code ABAQUS Explicit. Damage, leading
to failure, in the fiber and matrix phases, was modeled by a rate-dependent non-local scalar
CDM model and interfaces were calibrated using experimental results. A limited number of
tests were conducted with a cruciform specimen, Validation studies were subsequently
conducted by comparing results of FEM simulations with cruciform and from micro-droplet
experiments. Finally, the effect of microstructural morphology on the evolution of damage
and its path was examined. The CZ models of the fibre-matrix interface were calibrated and
validated using results from two experimental studies. The first study involved a cruciform
experiment for the borosilicate glass, epoxy composite and the second was a micro-droplet
test that was used to calibrate and validate de-bonding as well as post de-bonding frictional
sliding process with a Coulomb friction model. Comparison of the two experimental results
indicated that the interface in the droplet specimen was stronger than that in the cruciform. In
the post-damage response, the volume averaged stress with the PPR CZM drops faster for
simple shear due to the coupling of the normal and tangential fracture energies. Finally, the
macroscopic peak stress, strain and recoverable energy density at the onset of damage
showed an increasing trend with an increase in the strain rate.

P. H. J. Vosbeek et.al [3] made a report on the micromechanical modelling of composite

materials. The main goal of the investigation was to derive material models for composite
materials, which take into account both the microstructure of the composite and the
micromechanical properties of its constituents, as well as their interactions. To that end, it
was convenient to distinguish three different scales: the microscopic scale of the
inhomogeneities, the macroscopic scale of the material body, intermediate mesoscopic scale.

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The latter was much larger than the microscopic and much smaller than the macroscopic
scale. At the microscopic scale, two models for the interaction between the constituents of a
composite were proposed. Finite element models were derived from them, and the results of
some calculations that were carried out with these models were presented. The finite element
models were purely elastic since each point on the interaction surface of a particle interacted
with a fixed part of the interaction surface of the other particle, and the interaction between
two points was elastic. They could be extended without much effort. In order to determine the
effective material properties of the mesodomain, the relation between averages (either
volume or ensemble averages) of stress and strain in the mesodomain were to be derived.
With the finite element models, Courages method could be extended easily to nonlinear
problems in order to calculate the mesoscopic properties.

S. I. Kundalwala et.al [4] focused on the mechanical properties and stress transfer behaviour
of multiscale composites containing reinforcements that were nano-scale and micro-scale in
nature. The distinctive feature of the construction of this composite was such that the Carbon
Nano Structures (CNS) were dispersed in the matrix around the continuous microscale fiber
in order to modify microfiber-matrix interfacial adhesion. These kinds of CNS were
considered to be made of Aligned CNTs (A-CNTs). Multiscale models were developed for
such hybrid composites. Basically molecular dynamic simulations in conjunction with the
Mori-Tanaka method were used to determine the effective elastic properties. A
micromechanical pull-out model for a continuous fibre multi-scale composite was developed,
and stress transfer behaviour was studied for different orientations of CNS considering their
perfect and imperfect interfacial bonding conditions with the surrounding epoxy. Such
condition of the interface was modeled using the linear spring layer model with a continuous
traction but a displacement jump. The results from the developed pull-out model were
compared with those of the finite element analyses and were found to be in good agreement.
The pull-out model accounted for the radial as well as the axial deformations of different
orthotropic constituent phases of the multiscale composite. The results revealed that the stress
transfer characteristics of the multiscale composite were significantly improved by
controlling the CNT morphology around the fiber, particularly, when they were aligned along
the axial direction of the microscale fiber. The results also showed that the CNS-epoxy
interface weakening significantly influenced the radial stress along the length of the
microscale fiber.

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Micro Mechanical Modeling of Composite Materials

Abdalla Mthe et.al [5] predicted the thermo-elastoplastic behaviours of composite materials
and the corresponding constituents. One of the promising theories to predict the behaviours of
a composite on the micro-scale using finite element analysis was the Multi-Continuum
Theory (MCT). It was also used for evaluating the constituent-averaged elastic stress and
strain from the composite-averaged counterparts. In this research, the MCT was extended to
handle the thermo-elastoplastic behaviors of composites. A micromechanical model, which
combines Eshelby and Mori-Tanaka models, was used to determine the effective composite
properties. These properties were used to propose incremental non-linear governing
equations. Also, the thermoelastoplastic decomposition of the composite strain was carried
out to determine the constituents stresses and strains. The work was validated by comparing
the results with others in the literature and good agreement was obtained Multi -Continuum
Theory was extended for elastoplastic behaviours of composites with different shapes of the
reinforcements. The plasticity of the composite was originated from the matrix plasticity
while the reinforcements behave elastically. The effective properties of the composite were
extracted as functions of the constituents counterparts. Results of the different mechanical
and thermal properties and the stress-strain relations of the composite, reinforcement and
matrix were compared with those of other models in the literature and good agreement was
obtained.

M. A. P Mohammed et.al [6] studied the mechanical behavior of dough, gluten, and starch
with an effort to investigate whether bread dough could be treated as a two-phase (starch and
gluten) composite material. Mechanical loading tests revealed rate-dependent behaviour for
both the starch and gluten constituents of dough. There was evidence from cryo-Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) that damage in the form of debonding between starch and gluten
occurs when the sample was stretched. In addition, the Lodge material model was found to
deviate from the tension and shear stress-strain test data by a considerably larger amount than
from the compression test data. This could indicate that damage was dominant along the
gluten-starch interface, causing debonding; the latter occurs less under compression loading
but was more prevalent in tension and shear loading. A single-particle finite element model
was developed using starch as a filler in a gluten matrix. The interface between starch and
gluten was modelled using cohesive zone elements with damage/debonding occurring under
opening/tension and sliding/shear modes. The numerical results were compared to
experimental stress-strain data obtained at various loading conditions. A comparison of
stress-strain curves obtained from single and multi-particle model led to the good agreement.

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This indicated that the single particle model could be used to adequately represent the
microstructure of the dough.

Gautam Gopinath et.al [7] analyzed damage initiation, damage progression, and failure of 16
ply-unidirectional fiber reinforced laminates impacted at normal incidence by a rigid sphere.
The damage was assumed to initiate when at least one of Hashins failure criteria was satisfied
with the evolving damage modelled by an exponential relation. The four micromechanical
theories, namely, the Mori-Tanaka, Eshelbys equivalent inclusion, the free shear traction
method, and Hills equivalent energy principle were used to find values of material parameters
for elasto-plastic deformations. The elasto-plastic deformations of the matrix were modelled
by two yield criteria - the pressure independent Von Mises and the pressure-dependent
Drucker-Prager. The delamination failure mode was simulated by using the cohesive zone
model. It was noted that the difference in the minimum and the maximum values of Young’s
modulus in the direction transverse to fibers found experimentally by three research groups
was 20 percent. Along the fibres, all four theories gave values of Youngs modulus that were
very close to each other, and it could also be found by using the rule of mixtures. For uniaxial
elastoplastic deformations of the composite lamina with fibres making an angle with the axis
of loading, the effective stress versus the effective plastic strain curves computed with the
von Mises yield criterion for the PEEK agreed better with the experimental results of Weeks
and Sun than those derived by assuming that the yield criterion as pressure dependent. The
values were found as a function of the volume fraction of fibers, of the two material
parameters in the yield surface and of the two material parameters that characterize the strain-
dependent yield stress of the composites.

George Mseis et.al [8] analyzed a method for the multiscale modeling of heterogeneous
materials with a special emphasis on unidirectional composites. The method relies on
defining two problems. The first boundary value problem was defined with homogenized
material properties and the second boundary value problem was defined with the exact
heterogenous properties. Based on these definitions a modeling error between these two
problems was defined and analyzed for both small deformation and finite deformation cases.
To improve the solution of the homogenized problem without solving the complete
heterogeneous problem, subdomains that include microstructural information were defined.
These smaller sub-domains could then be solved and included into the solution space of the
homogeneous problem through a simple coupling process.

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Micro Mechanical Modeling of Composite Materials

As a preset to the multiscale process, homogenization techniques were analyzed for random
unidirectional composites under small deformations. This allows one to systematically obtain
material properties for the homogenized boundary value problem. A thorough analysis was
provided to understand the behaviour of the error indicator under both small and finite
deformations. The potential reduction in the modeling error while including subdomains in
the solution space was also explored. The effect the size of the sub-domains has on the
solution improvement was also investigated.

Kent Pearson et.al [9] has conducted a test on micromechanical modelling of Wood and Fibre
properties. Wood is a material with mechanical properties that vary markedly, both within a
tree and among trees. Moisture changes lead to shrinkage or swelling and modify the
mechanical properties. In the present study both experimental and numerical work concerning
the stiffness and the hygroexpansion properties of wood and of fibres and variations in them
is presented. The experimental work involves both characterizing the structure of wood at the
micro structural level and the testing of clear-wood specimens. The experiments at the micro
structural level provide valuable information concerning the cellular structure of wood,
information needed for modelling wood on the basis of its micro structure. Deformations in
the micro structure due to loading, as characterized by use of a SEM, were also studied. The
longitudinal modulus of elasticity, three hygroexpansion coefficients and the density along
the radius from pith to bark in the stem were determined by the testing of clear wood
specimens. The longitudinal modulus of elasticity and the three shrinkage coefficients were
shown to vary considerably along the radial direction of the stem. Models based on the micro
structure for determining the stiffness and shrinkage properties of wood are proposed. The
models investigated include the chain of modelling from the mechanical properties of the
chemical constituents of the cell wall to the average mechanical properties of a growth ring.
The models are based mainly on results of the experiments that were performed. Models of
the micro fibril in the cell wall as well as models of the cellular structure of wood were
developed with the aim of determining the stiffness and shrinkage properties of wood from
simply a few key parameters. Two models of the cellular structure of wood were investigated.
In one of these, the structure was composed of irregular hexagonal cells, whereas in the other
the cell structures were obtained from micro graphs. Parametric studies performed by use of
the hexagonal cell model are presented. The results of these studies showed the parameters
governing the stiffness and the hygroexpansion properties of wood to be the micro fibril angle
of the S2-layer, density and the properties of the chemical constituents.

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An introductory study of the nonlinear behaviour of cell structures was also carried out. The
results of numerical analyses of the deformations in cell structures that occur in compression
loading in the radial and tangential directions are presented. The mechanical behaviour of
chemically unaltered fibres of simplified geometrical shape was also studied in a preliminary
way by means of micro mechanical modelling. Three-dimensional finite element models of
straight fibres of undeformed and of collapsed cross-sectional shape were involved. Both the
force-displacement relationship and the moisture-induced deformations needed for
characterization the behaviour of the fibre were determined. The results of simulations of the
stiffness behaviour of fibres revealed two unique coupled deformation modes: coupling
between extension and twist and coupling between in-plane bending and out-of-plane shear
deformation.

Jefferey P. Gardener et.al [10] has conducted a test on micro mechanical of composite
materials in Finite Element Analysis using an embedded Cell Approach. The material
properties of composites can be heavily dependent on localized phenomena. As a result,
micro mechanical models have been introduced to account for these phenomena. In this
thesis, the micro mechanical method of cells model by Aboudi is cast into a finite element
framework. The model is 1st implemented for linear elastic, continuous fiber composites.
During the implementation, additional interface elements are introduced into the unit cell to
later provide for damage evolution in the composite. The resulting finite element user
material is compared with the original Aboudi model equations and standard finite element
solutions. The model is also used to approximate a statistical representation of the composite
geometry by introducing variability into the volume fraction. A Newton iteration scheme on
the displacements is introduced into the material model to allow for nonlinear material
behavior. The interface elements are given a failure criterion to model debonding between the
fiber and matrix in addition to brittle fracture of the matrix and fibers. A series of problems
(loadings include a temperature change, a thermal gradient, distributed pressure, and beam
bending) are analyzed demonstrating the prediction of local fiber and matrix stress states in
addition to the macroscopic stress state of the composite. It is shown that a statistical
representation of the fiber volume fraction increases the predicted maximum constituent
stresses. Debonding and fiber breakage are examined to demonstrate the resulting degradation
of the composite stiffness. The use of the method of cells material model is found to have a
large effect on the computational expense of finite element analysis, especially in nonlinear
analyses.

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Micro Mechanical Modeling of Composite Materials

However, this effect decreases with increasing problem size and depends upon computer
architecture. Due to the continually improving power of even desktop workstations, the use
of micro mechanical material models in finite element analysis is found to be a viable and
powerful option.

Adelina Vanessa Benedict et.al [11] conducted an Experimental Investigation of GLARE and
Restructured Fiber Metal Laminates. Fiber Metal Laminates (FMLs) are a group of materials
fabricated by bonding glass/epoxy layers within metal layers. This class of materials can
provide good mechanical properties, as well as weight savings. An FML known as Glass
Laminate Aluminum Reinforced Epoxy (GLARE) was studied. An experimental
investigation comprising of microscopy and tensile testing was carried out using different
grades of GLARE. Microscopy revealed the construction details of GLARE, while tensile
testing provided means of measuring and analyzing its stress-strain responses. Next, different
metal surface pretreatment methods were explored. These included sandblasting, Phosphoric
Acid Anodizing (PAA), and AC-130 Sol-Gel treatment. Woven S-2 glass, an epoxy adhesive,
and aluminum alloy sheet metal were used to fabricate restructured FMLs using time and cost
effective procedures. Additional microscopy and tensile testing allowed for comparisons with
GLARE and aircraft grade aluminum alloys. The restructured FMLs showed similar
behaviors to GLARE with potential significant improvements in fabrication efficiency.

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CHAPTER 2
MICROMECHANICAL MODELING

2.1 Micromechanics

The micromechanical approach for analysing composites considers the properties of the fibre
and matrix separately and applies the loading and boundary conditions at the individual fibre
and matrix level. The overall properties of the composite are developed by relating the
average stresses and strains. The micromechanical approach provides much more detail into
the true interactions between the fibre and matrix, potentially leading to a more accurate
model of the composite behaviour. A micromechanical approach can be performed on the
composite provided that the individual phase properties are known and the effective material
properties for the composite are a result of the analysis.

The advantage of micromechanical analysis falls in the area of failure. Failure in composites
usually occurs at the micromechanical level and is difficult to capture in a macroscopic
model. Using macroscopic failure criteria, Failure at the microscopic level can take many
forms including fibre. Breakage, matrix cracking, and matrix fibre interface debonding, or
damage. Failure at the interface is most common in composites. Other benefits of
micromechanical analysis include the ability to study the effects of reinforcement volume
fraction and thermal stresses at the matrix-fibre interface.

Figure 2.1: Actual Microstructure. Figure 2.2: Homogenized Microstructure.

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The Micromechanical analysis method that is based on Representative Volume Element

(RVE) has been extensively used for prediction of global stress/strain responses and damage
mechanism in composites.

Representative Volume Element is a statistical representation of typical material properties

and is used to determine the corresponding effective properties for the homogenized
macroscopic model.

The RVE must be large enough to contain sufficient information about the microstructure in
order to be representative and should be much smaller than the macroscopic body. Generally,
two approaches taken in obtaining global properties of composites are Macro-mechanical
modelling and Micro-mechanical modelling.

Micromechanics is a study of composite materials by understanding the interaction between

constituent materials on a microscopic scale. It is based on the known properties of
constituents under the assumption that composite possesses a periodic structure and helps to
theoretically compute material properties along with failure mechanisms of composites.

Figure 2.3: Representative Volume Element.

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2.2 Objectives

In this project, material characterization tests such as uniaxial, biaxial and shear tests will be
performed on a simplified microstructure and Stress, strain, deformation etc will be
calculated. The graphs obtained from these tests will be fit with the hyperplastic data for
anisotropic materials. The same exercise will be repeated for different ply angles (0, 45, 90
degrees).
Finally, one single fit will be done to accommodate all the ply angles and this equation
obtained after multi-variable curve fitting will describe the combined behaviour of the matrix
and the reinforcement. The micro mechanical models can be represented as shown below:

2.3 CAD Modeling

CAD (computer-aided design) software is used by architects, engineers, drafters, artists, and
others to create precision drawings or technical illustrations. CAD software can be used to
create two-dimensional (2-D) drawings or three-dimensional (3-D) models. If you work in
the architecture, MEP or structural engineering fields, you have probably used 2D or 3D
CAD programmes. These programmes can help you to explore design ideas, visualise
concepts through photorealistic renderings and simulate how a design will perform in the real
world. AutoCAD software was the first CAD programme and it is still the most widely used
CAD application. Engineering drawing entails the use of graphical symbols such as points,
lines, curves, planes and shapes. Essentially, it gives detailed description about any
component in a graphical form.

Background

Engineering drawings have been in use for more than 2000 years. However, the use of
orthographic projections was formally introduced by the French mathematician Gaspard
Monge in the eighteenth century.
Since visual objects transcend languages, engineering drawings have evolved and become
popular over the years. While earlier engineering drawings were handmade, studies have
shown that engineering designs are quite complicated.

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A solution to many engineering problems requires a combination of organization, analysis,

problem solving principles and a graphical representation of the problem.
Objects in engineering are represented by a technical drawing (also called as drafting) that
represents designs and specifications of the physical object and data relationships. Since a
technical drawing is precise and communicates all information of the object clearly, it has to
be precise. This is where CAD comes to the fore. CAD stands for Computer Aided Design.
CAD is used to design, develop and optimize products. While it is very versatile, CAD is
extensively used in the design of tools and equipment required in the manufacturing process
as well as in the construction domain. CAD enables design engineers to layout and to develop
their work on a computer screen, print and save it for future editing.Initially CAD was not
exactly an economic proposition because the machines at those times were very costly. The
increasing computer power in the later part of the 20th century, with the arrival of
minicomputer and subsequently the microprocessor, has allowed engineers to use CAD files
that are an accurate representation of the dimensions / properties of the object.

Types of CAD Software

Since its introduction in late 1960’s, CAD software has improved by leaps and bounds. A
broad classification of CAD is:

 2D CAD
 3D CAD
 3D Wireframe and Surface Modelling
 Solid Modelling

With more and more companies (if not all) turning to CAD / CAE / CAM to achieve
efficiency, accuracy and reduced time-to-market of products, there is a growing demand for
CAD software. The industry leaders in this space include AutoCAD, Dassault Systems,
Siemens and Altair.

In this work CAD modelling has been carried out in solid edge V19. The material used in
CAD modelling is GLARE (Aluminium with S2 glass fibres).
The dimensions used for each layer of reinforcements of the GLARE are as shown in the
figure below:

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Figure 2.4: Dimensions of CAD model.

i.e., The length of the individual layer =L= 200mm.
The breadth of the individual layer =B= 200mm.
The thickness of the individual layer =T= 1mm.

1. The individual Layers of Aluminium and S2 glass are created as per the dimensions
mentioned.

Figure 2.5: Al 7475-T76 and S2 glass fibre.

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2. Each layer then layer up to have the model of GLARE laminates.

Figure 2.6: GLARE laminate Composite.

There are basically 2 types of laminate models:

1. Cross-Ply laminates, and

2. Angle-Ply laminates.

1. A laminate is called cross-ply laminate if all the plies used to fabricate the laminate
are only 00 and 900

Figure 2.7: Cross-Ply Laminate (900).

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2. A laminate is called angle-ply laminate if it has plies of the same thickness and
material and are oriented at +ө and –ө.

Figure 2.8: Angle-Ply Laminate (±450 ).

Use of CAD

CAD is used to accomplish preliminary design and layouts, design details and calculations,
creating 3-D models, creating and releasing drawings, as well as interfacing with analysis,
marketing, manufacturing, and end-user personnel.

CAD facilitates the manufacturing process by transferring detailed information about a

product in an automated form that can be universally interpreted by trained personnel.
It can be used to produce either two-dimensional or three-dimensional diagrams. The use of
CAD software tools allows the object to be viewed from any angle, even from the inside
looking out. One of the main advantages of a CAD drawing is that the editing is a fast
process as compared to manual method. Apart from detailed engineering of 2D or 3D models,
CAD is widely used from conceptual design and layout of products to definition of
manufacturing of components.

CAD reduces design time by allowing precise simulation rather than build and test physical
prototypes. Integrating CAD with CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) streamlines the
product development even more.
CAD is currently widely used for industrial products, animated movies and other
applications.

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A special printer or plotter is usually required for printing professional design renderings.
CAD programs use either vector-based graphics or raster graphics that show how an object
will look.

CAD software enables

 Efficiency in the quality of design

 Increase in the Engineer’s productivity
 Improve record keeping through better documentation and communication

Today, the use of CAD has permeated almost all industries. From aerospace, electronics to
manufacturing, CAD is used in all industry verticals. Since CAD encourages creativity and
speeds up productivity, it is becoming more and more useful as an important tool for
visualization before actually implementing a manufacturing process. That is also one of the
reasons CAD training is gaining more and more importance.

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CHAPTER 3
GLARE COMPOSITE

Most of the aircraft structures today are built using composite materials. One of the biggest
jetliner built today, A380 aircraft, is one of the most advanced aircrafts build. While the
designs originally started in early 2000’s, it was only around 2014 that the aircraft started
being used for consumer flights. Over the decade and half, A380 faced several delays and has
become a case study in itself.

Figure 3.1: Materials used in Airbus A380.

If one wondered for the reason for these delays, it was evidently due to the composite
materials used for building the aircraft. While composite materials offer great strength-
topweight ratio, their behaviour is not well known. In addition, most of the aircraft structures
can be classified as thin-structures and thus full 3-D FEM is quite expensive.

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Figure 3.2: GLARE composite used in Airbus 380.

Most of the upper fuselage structure was made of an innovative composite material called
GLARE alongside Al 2524. While Airbus understood a lot about the composite material
technology during these years, it has struggled to achieve a comprehensive understanding of
the material. GLARE (glass-reinforced aluminium laminate) is a new class of fibre metal
laminates for advanced aerospace structural applications. It consists of thin aluminium sheets
(Al 7475-T76 alloy) bonded together with high-strength glass fibres (S2 fibres).

GLARE laminates offer a unique combination of properties such as outstanding fatigue

resistance, high specific static properties, excellent impact resistance, good residual and blunt
notch strength, flame resistance and corrosion properties, and ease of manufacture and repair.
GLARE laminates are much superior than traditional Aluminium and Figure. Provides a
relative comparison between the two.

Figure 3.3: Relative comparison between GLARE and Al 2024-T3 alloy.

The material properties of the GLARE & Aluminium allow (Al7475-T76) and S2 glass fibres
are as given in Tables below:

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Table 3.1: Mechanical properties of adhesive system used to manufacture

GLARE.
Property Value
Strength ±50 MPa
Young’s Modulus ±1.7 MPa
Strain at failure 5-10% (depends on strain rate)

Table 3.2: Properties of GLARE components.

Al7475-T76 S2 Glass fibre
Density (kg/m3) 2810 2460

Ultimate tensile strength

565 4890
(MPa)
Elongation at break 11% 5.7%

Young’s modulus (GPa) 70.3 86.9

Poisson’s ratio 0.33 0.22

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CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

A structure refers to a body or system of connected parts used to support a load. Important
examples related to Civil Engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other
branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical
systems, and electrical supporting structures are important. To design a structure, an engineer
must account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while considering economic and
environmental constraints. Other branches of engineering work on a wide variety of non-
building structures.

Structural analysis is the determination of the effects of loads on physical structures and
their components. Structures subject to this type of analysis include all that must withstand
loads, such as buildings, bridges, vehicles, furniture, attire, soil strata, prostheses and
biological tissue. Structural analysis employs the fields of applied mechanics, materials
science and applied mathematics to compute structure's deformations,
internal forces, stresses, support reactions, accelerations, and stability. The results of the
analysis are used to verify a structure's fitness for use, often precluding physical tests.
Structural analysis is thus a key part of the engineering design of structures.

The Structural analysis was done in ANSYS software. The 3 major parts in analysis are

1. Pre-processor: Here all the data required to solve the problem like type of
element, material properties, dimensions, meshing and loads are mentioned.

2. Solution: Here solution to the problem is done.

3. Post-processor: Here the required values of results are plotted and obtained.

Various kinds of Mechanical Tests can be conducted on the structures. The results of these
tests will give Deformation and Stress values and further this can be used in selection of
materials as per the applications.

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The 3 tests analyzed are:

1. Uni-axial Tensile Test. 2. Bi-axial Tensile Test. 3. Shear Test.

Figure 4.1 Various kind of Mechanical Tests conducted on the structures.

 The Element Type Used for Analysis is ‘Shell 3D 4 node 181’.
 The Tests are conducted on 00, 900 Cross-ply laminates and 450 Angle-ply laminates.

Tensile test, also known as tension test, is a fundamental materials science and engineering
test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. Tensile test is carried
out on a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). From the tensile test we obtain the Stress –
Strain curve for the material, and the Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test
are Ultimate tensile strength, Breaking strength, Maximum elongation and Reduction in area.
From these measurements the following properties like Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio,
Yield strength, and Strain hardening characteristics of the test specimens can be determined.
All these properties play a very important role in deciding the materials to be used in various
applications.

The tensile test carried out on a specimen can be

1. Uniaxial tensile test, or

2. Biaxial tensile test.

Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the mechanical
characteristics of isotropic materials. In uniaxial tensile test the specimen is fixed at one of its
end and the pulling tensile load is applied to the specimen at the other end. Some materials
use biaxial tensile testing.

Biaxial tensile testing is a kind of tensile test where the test specimen is subjected to the
tensile load on both the ends. During a tensile test cup and cone formation takes place in the
test specimen and then the test specimen breaks.

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In order to carry out the analysis in the ANSYS software there is a particular procedure which
needs to be followed.

The results will be accurate and match with the real values only when correct procedure and
correct input is given to the software.

The procedural steps to be followed are listed below:

The Steps to do Structural Analysis in ANSYS Mechanical-

APDL:
1. Preferences Structural OK.

2. Pre-processor Element type Add/Edit/Delete Add Shell 4node 181

OK Options Storage of layer data All layers Close

3. Material properties Material Models Structural Linear Elastic Isotropic

The properties of Aluminium 7475 Alloy: E=70.3E9 N/m2, ⱱ=0.33 and Density=2810 kg/m3.
Material New Model The properties of S2-Glass Fibers: E=86.9E9 N/m2, ⱱ=0.22
and Density=2460 kg/m3 Close.

4. Sections Shell Layup Add/Edit Add layers Thickness Material ID

Orientation OK.

5. Modeling Create Area Rectangle By Dimensions

X-coordinates: X1= -0.1m, X2: 0.1m.
Y-coordinates: Y1= -0.1m, Y2: 0.1m. OK.

6. Meshing Mesh Tool Smart Size Fine Mesh Pick all.

7. Loads Define loads Apply Structural Displacement On Nodes Box

Pick Nodes OK All DOF OK.
Apply Force/Moment On Nodes Box Pick Nodes OK FX=63.5N
OK.

8. Solution Solve Current LS OK Close.

9. General Postprocessor Plot Results Counter Plot Nodal Solution

DOF Solution Displacement Vector Sum OK.
Nodal Solution Stress Von mises stress OK.

10. General Postprocessor List Results Nodal Solution Copy and save the
Results.

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4.1 Uni-Axial Tensile Test

In Uni-axial tensile test one end is fixed and at the other end tensile load in applied as shown
in the figure below.

Figure 4.2: Uni-axial Test Loaded (Isometric View).

Figure 4.3: Uni-axial Test Loaded (Front View).

 On left hand side All DOF is Fixed.

 On right hand side Force, F=63.5N.

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 The Displacement Vector sum for Cross-ply (00 and 900 ) and for Angle-ply (± 450) is
as shown below:

Displacement is Ơ = 0.698×10-5 m.
Figure 4.4: Uni-axial Test Displacement for Cross-ply & Angle-ply.

 The Von-Mises Stress for Cross-ply (00 and 900 ) is as shown below:

Von-mises Stress is σ = 0.492×107 N/m2.

Figure 4.5: Uni-axial Test Stress for Cross-ply.

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 The Von-Mises Stress for Angle-ply (± 450) is as shown below:

Von-mises Stress is σ = 0.381×107 N/m2.

Figure 4.6: Uni-axial Test Stress for Angle-ply.

4.2 Bi-Axial Tensile Test

In bi-axial tensile test two ends are fixed (top and bottom) and the tensile load in applied on
left and right side as shown in the figure below.

Figure 4.7: Bi-axial Test Loaded (Isometric View).

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Figure 4.8: Bi-axial Test Loaded (Front View).

On top and bottom side All DOF is Fixed.

On left and right-hand side Force, F=63.5N.

 The Displacement Vector sum for Cross-ply (00 and 900 ) and for Angle-ply (± 450) is
as shown below:

Displacement is Ơ = 0.259×10-5 m.
Figure 4.9: Bi-axial Test Displacement for Cross-ply & Angle-ply.

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 The Von-Mises Stress for Cross-ply (00 and 900 ) is as shown below:

Von-mises Stress is σ = 0.513×107 N/m2.

Figure 4.10: Bi-axial Test Stress for Cross-ply.

 The Von-Mises Stress for Angle-ply (± 450) is as shown below:

Von-mises Stress is σ = 0.385×107 N/m2.

Figure4.11: Bi-axial Test Stress for Angle-ply.

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4.3 Shear Test

A direct shear test is a laboratory or field test used by geotechnical engineers to measure
the shear strength properties of soil or rock material, or of discontinuities in soil or rock
masses.

In Shear test two ends are fixed (left and right) and the shear load in applied on top and
bottom surface as shown in the figure below.

Figure 4.12: Shear Test Loaded (Isometric View).

Figure 4.13: Shear Test Loaded (Front View).

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On left and right side All DOF is Fixed.

On top and bottom surfaces Force, F=63.5N

 The Displacement Vector sum for Cross-ply (00 and 900 ) and for Angle-ply (± 450) is
as shown below:

Displacement is Ơ = 0.360×10-5 m.
Figure 4.14: Shear Test Displacement for Cross-ply & Angle-ply.

 The Von-Mises Stress for Cross-ply (00 and 900 ) is as shown below:

Von-mises Stress is σ = 0.794×107 N/m2.

Figure 4.15: Shear Test Stress for Cross-ply.

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 The Von-Mises Stress for Angle-ply (± 450) is as shown below:

Von-mises Stress is σ = 0.637×107N/m2.

Figure 4.16: Shear Test Stress for Angle-ply.

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CHAPTER 5
RESULTS

5.1 Calculations

Theoretical calculations shown below for Uni axial tensile test:

We have ‘Ơ  (PL/AE)’
Here Displacement, Ơ = 0.698 × 10-5 m, P = 63.5 N,
L = 0.2 m, A = 0.2 × 0.005 = 0.001 mm2.
Therefore E = (PL/AƠ) i.e.,
E = ((63.5 × 0.2)/ (0.001 × 0.698 × 10-5)

i.e., E = 1.81 GPa.

This almost matches with the actual young’s modulus of GLARE (1.7 GPa).

Table 5.1: Results of Analysis.

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5.2 Curve Fitting

Curve fitting is the process of constructing a curve, or mathematical function, that has the
best fit to a series of data points, possibly subject to constraints. Curve fitting can involve
either interpolation, where an exact fit to the data is required, or smoothing, in which a
"smooth" function is constructed that approximately fits the data. A related topic is regression
analysis, which focuses more on questions of statistical inference such as how much
uncertainty is present in a curve that is fit to data observed with random errors.

Fitted curves can be used as an aid for data visualization, to infer values of a function where
no data are available, and to summarize the relationships among two or more variables.
Extrapolation refers to the use of a fitted curve beyond the range of the observed data, and is
subject to a degree of uncertainty since it may reflect the method used to construct the curve
as much as it reflects the observed data.

The Method used for fitting a parabola equation is Least Square Method as shown below:

The values of x and y may be as shown below:

X x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 xn-1 xn
Y y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 yn-1 yn

The Equation of the Parabola is:

y = ax2 + bx + c.
The Normal Equations are:

∑y = a∑x2 + b∑x + nc.

∑xy = a∑x3 + b∑x2 + c∑x.
∑x2y = a∑x4 + b∑x3 + c∑x2.

Where a, b and are the coefficients of the Quadratic equation f the parabola and n is the
number of values. On solving these 3 equations the equation of curve fit is obtained.

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1. Uni-Axial Test

Table 5.2: Results of Uni-axial Analysis.

Figure 5.1: Curve fitting of Uni-axial Tensile test.

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2. Bi-Axial Test

Table 5.3: Results of Bi-axial Analysis.

Figure 5.2: Curve fitting of Bi-axial Tensile test.

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3. Shear Test
Table 5.4: Results of Shear test Analysis.

Figure 5.3: Curve fitting of Shear test.

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

The results obtained from uni-axial, bi-axial and shear test analysis on GLARE laminate
composite having different ply angles i.e., 00 and 900 (cross ply) and ±450 (angle ply) can be
summarized as:

 In uni-axial, bi-axial and shear test analysis the deformation in the material under the
application of load is same for both cross ply (00 and 900) and angle ply (±450)
GLARE laminates.

 In uni-axial, bi-axial and shear test analysis the stress in the material under the
application of load is more for cross ply (00 and 900 ) and angle ply (±450) GLARE
laminates.

From above observations we can conclude that:

“Angle ply (±450 ) laminates have more strength than cross ply (00 and 900) laminates,
because for the same amount of deformation the stress developed in Angle ply laminates is
less when compared with Cross ply laminate, Therefore Angle ply laminates can be used in
air-craft and aerospace applications.”

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REFERENCES

1. Zihui Xia and Yunfa Zhang, “On the Micro Mechanical Models for Cross Ply and
Angle Ply Laminates”.

2. Zhiye Li et.al, “Micromechanical Modeling And Characterization Of Damage

Evolution In Glass Fiber Epoxy Matrix Composites”.

3. P. H. J. Vosbeek et.al, “The Micromechanical Modelling of Composite Materials”.

4. S. I. Kundalwala et.al, “The Multiscale modeling of stress transfer in hybrid

composites”.

5. Abdalla M Ahmed et.al, “Modeling Thermo elasto plasticity of the Composite

Materials”.

6. M. A. P Mohammed et.al. “Mechanical characterisation and micromechanical

modelling of bread dough”.

7. Gautam Gopinath et.al, “Progressive Damage And Failure Of Unidirectional Fiber

Reinforced Laminates Under Impact Loading With Composite Properties Derived
From A Micro-Mechanics Approach”.

8. George Mseis et.al, “Multiscale Modeling Method and Homogenization of Composite

Materials”.

9. Kent Pearson et.al. “Micromechanical Modelling Of the Wood And the Fibre
Properties”.

10. Jefferey P. Gardener et.al, “Micro Mechanical of Composite Materials in Finite

Element Analysis Using an Embedded Cell Approach”.

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11. Adelina Vanessa Benedict et.al, “An Experimental Investigation of GLARE and
Restructured Fiber Metal Laminates”.

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