Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Transformations
– Effects on
Boiler Ash
Behaviour
Report No.
COAL R278
DTI/Pub
URN 05/659
March 2005
by
Department of Materials
Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine,
London,
SW7 2AZ
The work described in this report was carried out under contract as
part of the DTI Cleaner Coal Research and Development
Programme. The programme is managed by Mott MacDonald Ltd.
The views and judgements expressed in this report are those of the
contractor and do not necessarily reflect those of the DTI or Mott
MacDonald Ltd
iii
iv
Contents
Page
Executive Summary 4
1. Introduction 5
10. Conclusions 37
12. References 39
Acknowledgements 40
Appendices 41
3
Executive Summary
The UK now imports more than 50% of the coal that is used for coal-fired power
generation. UK generators are offered an increasingly wider range of world-traded
coals for burning in boilers that were designed to burn a relatively narrow range of
indigenous coals. This project was undertaken to provide UK boiler designers and
operators with an improved knowledge of the combustion characteristics of coals for
which they had little combustion experience. The study placed particular emphasis
on the effects that a wider range of coal minerals and mineral matter distributions
might have on the many aspects of boiler operation. These ranged from coal grinding
for pulverised coal combustion, to combustion behaviour, levels of unburned carbon
in ash, precipitator performance, gaseous and particulate emissions, and the
slagging and fouling characteristics of the ash.
The coals were selected to reflect the wide range of world-traded coals that are now
on offer and came from North and South America, Australia, South Africa, Indonesia,
China, Russia and India. The coals were chosen on the basis of the ash content and
ash chemistry that UK utilities might encounter. As a consequence of the varied
geographical origins of the coals and the range of ash chemistry, the nature and
distribution of the mineral matter in the coals was found to be significantly different
from that of indigenous coals.
Coal and mineral matter characterisation was carried by Nottingham University and
Imperial College London. Combustion studies were undertaken by E.ON, using the
Combustion Test Facility (CTF) at the Ratcliffe Power Technology Centre and by
Imperial College, using a high temperature Entrained Flow Reactor (EFR). In addition
the EFR was used to study the mineral transformations of the minerals found in the
suite of coals. The combustion facilities generated a range of samples for analysis
and characterisation, including combustion ash and unburned char, cyclone ashes
and deposits collected on ceramic probes and a slag panel. Characterisation of the
samples enabled the combustion performance and slagging propensity of the coals
to be assessed and ranked against that of a typical UK bituminous coal (Harworth).
Some of the coals would be unsuitable for UK boilers. Two coals from the US
Powder River Basin had a high slagging and fouling potential, a high ash coal from
India could give potential ash handling problems unless blended with a low ash coal,
and a South African coal gave high NOx and high levels of unburned carbon. The
remaining coals would be expected to give few operational problems.
The implications of burning a wider range of imported coals have been considered.
Sales of boiler ashes to the construction market are an important consideration in the
overall economics of coal-fired power generation. Several of the ashes with a high
calcium content would be unlikely to meet current and anticipated specifications for
use with cements and concrete.
4
1. Introduction
It is widely acknowledged that pulverised coal combustion will continue to be a major
source of electrical power generation for the foreseeable future. Existing power
stations will almost certainly seek to use a wider range of coals, while tighter
emissions limits and greater demand for plant availability will challenge the power
station operators; similar constraints will no doubt apply to newly built plant. The
inorganic components of coal – the mineral matter – impact directly on each of these
constraints.
During combustion, the coal minerals transform to ash particles, some of which may
stick to the boiler walls and interact to form deposits. Coal ash deposition is one of
the factors affecting routine boiler operation, and occasionally causes severe
restrictions on plant availability. Coal ash deposition has been investigated during a
previous DTI-funded project, but to date there has been no reliable method for
predicting ash deposition that meets the needs of both coal purchasers and boiler
designers. Expensive test runs on rig-scale combustion facilities are currently used to
predict boiler performance. While computational fluid dynamic (CFD) ability and
computing power have greatly improved recently, computer modelling of deposition
in full-scale boilers is restricted by a lack of fundamental knowledge about the nature
and formation of fly ash particles.
The wide range of coals being considered for import to the UK, or for use in overseas
power stations, introduces new coal minerals and expands the variation in mineral
abundance and distribution in the pulverised coal. For example, in Southern
Hemisphere coals the major iron-bearing mineral is usually siderite [Fe(CO3)], while
Northern Hemisphere coals typically contain pyrite [FeS2]. There are also distinctive
differences in the nature of the association between the clay minerals and the coal
organic material. The transformation of siderite during combustion is not understood;
the same situation applies to calcite [Ca(CO3)], a common mineral in many coals.
Although the transformation processes that convert pyrite into iron-rich ash particles
are known, the kinetics established from laboratory studies do not agree with
observations made at power stations.
Most of the ash particles leave the boiler and are removed from the gas stream by
electrostatic precipitators, but a small fraction of the fine particles remain in the flue
gas and are emitted from the stack. The nature and amount of char in the ash has a
significant effect on precipitator performance. The nature of the fly ash has a
significant impact on ash disposal, with sales as a cement replacement material
being preferable to incurring landfill taxes. A more detailed understanding of coal ash
formation processes and the nature of the fly ash, especially the char and finest ash
particles, would allow a better appreciation of the options available to meet the fine
particle emission limits and to improve the economic value of the ash.
5
A suite of coals has been chosen for this project by the collaborators, primarily E.ON
and TXU Europe Power. The suite includes coals from North and South America,
Australia, South Africa, Indonesia, China, Russia and India. The mineral behaviour of
these coals has been studied using the E.ON Combustion Test Facility (CTF) and the
Imperial College Entrained Flow Reactor (EFR). The mineral matter in the coals and
the nature of the deposits generated during the CTF and the EFR trials have been
characterised at Imperial College.
2. Project overview
The project was a collaboration between Imperial College London, E.ON (formerly
Powergen), Rio Tinto Technology, TXU Energy and the University of Nottingham.
Imperial College London acted as the main contractor, and the University of
Nottingham was a sub-contractor. TXU Energy was bought by Powergen during the
course of the project; Mr PR Cooper continued his involvement with the project as an
independent consultant. The personnel involved and contact details of each
collaborating organisation are listed in Appendix 1. Just under half of the project
costs were provided by the DTI under the Cleaner Coal R&D Programme, the
remainder being provided by E.ON, Rio Tinto, TXU Energy and Imperial College
London. In-kind contributions were made by E.ON, Rio Tinto, TXU Energy and
Imperial College London.
6
• Quantitative data on the combustion performance of UK and overseas coals
and, in particular, a description of the properties of char that affect ash
precipitation and usage.
Coals were selected to cover the wide range of ash chemistries of coals
currently imported or under consideration for pulverised combustion at UK
utilities. Table 3.1 shows the suite of coals selected for combustion trials on
the E.ON Power Technology’s Combustion Test Facility (CTF) and on the
Imperial College Entrained Flow Reactor (EFR). Harworth, a Nottinghamshire
coal, was chosen as the baseline UK coal against which the performance of the
other coals could be assessed.
Several tonnes of each coal were acquired and ground in a Lopulco vertical spindle
mill (subcontractor James Durrans and Sons) to a nominal specification of 65 ±3%
<75µm and <1% >300µm. Previous experience with Durrans has shown that this
specification results in a size distribution that is closer to that obtained from full-sized
milling plant, rather than using the normal PF specification.
The proximate, ultimate and ash analyses for each of the coals in the above table is
given in Appendix 2.
A further selection of fourteen coals, for which only small quantities were available
(kg’s), were chosen for mineral characterisation and combustion studies on the EFR.
The coals chosen for this part of the study are listed below in Table 3.2
A selection of minerals commonly found as major minerals in coal were acquired for
studying mineral transformation and mineral interaction processes. The minerals
chosen are shown in Table 3.3.
8
Coal Origin Characteristics
Harworth UK Baseline UK coal for
comparison
Bailey USA Typical Eastern US bituminous
coal, relatively high Fe
PRB 1 USA High Na Powder River Basin
coal
PRB 2 USA Typical low ash PRB coal
Bowen Basin Australian, NQ Rio Tinto reference coal
Hunter Valley Australian High quartz coal, high Al: Si
Prodeco Colombian Typical South American coal,
relatively high Fe
Goedehoop South Africa High Ca ash (lignitic ash), with
included clays
Talcher India High ash coal
Blends
PRB 1/ PRB 2 USA High Na PRB, blended with
(50:50) typical PRB (low ash)
PRB 1/Bailey USA High Na PRB, blended with
(50:50) Eastern USA coal (high ash)
Table 3.1 Coals selected for CTF and EFR combustion trials
9
Table 3.2 Additional coals selected for mineral characterisation and EFR
combustion trials
10
Reflectance measurements suggested the Goedehoop, Callide and Park Slip were
all blended coals.
12
5 Generation and characterisation of ashes from coal and mineral
combinations
The nature of the CTF deposits and the ‘deposit types’ was assessed on a scale from
0 to 10, where 0 is loose dust and 10 is a fully fused deposit, see Table 5.1. Now
known as the Jones index, this index was first described by Jackson and Jones
(1989). Deposits were produced at temperatures ranging 1015° to 1240°C and the
data for each deposit extrapolated to give a value at 1200°C so that ashes/deposits
could be compared with one another.
Table 5.1 Jones Index - nature of deposits [Jackson and Jones (1989)]
Experience has shown that a visual assessment is at least as reliable as the more
difficult compressive strength measurements. The CCSEM characterisation provided
much more microstructural and chemical detail and could be used to explain
apparent anomalies in the visual predictions.
13
Samples of minerals and coals were subject to the time-temperature history of a
large pulverised coal boiler using the Entrained Flow Reactor at Imperial College.
This 5m vertical down-flow reactor has a peak temperature of 1600°C, dropping to
1200°C over a residence time of about two seconds. The EFR has been described
more fully by Hutchings et al [1996)].
Coal runs on the EFR involved feeding approximately 100g of coal over a period of
40-60 minutes. Each coal was run through the EFR twice, once to collect a deposit
on an un-cooled mullite deposition probe and once to collect an ash sample from the
combustion atmosphere. The deposition probe and the ash collection probe were
inserted at the same position – at a residence time of about one second and at a gas
temperature of about 1250°C. Ash samples were also collected in a cyclone at the
bottom of the EFR, after a residence time of about two seconds.
Mineral transformations in the EFR used both single minerals and a comprehensive
set of mineral pairs. The mineral pairs were prepared by adding 10, 25 or 50wt% of
pyrite, siderite A, siderite B, calcite or dolomite to quartz, kaolinite or illite. Mineral
pairs involving the same minerals were run consecutively, with increasing levels of
addition (0, 10, 25, 50 and 100wt%), to minimise the possible effects of sample carry-
over in the reactor.
Table 5.2 Slagging propensity of coal ash deposits, using the Jones Index for
CTF deposits at 1200°C
The data for each ash sample was interpreted in terms of the size, shape and
chemical composition of individual ash particles. Particles were assigned to a
chemical type, defined on the basis of their chemical type, as shown in Table 5.3.
Circular sections were cut through the mullite coupons and attached deposits,
mounted in epoxy resin and prepared as polished cross-sections. Digital back-
scattered electron images were collected at 100x and 500x magnifications, usually at
twenty points across the deposit cross-section. Pixels in the images with intensities
corresponding to the average atomic number range of deposit were located. A
regular grid of one hundred points was superimposed on each image, and points
lying on the deposit were identified. Deposit porosity was calculated for each image
from the fraction of points identified as lying on the deposit. Up to 1200 point
chemical analyses of the deposit were obtained and assigned to a chemical type on
the basis of their chemical composition. Definitions of chemical types are shown in
Table 5.3.
15
which is described more fully by Russell (2002) estimates the potential of the deposit
to consolidate with time and to become difficult to remove. These studies have
Table 5.3 ‘Chemical types’ as used for CCSEM characterisation. Analyses are
assigned sequentially to the above ‘chemical types’ using the following scheme,
where CaO', Fe2O3', Al2O3' and SiO2' analyses are normalised to (CaO' + Fe2O3' +
Al2O3' + SiO2') = 100%.
shown that the slagging index of EFR deposits correlate well with slagging behaviour
observed during larger scale combustion.
The deposit slagging index was obtained using the following procedure:
1. Point analyses lying in the CaO-Al2O3-SiO2 system (CaO+Al2O3+SiO2 > 50%)
were selected and normalised to CaO+Al2O3+SiO2 = 100%
2. The percentage of analyses with normalised CaO contents between lying
between 5% and 40% was calculated.
3. Point analyses lying in the Fe2O3-Al2O3-SiO2 system (Fe2O3+Al2O3+SiO2 >
50%) were selected and normalised to Fe2O3+Al2O3+SiO2 = 100%
4. The percentage of analyses with normalised Fe2O3 contents lying between
10% and 50% were calculated.
5. The percentages in (2) and (4) were added together.
The resulting slagging index was a number between 0 and two hundred. Point
analyses that lie between both limits were included twice in recognition of the
synergistic effects that CaO and Fe2O3 together make to a deposit consolidation
[Russell (2002)].
16
5.7 Results from EFR mineral trials
Samples of common coal minerals were reacted in the EFR to investigate their
behaviour when subject to the time-temperature history of a pulverised coal fired
boiler. Mineral pairs, consisting of clay (kaolinite or illite) with a Fe-bearing mineral
(pyrite, siderite A or siderite B) or with a Ca-bearing mineral (calcite or dolomite),
have been reacted in the same way. Ash samples from the reactor runs were
collected and characterised. The majority of ash particles from each run were derived
directly from a single mineral, in proportions directly related to the composition of the
mineral pairs.
Most of the ash particles were derived directly from a single parent mineral, but some
ash particles with intermediate compositions were produced by interaction. The clay-
derived ash particles showed small increases in iron oxide content through
interaction with pyrite or siderite, possibly by vaporisation and condensation; similar
changes in lime content were observed with calcite and dolomite interactions.
Ash particles of intermediate chemical composition were observed in all runs – iron-
aluminosilicate for the Fe-bearing mineral pairs and calcium-aluminosilicate for the
Ca-bearing mineral pairs, see Fig 5.1 The abundance of these intermediate ash
particles generally increased with the proportion of Fe- or Ca-bearing mineral. The
presence of ash particles with intermediate compositions indicates that physical
interaction between clay and other minerals had occurred during their transformation
in the EFR.
The size distributions of particles in the coal-derived ash samples were similar
to those of the mineral occurrences in the parent coals. Ash particles at both
ends of the size range are less abundant than coal mineral occurrences of
equivalent size, probably because of fragmentation of some larger minerals
and agglomeration of fine included mineral matter during combustion. The
finest particles in all the CTF and EFR ash samples consistently showed lower
SiO2 contents and higher Fe2O3 and CaO contents than the average for each
ash sample. The extent of these differences, and the relative changes in Fe2O3
and CaO contents, varied between coals. The variation in composition for the
17
finest ash particles is probably a direct reflection of the variation of mineral
proportions for the smallest mineral occurrences in the parent coals.
Deposits showed a wide range in the degree of sintering, from dusty through sintered
to partially fused and almost fully fused ash. Deposit microstructures reflected these
variations. The extent of sintering correlated well with the chemical composition. The
EFR index, based on the chemical distribution of the deposit and measured by
CCSEM, estimated the potential of the deposit to consolidate. EFR index predictions
of slagging potential differ from those of the base/acid ratio, because the base/acid
ratio does not fully reflect the differing behaviours of CaO and Fe2O3 [Gibb (1986)].
Deposits from PRB 1- PRB 2 and PRB 1-Bailey coal blends had intermediate
properties to deposits from the individual coals, with no evidence of non-linear
behaviour.
PRB 2 was another PRB coal, although the Na content was not so high as in the
PRB 1. The PRB 2 deposits were well sintered, but not so fused as those from the
PRB 1 coal. Hunter Valley gave the most benign deposits, being no more than dusty
coverings of no mechanical strength. The ash has a SiO2 content of over 80% and a
low Al2O3 content. The mineral matter was almost entirely quartz and kaolinite, both
refractory materials.
18
Al2O3
Kaolinite
SiO2
CaO
Al2O3
SiO2
CaO
Al2O3
SiO2
Al2O3 CaO
Al2O3
Calcite
SiO2
CaO
Fig. 5.1 CCSEM analyses of ash particles from kaolinite and calcite mixtures. During
the transformations the transfer of Ca species to the aluminosilicate ash particles is
evident, providing particles with a range of Ca-aluminosilicate compositions.
19
Harworth coal gave a deposit that was more sintered and fused than the base: acid
ratio would have predicted. The coal has relatively high levels of CaO, MgO and
Fe2O3. While each of these oxides has the ability to break the covalent bonding in
aluminosilicates, lowering the viscosity, it has been observed [Russell(2002)] that in
combination a certain synergy is exhibited giving a more powerful fluxing action than
a simple chemical analysis might suggest.
Table 6.1 Key mineral groups for the minerals found in the coals
20
Al2Si2O5(OH)4., while the illites have a wide range of chemical compositions based on
muscovite [KAl3SiO10(OH)2], but in which the proportions of K, Al and Si may vary
and these elements may be partially replaced by Na, Ca, Mg and Fe. In lower rank
coals, montmorillonite is often more commonly found than illite. A wide range of
chemical compositions is also possible in montmorillonite, with Ca and Na being
more abundant than K. The proportion of kaolinite to illite is generally higher in
Southern Hemisphere coals, where the clays may be more widely dispersed through
the organic coal matrix and in individual pulverised coal particles. Clays melt to give
an aluminosilicate liquid that usually contains small crystals of mullite [Al6Si2O13].
Pure kaolinite melts more slowly than the other clay minerals, because of the more
restricted chemistry and the absence of cations such as K, Na and Ca. However, in a
seam of mixed clay minerals the combustion behaviour will be controlled by the local
average chemical composition, rather than by the properties of individual clay grains.
On cooling, liquid ash particles derived from clay minerals supercool to form an
aluminosilicate glass with the crystallisation of some mullite.
21
6.6 Minor minerals
Several other minerals are found in many coals at low levels of abundance; feldspar,
garnet, rutile, apatite and crandallite. These minerals form ash particles with
distinctive chemical compositions, but do not affect power station operation or ash
properties.
Most ash particles follow the cooling combustion gas stream and leave the boiler
without further transformation. Ash particles that do deposit enter a different
environment in which further interactions and transformations occur. The mineral
transformations after deposition determine the effect of deposits on heat flow in the
boiler, the rates at which deposits consolidate and the effectiveness of sootblowing
operations.
22
7 Ash particle interactions and transformations
Most ash particles do not deposit – they follow the cooling gas stream and leave the
boiler without interacting with other ash particles or with the boiler itself. If ash
particles do impact on the boiler wall they may simply rebound, especially in the
cooler convective section of the boiler. However, ash particles that do deposit
experience a dramatic change in environment. The deposit will be cooler than the
arriving ash particle, because of the heat extraction through the underlying boiler
tubes, but the time scale for interaction in a deposit is much greater than the transit
time of mineral matter through a boiler. Processes that are ongoing in the deposited
ash, such as melting and crystallisation, may continue in the deposit. The deposited
ash particle will also be in close contact with other ash material providing the
opportunity for an additional range of transformations.
7.2 Quartz
On deposition, quartz starts to dissolve slowly in the aluminosilicate matrix of a
deposit. Although smaller quartz grains fuse and are assimilated in deposits more
readily, larger quartz grains may persist for longer than the interval between
sootblowing in power station boilers or sample collection in combustion test rigs. The
presence of solid, untransformed, quartz in the deposit may cause an increase in
viscosity, reducing the rate of sintering and enhancing deposit removability. In
dissolving, the quartz will cause the aluminosilicate liquid to become locally silica-
rich, with increased viscosity and reduced diffusion rates. The presence of
undissolved quartz will certainly mean that the chemical composition of the deposit
matrix differs from the bulk deposit chemistry.
7.3 Clays
Liquid clay-derived ash particles, mainly aluminosilicate in composition, will sinter to
form dense homogeneous materials in deposits at a sufficiently high temperature
(Nowok et al, 1990). Compaction and a reduction in porosity changes the properties
of the deposit. Denser deposits conduct heat more efficiently, reducing both the
fireside temperature of the deposit and the effect of the deposit on heat transfer out
of the boiler. However, the deposit is more strongly bonded to the boiler tubes and
removal by sootblowing becomes more difficult.
7.4 Pyrite
Solid iron oxide particles, derived from pyrite, are physically and chemically very
different from the glassy aluminosilicate matrix of a typical deposit. Even in slagging
deposits, rates of dissolution are often slow, with spheres of iron oxide persisting for
days or longer and behaving like residual quartz.
23
7.5 Particle interaction
Ash particles interact with each other by a process of diffusion and viscous flow. The
ash particle interactions are driven by a decrease in the free energy of the system
when gas-solid interfaces are replaced by solid-solid interfaces. The sintering
process leads towards a more uniform chemical composition that is related to coal
ash composition, though this need not be the same as the bulk coal ash composition,
since deposition processes are usually partially selective. The rate of sintering will be
strongly dependent on the local temperature of the deposit, and on the chemical
compositions of the ash particles involved. Aluminosilicate melts with high
concentrations of network modifiers such as Ca2+, Fe2+ and K+ will sinter more rapidly
than typical illite-derived ash material, while pure aluminosilicate material derived
from kaolinite will sinter slightly more slowly. Progress towards a uniform bulk
chemical composition may be hindered by the need to dissolve residual quartz grains
or crystalline phases.
The sintering and consolidation of deposits determines the effect of the deposit on
heat transfer through boiler walls and also the ease of deposit removal by
sootblowing (Wain, 1991). Post-deposition transformations are mainly driven by the
interaction between deposited ash particles; deposits are the only stage in the
passage of mineral matter through a power station at which such widespread
interaction between different mineral matter components is possible.
7.6 Crystallisation
Crystalline phases will usually grow from the aluminosilicate melt at the temperatures
at which slagging deposits form,. Mullite is frequently the stable phase in
aluminosilicate melts at deposit temperatures. Anorthite [CaAl2Si2O8] may also
crystallise if the concentration of CaO in the bulk coal ash is high, or if deposition
processes have preferentially selected lime-rich ash particles because of their lower
viscosity. Gehlenite [Ca2Al2SiO7] and anorthite, but not mullite, crystallise from even
more lime-rich deposits such as those from coals in which montmorillonite or
crandallite is abundant. The magnetite [Fe3O4] that forms as pyrite or siderite
transforms is not stable in the aluminosilicate melts that form boiler deposits, but
hercynite (a spinel [Fe(Fe,Al)2O4] in which Al3+ has replaced Fe3+ in the magnetite
structure) may be stable in iron-rich aluminosilicate deposits.
7.7 Homogenisation
The chemical homogenisation of a deposit by sintering, diffusion, dissolution and the
growth of locally stable crystalline phases may interact in a complex manner. When
magnetite dissolves, for example, the surrounding aluminosilicate melt becomes
enriched in iron, and hercynite may crystallise around the dissolving magnetite
particles. Hercynite will persist until diffusion of iron away from the original magnetite
lowers the local iron concentration sufficiently to allow the hercynite to begin to
dissolve. Given the various obstacles to deposit homogenisation, it is not surprising
that only the hottest boiler deposits approach phase equilibrium on a macro-scale.
Unstable crystalline phases and incomplete chemical homogenisation usually persist
in slags from regions higher in the radiant section of the boiler or from regions of
deposits close to the boiler tubes. Deposits from cooler regions of the boiler or from
immediately adjacent to boiler tubes may show little transformation beyond the first
stages of sintering (Wigley et al, 1990).
24
7.8 Condensation
As previously stated, the surfaces of slagging deposits are usually too hot for
condensation of vaporised elements to occur. However, significant condensation may
occur on fouling deposits in the convective zones of the boiler. Condensation of alkali
sulphates or chlorides may bind together deposit ash particles that do not themselves
interact, forming a dense deposit that obstructs gas flow and can be difficult to
remove. Under the right conditions, lime and unreacted calcite particles may
sulphate, sintering and bonding a fouling deposit.
Table 7.1 Typical times for major mineral transformations during coal combustion,
in comparison with the transit time of mineral matter through the radiant zone of a
power station boiler. Mineral size, association and path through the boiler have
strong effects on transformation times.
When ash particles deposit within the boiler, the rate at which further transformations
occur strongly depends on the local deposit temperature. Typical times for mineral
transformation following deposition, based on a location within a pendant
superheater deposit, are summarised in Table 7.2, in comparison with a typical 8-
hour sootblowing cycle. In contrast to mineral transformations during combustion, the
transformations that occur following deposition are considerably slower, taking hours
or days and frequently never reaching completion.
25
Mineral origin Transformation Comparative time
Clays Sintering and fusion Slightly longer
All minerals Crystallisation from melt Longer
Pyrite Dissolution of iron oxide Much longer
Quartz Dissolution Much longer
Table 7.2 Typical times of major mineral transformations after deposition, based on
conditions at a pendant superheater deposit and in comparison with an 8-hour
sootblowing cycle. Local deposit temperature and chemical composition have strong
effects on transformation times.
7.10 Summary
In a power station boiler, coal minerals transform in response to the high
temperatures reached in pulverised coal combustion. Clay minerals and quartz fully
or partially fuse to form a viscous melt. Pyrite loses sulphur and oxidises through a
liquid Fe-S-O stage to solid iron oxide. Carbonate minerals lose CO2 to give mostly
solid oxide products. In general, the ash particles produced during mineral
transformations are derived from a single mineral and display limited chemical
compositions. Mineral occurrences that contain two intimately associated minerals, or
different mineral occurrences that coalesce during combustion, will invariably interact
to produce aluminosilicate melt particles with a wider range of chemical
compositions. Organically-bound alkalis may volatilise and condense on ash particles
in the cooler convective region of the boiler. Calcium, from calcite, may interact with
transforming clay minerals to produce calcium-rich aluminosilicate ash particles.
There is, therefore, a direct correlation between the physical and chemical properties
of the coal minerals and of the ash particles produced during combustion; the mineral
transformations affect the subsequent behaviour of the ash particles, including their
deposition propensity.
Ash particles that do deposit encounter other ash particles over a much longer time
period than the boiler transit time. In slagging deposits the deposited ash particles
may interact at the elevated temperatures, while in fouling deposits particles will
experience alkali sulphate and chloride condensation. Slags sinter by a process of
diffusion and viscous flow – a wide range of aluminosilicate chemical compositions is
possible, and crystallisation may occur.
Although transformations that are on-going in the deposited ash particles may
continue, most of the transformations in slagging deposits are a consequence of
particle interaction at elevated temperatures. Since the temperature range between
and within deposits is very wide, the range of possible interactions and their level of
completion is very variable. Post-deposition transformations determine the
microstructure of the deposit, and therefore the thermal properties and potential for
removal, all of which affect boiler operation.
26
8. Implications for Power Station Performance
8.1 Types of boiler ash
The most abundant non-combustible species in coal are those of the aluminosilicate
clay minerals, together with quartz. They account for between 60% and 90% of the
total mineral matter in coal. The most common species of clay minerals are
muscovite-illites (potassium aluminosilicates), kaolinites (aluminosilicates) and mixed
layer illite-montmorillonites of variable composition. One other non-silicate mineral,
found only in relatively small amounts in coal, can have a significant influence on
boiler plant from a depositional and plant maintenance standpoint and this is pyrite
(FeS2). This mineral is hard and very abrasive, it decomposes and fuses at a
relatively low temperature, and also emits sulphur-containing gases when the coal is
burned.
Ash is produced in two forms in coal fired pulverised fuel boilers, namely furnace
bottom ash (fba) and pulverised fuel ash (pfa). A 500 MWe coal fired unit will typically
produce 20 tonnes of ash per hour when operating at full output. Furnace bottom ash
(fba) comprises large pieces of fused material that have formed in the boiler furnace
in close proximity to the combustion process, plus deposits of slag that have formed
on the walls of the furnace, have become detached, fall to the bottom of the boiler
into the main ash hopper from where it is periodically removed. Fba typically makes
up between 5 and 15% of the total ash produced in the boiler. Pulverised fuel ash
(pfa) is by far the most predominant form of ash produced in coal fired pulverised
boilers and typically represents 85% to 95% of the total ash formed. Pfa is carried out
of the boiler furnace in suspension form by the flue gas and comprises finely divided
ash particles (and unburned carbon char) that are removed from the gas stream by
an electrostatic precipitator (ESP).
27
depends on the mineral type and distribution. Generally, a large proportion of the
inorganic matter associated with the coal is in the form of particles such as quartz,
pyrite and calcite. The efficiency to which coal cleaning removes these particles,
depends to a large extent on the degree of crushing that has taken place in order to
liberate this material as separate particles. Further crushing is sometimes
undertaken after a first-stage density separation in order to further liberate the
mineral matter for subsequent removal.
Coals contain a wide range of minerals, but it has been shown by Wells et al
[2004(a,b)] that quartz and pyrite, minerals that are harder than steel, are the main
components of coal that are responsible for wear and abrasion. The other hard
minerals, orthoclase, kyanite, topaz and alumina are generally present in trace
quantities and have a minimal effect on overall wear and abrasion. Quartz is
particularly hard and shatters to produce sharp-edged fragments. Quartz also tends
to occur in the form of comparatively large particles of ‘free’ mineral matter, whereas
much of the pyrite is dispersed in the coal substance and clay sediment. Other
minerals such as the clays, carbonates, sulphates and phosphate minerals are
relatively soft and do not cause any significant erosion wear. Table 8.2 below gives
the concentration and hardness of different mineral species in a typical bituminous
coal.
The DTI project Cleaner Coal Project 218 has investigated coal mineral matter in
some detail, characterising the size, shape and degree of exclusion of the mineral
matter in a range of power station coals by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).
The results showed that quartz is effectively twice as abrasive as pyrite on a wt%
addition basis of the free minerals to a UK coal, which is in agreement with
Raask[1985]. The grain size of angular quartz was found to be critical in determining
erosion and abrasiveness, up to a critical size of approximately 100µm. Above this
size, the abrasiveness of the coal/mineral addition mixture becomes independent of
grain size. The particle shape was shown to be a key factor in determining
abrasiveness with angular particles causing more abrasion than rounded quartz
particles. The effect of adding both angular and rounded particles was not
cumulative suggesting that the different abrasion mechanisms of angular and
rounded particles are not mutually exclusive.
28
Constituent Approximate Mohs Vickers Hardness
wt % in coal Hardness (kg/mm2)
number
coal substance 85 1.5-2.5 10-70
quartz 1.6 7 1200-1300
pyrite 1.5 6-7 1100-1300
silicate minerals
kaolin 3 2-2.5 30-40
illite 3 2-2.5 20-35
muscovite 3 2-2.5 40-80
orthoclase <0.1 6 700-800
kyanite <0.1 6-7 500-2150
topaz <0.1 8 1500-1700
carbonates and other minerals
calcite 0.5 3 130-170
magnesite 0.1 4 370-520
siderite 0.2 4 370-430
alumina rare 9 1200
Strict controls on NOx limits and dust emissions from coal-fired power stations means
that optimising electrostatic precipitator performance and maintaining low levels of
carbon in ash whilst achieving low excess air levels are of critical importance to
utilities. It is widely recognised that the degree of carbon burnout achieved in a
particular furnace configuration is directly related to the size distribution of the PF
supplied to the burners.
A fineness specification of 65±3% less than 75µm and <1% greater than 300µm was
specified for all the coals delivered from the grinders (Durrans) for testing on the
E.ON combustion test facility (CTF). However, there were some significant
differences in fineness and particle size distribution. Three of the coals, Talcher,
Bowen basin and PRB 1, were delivered as a considerably finer PF compared to the
remaining coals, which were very consistent in particle size.
LOI has been used to represent the proportion of carbonaceous material left unburnt
in the ash, but with ash contents of the parent coals varying from 8-38%, the
combustible loss (CL) gives a better assessment of the overall combustion efficiency.
LOI and CL for each coal were given in Table 4.1. Apparent discrepancies in LOI
and CL are due to the different ash contents of the coals.
The highest combustible loss values were associated with coals having the highest
% “Unreactive” content. These included coals such as Goedehoop, Hunter Valley
and Bowen Basin. Higher levels of unburnt carbon are a characteristic of South
African coals, such as Goedehoop, due to the relatively high levels of inertinite
(>50%) and lower levels of more reactive vitrinite. The low combustible loss values
were associated with the lower rank coals such as PRB 1, PRB 2 and Talcher.
Experience of burning Prodeco at full-scale is in agreement with these rig-scale
results – burnout tends to be poor despite a high vitrinite and low inertinite content,
one possible reason being that at least two different seams, each with a different
combustibility, are extracted from the same mine and then blended.
30
a reasonable correlation between NO emissions at a given oxygen level and the
product of Fuel Ratio and DAF N%.
It has been reported that at full scale, the Bowen Basin coal might not give such high
NOx emissions as might be expected. Although the Bowen Basin gave relatively
high NO emissions during the testing on the CTF, it is a relatively wet coal by
bituminous standards (18-20% moisture). As all the coals for the CTF tests were
ground by an external contractor (Durrans), they were all received in a relatively dry
condition as PF (typically <10%). It is possible that the additional moisture, in a high
moisture coal such as Bowen Basin, released during the milling process would
induce a degree of flame cooling and this might result in lower NO emissions than
those seen during the CTF testing. This effect could be similar for all coals, but
perhaps most relevant for Bowen Basin, which although bituminous, contains
moisture levels approaching those of sub-bituminous coals.
PRB 1 and PRB 2 coals gave the lowest NO emissions, as might be expected given
their analysis. High DAF VM, low DAF nitrogen and high moisture (even after
grinding) all contribute to lowering NO emissions. The blend of PRB 1 and Bailey
gave broadly additive behaviour in terms of NOx emissions, compared to the two
individual fuels.
In general, the coal and ash components that produce high resisitivities are SiO2 and
Al2O3, both excellent insulators in their own right, whereas those that reduce the
resisitivity are sulphur and Na. Although during combustion most of the pyritic
sulphur in the coal ultimately forms sulphur dioxide, a small percentage is converted
to sulphur trioxide, can significantly affecting the resisitivity. In a boiler flue gas, there
is always moisture present that can react with the sulphur trioxide to form condensed
sulphuric acid. This then uses the surface of the ash particles for condensation,
thereby reducing their resistivity, as conduction is now able to proceed through this
absorbed or adsorbed acidic layer. The extent of surface conditioning is dependent
on the amount of sulphur trioxide present, the gas temperature and hence the vapour
pressure. For coals containing in excess of 1.5% sulphur, there is sufficient natural
surface conditioning at normal plant operating temperatures of around 130ºC to give
acceptable values of resistivity for effective electrostatic precipitation. The presence
31
of Na ions causes the ash particle to behave very differently. Instead of surface
conditioning, the Na ions act as charge carriers, so high resistivity effects are
negated to an extent. Potassium does not appear to behave in the same manner to
Na. Ca and Mg in coal are able to produce sulphates that are not effective
conductors, thus the addition of sulphur trioxide will not be effective. [Parker (1997)].
Although not an ash particle, the presence of increased amounts of unburnt carbon,
as a result of fitting low NOx burners, can adversely affect ESP performance. The
lower resistivity of carbonaceous particles means that they are readily re-entrained
into the flue gas stream and subsequently emitted, [Wu (2000)]. The use of additives
to combat the effects of increased unburnt carbon in PFA is an issue that seems to
require further investigation.
In addition to increased unburned carbon, low NOx burners produce coarser and
more irregularly shaped fly ash particles than with unstaged combustion. Increasing
particle size would be expected to improve ESP collection efficiency, however, more
irregular particles will experience greater drag forces that decrease the particle
migration velocity and lowers the ESP efficiency [Wu (2000)].
There is also some evidence to indicate that the fitting of low NOx burners increases
the split of fly ash to bottom ash from about 70:30 for unstaged combustion to 85:15
or higher with low NOx burners.
Experience has shown that coal ashes with resistivities greater than 5 x 1011 ohm.cm
are difficult to collect. Low resistivity ash (less than 108 ohm.cm) tends to suffer from
excessive re-entrainment, but such low resistivities are rarely encountered. A range
of ash resistivities between 109 and 5 x 1011 ohm.cm is likely to produce satisfactory
and predictable ESP operation.
Dalmon and Raask [1972] found that the hydrated silicate materials normally present
in coal, i.e. kaolin, illite and chlorite, had resistivities in the range 1010 to 1011 ohm.cm.
After heating to around 800OC the resistivity increased by one to three orders of
magnitude because of the loss of chemically bound water in the original crystal
structure. Unhydrated silicates, quartz, kyanite, muscovite and albite had high
32
resistivities of 1013 ohm.cm. and above. Quartz, kaolin, kyanite and muscovite
appeared to retain their resistivities up to the PF flame temperature. The resistivities
of silicate particles containing iron and sodium decreased by three orders of
magnitude after fusion of the particles.
8.9 Conclusions
Although there are some changes to the resistivity of the coal minerals as the coal
burns, the effects are relatively small and are generally well understood. This means
that electrostatic precipitators can be designed to collect most of the particulate
material in the flue gas stream based on a knowledge of the mineral matter in the
coal and the chemistry of the coal ash.
In most cases, deviations from ESP design ash characteristics result in the
production of a higher resistivity ash associated with the need to burn low sulphur
coals for environmental reasons. Many of the low sulphur coals originate from the
Southern Hemisphere and contain highly refractory ashes of high resistivity.
Conditioning agents such as sulphur trioxide and sodium compounds can alleviate
such problems. The effect of unburnt carbon in fly ash on ESP performance is well
known and may require the development of new conditioning agents to restore ESP
performance.
The relationship between ash fusion temperature and combustion temperature in the
furnace also acts as an indicator of slagging propensity and fba formation. There is
now good evidence of a number of boilers where the rate of fba formation has been
significantly reduced with the lower flame temperatures following the installation of
low NOx burners.
There are a number of profitable applications for this pfa, however, which include
lime/ash mixtures for a range of civil engineering application as well as a bulk fill
material for road-works, land reclamation etc. The preferred downstream use for pfa
by the power industry is as an addition in concrete, primarily due to the revenue that
can be accrued from the relatively high price that pfa can achieve in this market.
Both BS 3892 and the current EN 450 place limitations on chloride, sulphur and
calcium oxide contents, fineness, moisture and loss on ignition contents of the pfa.
Details of these standards are contained in the UKQAA Technical Data Sheet
1.1[2000], One of the key differences between the two standards is the basis by
which the calcium oxide content of the pfa is measured. In BS 3892, the limit is
based on 10% of total CaO in the ash whereas in EN 450 it is based on 2.5% of free
CaO in the ash. The BS was formulated when indigenous coals formed the main
34
supply to UK power station and there are virtually no deep mined coals that would
give ashes that would approach this CaO limit.
Mainland European coal fired power stations have traditionally used significant
quantities of international traded coals many of which come from Southern
Hemisphere sources. Many of these coals, particularly from the Southern
Hemisphere have CaO contents well in excess of the levels found in UK coals.
Increasing amounts of Southern Hemisphere coal are now being used in UK power
stations due to a number of reasons, including price, availability and lower sulphur
content and as a result there levels of total CaO in ash are rising. Thus, there is the
potential for a reduction in the usage of pfa in concrete additions if the total CaO
parameter remains in use. However, there is as yet no evidence that high CaO ash
coals are unsuited for use as a cement replacement in the UK.
A large number of ash and deposit samples have been collected from CTF and EFR
trials as part of this project and total CaO concentrations have been determined for
these samples. Free lime was not directly measured for the ashes and deposits.
However, as part of the CCSEM characterisation of the chemical variability of the
samples, the proportion of ‘Ca-rich’ ash particles or deposit point analyses has been
determined. The ‘Ca-rich’ chemical type is defined by the CaO content making up
more than 90wt% of the sum of (CaO + Fe2O3 + Al2O3 + SiO2) contents. Lime (CaO),
calcite (CaCO3), calcium sulphate and calcium phosphate all report in the Ca-rich
chemical type.
Although the CCSEM measurement of Ca-rich abundance is not the same as the BS
measurement of free lime, there is probably a strong correlation. Lime is associated
with aluminosilicate glass in all the other forms of Ca-bearing material in coal ashes
and deposits. Only the ‘Ca-rich’ material is sufficiently concentrated to be a possible
source of free lime, although not all of the ‘Ca-rich’ material need be ‘free’. The
abundance of Ca-rich ash particles has been plotted against total CaO concentration,
determined by CCSEM, for CTF and EFR ash samples in Figure 9.1 This shows that
the abundance of Ca-rich remains below 2.5wt%, and frequently below 1wt%, for all
the ash samples with total CaO contents below 15wt%. However, the two ash
samples from the Powder River Basin coals gave high total CaO contents (above
20wt%) and the ashes that also contained significant amounts of ‘Ca-rich’ material.
Similarly, a CCSEM characterisation of the CTF and EFR deposits showed only one
deposit to have a Ca-rich content above 2wt% (~ 2.5wt%), see Fig 9.2. Based on
these analyses, it appears that significant “free lime” is only likely to occur in boiler fly
ashes with very high total CaO contents, while boiler bottom ash is unlikely to contain
any significant “free lime”, whatever the CaO content.
The project has demonstrated that the relationship between total CaO and free CaO
in ash is non-linear and it would appear that the BS3892 parameters are suited to UK
indigenous coals whilst the EN 450 parameters are applicable to a much wider range
of coals. It is important to note that this wider range of coals is now more reflective of
the basket of coal used in UK power stations.
Other uses of pfa are mainly for conditioned rather than fresh material and include
lime/ash bound granular materials which have been used for road and airfield
pavements, sub-base and road base and trench mixes. In these applications there
35
12
10
8
Ca-rich (wt%)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Total CaO (wt%)
Fig 9.1 CCSEM analyses of CTF and EFR ashes for all 23 coals, showing only three
coals with more than 2.5% of Ca-rich particles.
12
10
8
Ca-rich (wt%)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Total CaO (wt%)
Fig 9.2 Abundance of 'Ca-rich’ point analyses plotted against bulk (total) CaO
concentration, as determined by CCSEM of both CTF and EFR deposits.
are none of the strict specification criteria of the concrete addition applications
applied to the pfa. These applications also require the presence of typically 3% of
free lime. As shown in this project, very few coal ashes actually contain this level of
free CaO, and it is necessary to provide this as an addition to the pfa for the specific
application.
The free CaO content again can affect ash disposal into lagoons. It has been noted
in a number of instances that the pH of the lagoon water and run off can rise
significantly when coals with high total CaO contents are used on a long-term basis.
It has, in a number of instances, been necessary to take remedial actions such as
coal blending or neutralisation of lagoon and run off water.
36
10. Conclusions
This project was undertaken to give the coal-fired power generators a greater insight
into the combustion behaviour of a wide range of coals that are now available as
world-traded commodities. Many of these coals have an ash chemistry that can be
quite different to that of UK coals, a consequence of the varied geographical origins
and a different mineral assemblage. Emphasis has been placed on obtaining an
improved understanding of the mineral matter transformations, mineral interactions,
the formation of ash particles and boiler deposits. The effects of mineral
transformations on power station performance have also been considered.
1. The combustion behaviour of nine coals and two blends has been successfully
studied using the E.ON 1MW Combustion Test Facility (CTF) and the Imperial
College Entrained Flow Reactor (EFR). The coals came from North and South
America, Australia, South Africa and India. A further fourteen coals, including coals
from Indonesia, China, Russia have been studied using the EFR. The mineral matter
in all the coals and the nature of the ash and deposits generated during the CTF and
the EFR trials has been characterised using the CCSEM and other facilities facilities
at Imperial College.
2. Combustible loss values for ash samples taken at 1% excess oxygen in the CTF
were approximately 1%, indicating relatively good combustion performance for most
coals. Goedehoop, a South African coal with a high inertinite content showed poor
burnout performance, while the two low rank coals from the US PRB gave extremely
low combustion loss values (<0.5%). The performance of the coal blends appeared
to follow an additive behaviour.
3. Petrographic analysis of the coals and chars was used to predict the burnout
properties of the coals and chars. In general a good correlation was obtained
between the predicted and measured combustion loss. The two coals that did not
give the predicted burnout were Goedehoop and Prodeco.
4. NO production was highest from those coals with a high Fuel Ratio and a high fuel
N content. NO emissions were lowest from the low rank, high volatile matter US
Powder River Basin coals. The blended coals gave NO emissions broadly in line with
an additive relationship.
5. The ash deposits collected on ceramic deposition probes ranged from dusty
deposits with no mechanical strength to highly fused, strongly bonded slags of low
porosity. The highest slagging propensity was shown by PRB 1, a high Na PRB coal,
while the coal to show the lowest slagging propensity was Hunter Valley, an
Australian coal with a high quartz content and a high Al:Si. In general, a good
relationship was obtained between the Jones Slagging Index and the basicity of the
coal ash. Two notable exceptions from this relationship were Goedehoop, a South
African coal and Harworth, a UK coal. A detailed microstructural and chemical
analysis of these deposits revealed an unusual crystallisation sequence for the
Goedehoop ash (a coal with a lignitic ash) that reduced the sintering behaviour, while
the enhanced slagging propensity of the Harworth ash was thought to be a
consequence of the synergistic effects of relatively high levels of CaO and high
Fe2O3 in the ash.
6. Mineral matter in the coals was identified by XRD and CCSEM analysis and found
to consist of a relatively small range of clays, quartz, sulphides and carbonates.
37
Many other somewhat exotic minerals were encountered, but in such small
proportions that the effects on combustion were considered to be negligible. The
proportions and distributions of minerals varied widely from one coal to another.
While pyrite (FeS2) was commonly found to be the principle Fe containing mineral in
Northern hemisphere coals, siderite (FeCO3) was much more common in coals from
the Southern hemisphere. Southern hemisphere coals tended to have higher
proportions of kaolinite: illite than found in the Northern hemisphere coals.
7. Mineral transformations were studied using the EFR that simulates the time
temperature conditions that coal and mineral particles experience in a pulverised coal
boiler. Combinations of minerals, eg. clays mixed with pyrite and calcite, showed that
a limited amount of chemical interaction took place between decomposed mineral
particles prior to deposition.
10. Furnace bottom ash (FBA) and electrostatic precipitator ash (PFA) find a ready
market as cement replacement materials if the ashes fall within the required
specifications concerning carbon content and the amount of free CaO in the ash.
Only the Powder River Basin coals and Goedehoop gave ashes that might not meet
the current specifications.
11. The current coal characterisation methods that have been developed in recent
years to predict combustion performance and coal ash slagging behaviour were, with
just one or two exceptions, considered to be satisfactory in predicting the combustion
and slagging behaviour of the coals. In the case of the coals and ashes that did not fit
the established relationships, then a more detailed examination was necessary to
establish the reasons for anomalous behaviour.
38
World-wide attention is now being focused on the fate of some of the more
hazardous trace elements present in coals, in particular Hg and As. The trace
elements are known to reside in both the organic fraction of the coal and the mineral
matter. Their fate on combustion is controlled by a combination of the high
temperature physical chemistry and the mineral matter transformations. Continued
use of coal for power generation will require a greater understanding of these issues.
Only with an improvement in our knowledge of these phenomena can methods to
counter the less undesirable effects devised.
12. References
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Acknowledgments
Financial support for this work was provided by the Department of Trade and Industry
under the Cleaner Coal R&D Programme (Project 120) and by E.ON (Powergen),
TXU Europe and Rio Tinto Technology. In addition, E.ON, TXU Europe and Rio Tinto
Technology provided coals, combustion test facilities and much technical experience.
40
Appendix 1
41
Appendix 2 Proximate, ultimate and ash analyses of coals
Coal Harworth Bailey PRB 1 PRB 2 Bowen Hunter Prodeco Goedehoop Talcher Jacobs Ranch/ PRB 1/ Bailey
basin Valley PRB 1 blend blend
Origin UK Eastern USA USA PRB USA PRB Australia Australia Colombia South Africa India USA PRB USA PRB
Moisture(%) 2.5 2.3 18.0 19.7 4.8 3.2 3.7 2.8 9.7 18.9 11.2
Ash, %ar 14.4 8.9 3.7 5.8 7.6 9.8 8.6 13.1 39.7 4.79 5.6
Vol Matter,% ar 31.4 34.5 34.5 35.0 27.8 30.7 35.5 25.4 24.0 43.7 34.8
GCV,kJ/kg, ar 28870 30970 24120 22450 28900 29910 29620 28230 15110 23404 27450
NCV, kJ/kg, ar 27836 29912 22942 21278 27950 28934 28508 27356 14342 22231 26313
Sulphur, %ar 2.25 1.26 0.33 0.33 0.39 0.46 0.66 0.70 0.37 0.46 0.8
Chlorine, %ar 0.20 0.21 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.5 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.17
Carbon, %DAF 82.40 83.67 76.28 77.42 81.76 82.99 81.39 83.45 74.52 75.89 80.61
Hydrogen, %DAF 5.52 5.32 4.44 4.37 4.48 4.87 5.49 4.52 4.94 4.39 4.89
Nitrogen, %DAF 1.78 1.66 0.98 1.12 1.77 1.86 1.68 2.03 2.07 1.1 1.41
Oxygen, %DAF 7.35 7.70 17.87 18.63 11.53 9.73 10.12 9.16 17.71 17.99 11.92
Vol Matter, 37.8 38.9 44.1 47.0 31.7 35.3 40.5 30.2 47.4 45.2 41.8
%DAF
Fuel Ratio 1.65 1.57 1.27 1.13 2.15 1.83 1.47 2.31 1.11 1.20 1.39
Calorific Value, 34,741 34,876 30,805 30,134 32,991 34,379 33,774 33,567 29,862 3.670 32.993
%DAF
42
Appendix 3 Schematic diagrams of the combustion test facilities
Cyclone
(Flyash sample)
To Stack Port 313 (Opposite side)
(Char sample)
Burner
Bottom Ash Hopper
Feeder
1600°C
Cyclone
43