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Measurements can involve very large or very small units that do not correspond with the base SI
units. SI units are conveniently modified by a series of prefixes that represent multiples of the
base units. Thus 1/1000th of a meter (or 0.001m) becomes 1 millimeter or simply 1 mm.
Because the numbers chemists use are often very small or very large, it is convenient to express
these numbers in scientific notation. Notice also that all measurements contain both a number
and the unit of measure.
Note that the terms mass and weight are used interchangeably, but they do have different
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meanings. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while weight is a measure of the pull of
gravity on an object.
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An understanding of the three temperature scales will help you make temperature conversions
without blindly applying a formula. Look at the number of degrees that separate the freezing
point of water and the boiling point of water on the Fahrenheit scale: There are 180 degrees.
This same temperature interval is separated by 100°C and 100 K. Thus, one °F is 100/180 or
5/9 the size of a kelvin or °C. That is, there are fewer Celsius degrees than Fahrenheit degrees in
the same range because Celsius degrees are "fatter". The Fahrenheit scale is offset from the
Celsius scale by 32°F. These facts lead to the following conversion equations:
The Kelvin scale is offset from the Celsius scale by 273.15. Thus,
350°F – 32 = 318°F
Next we convert the size of the degrees.
Volume, the amount of space occupied by an object, is measured in SI units by the cubic
meter, abbreviated m3. Smaller, more convenient measures of volume are frequently used.
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1 dm3 = 1 liter (1 L)
Measuring liquid volume is a common laboratory task. Some of the specialized glassware used in
chemistry labs is shown below. Which one is the buret?
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Notice the wide range of densities of common substances listed in the table below.
The volume of many substances changes with temperature, so densities, too, are temperature
dependent.
Density provides a useful link in the laboratory between the mass of a substance and its volume.
It is sometimes simpler to use volumetric glassware to measure a particular volume of a
substance, and then to convert that volume to mass.
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KEYWORDS ... atom ... chemical change ... chromatography ... compound ... covalency ...
distillation (simple/fractional) ... element ... equations - (word, picture, symbol, quizzes) ...
formula ... impure/pure ... ionic equations ... ionic valency ... magnet ... mixture ...
molecule ... physical change ... products ... reactants ... separating mixtures ... chemical
symbols - (elements, formula, in equations) ... state symbols ... valency ... working out
formulae ...
CH4
Compounds have a fixed composition and therefore a fixed ratio
of atoms represented by a fixed formula, however the compound is
made or formed.
In a compound the elements are not easily separated by
physical means, and quite often not easily by chemical means either.
The compound has properties quite different from the
elements it is formed from.
o For example soft silvery reactive sodium + reactive green gas
chlorine ==> colourless, not very reactive crystals of sodium
chloride.
The formula of a compound summarises the 'whole number'
atomic ratio of what it is made up of eg methane CH4 is
composed of 1 carbon atom combined with 4 hydrogen atoms.
Glucose has 6 carbon : 12 hydrogen : 6 oxygen atoms, sodium
chloride is 1 sodium : 1 chlorine atom.
When there is only one atom of the element, there is no
subscript number, the 1 is assumed eg Na in NaCl or C in CH4.
When there is more than 1 atom of the same element, a subscript
number is used eg the 4 in CH4 meaning 4 hydrogen atoms.
Sometimes, a compound (usually ionic), is partly made up of two or
more identical groups of atoms. To show this more accurately ( ) are
used eg
o calcium hydroxide is Ca(OH)2 which makes more sense than
CaO2H2 because the OH group is called hydroxide and exists in
its own right in the compound.
o Similarly, aluminium sulphate has the formula
Al2(SO4)3 rather than Al2S3O12, because it consists of
two aluminium ions Al3+ and three sulphate ions
SO42-.
The word formula can also apply to elements. eg hydrogen H2,
oxygen O2, ozone O3 (2nd unstable form of oxygen), phosphorus P4,
sulphur S8, have 2, 2, 3, 4 and 8 atoms in their molecules. Elements
like helium He are referred to as 'monatomic' because they exist as
single uncombined atoms.
PURE PURE means that only one substance present in the material and can
be an element or compound.
A simple physical test for purity and helping identify a compound is to
measure the boiling point of a liquid. Every pure substance melts and
boils at a fixed temperature.
o If a liquid is pure it may boil at a constant temperature (boiling
point).
o An impure liquid could boil higher or lower than the expected
boiling point and over a range of temperature.
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o If a solid is pure, it will quite sharply at the melting point.
o An impure solid melts below its expected melting point and
more slowly over a wider temperature range.
IMPURE IMPURE usually means a mixture of mainly one substance plus one
or more other substances physically mixed in.
The % purity of a compound is important, particularly in drug
manufacture. Any impurities present are less cost-effective to the
consumer and they may be harmful substances.
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Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation involves 2 main
stages and both are physical state changes.
It can only work with liquids with
different boiling points.
(1) The liquid or solution mixture is boiled
to vaporise the most volatile component in
the mixture (liquid ==> gas). The ant-
bumping granules give a smoother boiling
action.
(2) The vapour passes up through a
fractionating column, where the
separation takes place (theory at the end).
This column is not used in the simple
distillation described above.
(3) The vapour is cooled by cold water in
the condensor to condense (gas ==>
liquid) it back to a liquid (the distillate)
which is collected.
This can be used to separate alcohol from a fermented sugar solution.
It is used on a large scale to separate the components of crude oil, because the different
hydrocarbons have different boiling and condensation points
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION THEORY:
o Imagine green liquid is a mixture of a blue liquid (but. 80oC) and a yellow liquid (bpt.
100oC), As the vapour from the boiling mixture enters the fractionating column it
begins to cool and condense. The highest boiling or least volatile liquid tends to
condense more ie the yellow liquid (water). The lower boiling more volatile blue liquid
gets further up the column. Gradually up the column the blue and yellow separate from
each other so that yellow condenses back into the flask and pure blue distills over to be
collected. The 1st liquid, the lowest boiling point, is called the 1st fraction and each
liquid distills over when the top of the column reaches its particular boiling point to give
the 2nd, 3rd fraction etc.
o To increase the separation efficiency of the tall fractionating column, it is
usually packed with glass beads, short glass tubes or glass rings etc. which greatly
increase the surface area for evaporation and condensation.
o In the distillation of crude oil the different fractions are condensed out at different
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points in a huge fractionating column. At the top are the very low boiling fuel gases like
butane and at the bottom are the high boiling big molecules of waxes and tar.
Paper Chromatography
This method of separation is used to see what coloured materials
make up eg a food dye analysis.
It is possible to analyse colourless mixture if the components can be made coloured eg protein can be
broken down into amino acids and coloured purple by a chemical reagent called ninhydrin and
many colourless organic molecules fluoresce when ultra-violet light is shone on them.
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PHYSICAL CHANGES
These are changes which do not lead to new substances being
formed. Only the physical state of the material changes. The
substance retains exactly the same chemical composition. Examples
...
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A molecular formula gives the types and the count of atoms for each element in a compound. An example
of a molecular formula is ethane, C2H6. Here the formula indicates carbon and hydrogen are combined in
ethane. The subscripts tell us that there are 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms in a formula unit.
The structural formula shows the atoms in a formula unit and the bonds between atoms as lines. Single
bonds are one line, Double bonds are two lines. Triple bonds are three lines. The Lewis dot structure shows
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the number of valence electrons and types of bonds in the molecule.
Electron pairs that are shared are physically between the symbols for the
atoms. Electron pairs that are unshared are called lone pairs. Lone pairs are
not between atom symbols.
1a
A single symbol means an uncombined single atom of the element, or Fe 1 atom of iron, or S 1
atom of sulphur (2Fe would mean two atoms, 5S would mean five atoms etc.)
or the formula FeS means one atom of iron is chemically combined with 1 atom of sulphur to form the
compound called iron sulphide
2a
or the formula NaOH means 1 atom of sodium is combined with 1 atom of oxygen and 1 atom of
hydrogen to form the compound called sodium hydroxide
or the formula HCl means 1 atom of hydrogen is combined with 1 atom of chlorine to form 1 molecule of
the compound called hydrochloric acid
or the formula NaCl means 1 atom of sodium are combined with 1 atom chlorine to form the
compound called sodium chloride
or the formula H2O means 2 atoms of hydrogen are chemically combined with 1 atom of oxygen to
form the compound called water.
3a
or the symbol Mg means 1 atom of the element called magnesium
or 2HCl means two separate molecules of the compound called hydrochloric acid
(see example 2)
or the formula MgCl2 means 1 formula of the compound called magnesium chloride, made of
one atom of magnesium and two atoms of chlorine.
or the formula H2 means 1 molecule of the element called hydrogen made up of two joined hydrogen
atoms
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4a
or the formula CuCO3 means one formula of the compound called copper carbonate, made up
of one atom of copper is combined with one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen to form the compound
copper carbonate
or the formula H2SO4 means one formula of the compound called sulphuric acid, which is
made up of two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen
or the formula CuSO4 means one formula of the compound called copper sulphate which is
made up of one atom of copper, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen
H2O (example 2)
or the formula CO2 means one molecule of the compound called carbon dioxide which is a
chemical combination of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
5a
or the formula CH4 means one molecule of the compound called methane which is made of one
atom of carbon combined with four atoms of hydrogen
or 2O2 means two separate molecules of the element called oxygen, and each oxygen
molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen
CO2 (see also example 4)
or 2H2O means two separate molecules of the compound called water (see
also example 2)
6a
or the formula Mg(OH)2 is the compound magnesium hydroxide made up of one magnesium, two
oxygen and two hydrogen atoms BUT the OH is a particular combination called hydroxide within a compound, so it
is best to think of this compound as a combination of an Mg and two OH's, hence the use of the ( ).
or 2HNO3 means two separate molecules of the compound nitric acid, each
molecule is made up of one hydrogen atom, one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms.
or 2H2O meaning two molecules of the compound water (see also examples
2 and 5)
7a
or the formula Al2O3 means one formula of the compound called aluminium oxide, made up
of two atoms of aluminium Al and three atoms of oxygen O
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1c
on average one atom of iron chemically combines with one atom of iron forming one molecule of iron
sulphide
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: 1 Fe + 1 S = (1 Fe + 1S)
two elements chemically combining to form a new compound
2c
the reactants are one molecule of sodium hydroxide and one molecule of hydrochloric acid
the products are one molecule of sodium chloride and one molecule of water
all chemicals involved are compounds
atom balancing, sum left = right: ( 1 Na + 1 O + 1 H) + (1 H +1 Cl) = (1 Na + 1 Cl) + (2 H's + 1 O)
3c
4c
the reactants are one formula of copper carbonate and one molecule of sulphuric acid
the products are one formula of copper sulphate, one molecule of water and one molecule of carbon
dioxide
all molecules are compounds in this reaction
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atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (1 Cu + 1 C + 3 O's) + (2 H's + 1 S + 4 O's) = (1 Cu + 1 S + 4
O's) + (2 H's + 1 O) + (1 C + 2 O's)
5c
6c
one formula of magnesium hydroxide reacts with two molecules of nitric acid to form one formula of
magnesium nitrate and two molecules of water (all compounds)
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (1 Mg + 2O's + 2 H's) + (1 H + 1 N + 3O's) + (1 H + 1 N +
3O's) = (1 Mg + 2 N's + 6 O's) + (2 H's + 1 O) + (2 H's + 1 O)
7c
one formula of aluminium oxide reacts with three molecules of sulphuric acid
to form one formula of aluminium sulphate and three molecules of water
note the first use of numbers (3) for the sulphuric acid and water!
so picture three of them in your head, otherwise the picture gets a bit big!
atom balancing, sum left = sum right: (2 Al's + 3 O's) + 3 x (2 H's + 1 S + 4 O's) = (2 Al's + 3 S's + 12
O's) + 3 x (2 H's + 1 O)
2d
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
atom balancing, sum left = right: (1 Na + 1 O + 1 H) + (1 H +1 Cl) = (1 Na + 1 Cl) + (2 H's + 1 O)
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NOTE 1: means a reversible reaction, it can be made to go the 'other way' if the conditions are
changed. Example:
o nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
o N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
o balancing: 2 nitrogen's and 6 hydrogen's on both sides of equation
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Examples of ionic combining power of ions (left, valency = numerical
charge value)
Hydrogen H (1)
Chlorine Cl and other halogens (1)
Oxygen O and sulphur S (2)
Boron B and aluminium Al (3)
Nitrogen (3, 4, 5)
Carbon C and silicon Si (4)
Phosphorus (P 3,5)
methane CH4
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The Structure of Atoms
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in Chemistry. However from experiments
done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was deduced that atoms were made up of three fundamental
sub-atomic particles (listed below)
A Portrait of an Atom
The diagram below gives some idea on the structure of an atom, it also includes some important
definitions and notation used to describe atomic structure.
The atomic number (Z) is also known as the proton number of the nucleus of a particular element.
It is the proton number that determines the specific identity of a particular element and its electron
structure.
The mass number (A) is also known as the nucleon number (N), that is the number of particles in
the nucleus of a particular isotope.
Protons and neutrons are the nucleons present in the positive nucleus and the negative
electrons are held by the positive nucleus in 'orbits' called energy levels or shells.
In a neutral atom the number of protons equals the number of electrons.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. This gives each
isotope of the element a different mass or nucleon number but being the same element they have
the same atomic or proton number.
There are small physical differences between the isotopes eg the heavier isotope has a greater
density or boiling point.
However, because they have the same number of protons they have the same electronic structure and
identical chemically. Examples are illustrated below.
Do NOT assume the word isotope means it is radioactive, this depends on the stability of the nucleus
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i.e. unstable atoms (radioactive) might be referred to as radioisotopes. Many isotopes are
stable and NOT radioactive i.e. most of the atoms that make up you and the world around you!
, and are the three isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 1, 2 and 3, with 0,
1 and 2 neutrons respectively, but all have 1 proton. Hydrogen-1 is the most common, there is a trace
of hydrogen-2 naturally but hydrogen-3 is very unstable and is used in atomic fusion weapons.
and are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2
neutrons respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the initial nuclear
fusion process. Helium-4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product of radioactive alpha decay of an
unstable nucleus. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it picks up two electrons and becomes the
atoms of the gas helium.
and are the two isotopes of sodium with mass numbers of 23 and 24, with 12
and 13 neutrons respectively but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in common salt
(NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium-24 is a radio-isotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a
radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all the isotopes present compared to
1/12th of the mass of carbon-12 atom (12C = 12.00000 ie the standard).
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and with
increasing distance from the nucleus.
Each electron in an atom is in a particular energy level (or shell) and the electrons
must occupy the lowest available energy level (or shell) available nearest the nucleus.
When the level is full, the next electron(s) go into the next highest level (shell) available.
There are rules about the maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell and you
have to be able to work out the arrangements for the first 20 elements (see the Periodic
Table diagrams further down).
st
o The 1 shell has a maximum of 2 electrons
o The 2nd shell has a maximum of 8 electrons
o The 3rd shell has a maximum of 8 electrons
th th th
o The 19 and 20 electrons go into the 4 shell (limit of GCSE knowledge)
If you know the atomic (proton) number, you know it equals the number of
electrons in a neutral atom, you then apply the rules to work out the electron
arrangement (configuration).
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Below are the electron arrangements for elements 1 to 20 set out in Periodic Table format
(Hydrogen and The Transition metals etc. have been omitted). When you move down to the next
period you start to fill in the next shell according to the maximum electrons in a shell rule (see
previous section)
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o The first element in a period has one outer electron (eg sodium Na 2.8.1), and the last
element has a full outer shell (eg argon Ar 2.8.8)
o Apart from hydrogen (H, 1) and helium (He, 2) the last electron number is the group
number.
o and the number of shells used is equal to the Period Number.
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Structure, Bonding and properties
1. Why do atoms bond together?
Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in the air around us as single
atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable electron arrangements eg 2, 2.8 and
2.8.8 because their outer shells are full. The first three are shown in the diagrams below and explains why Noble
Gases are so reluctant to form compounds with other elements.
All other atoms therefore, bond together to become electronically more stable, that is to
become like Noble Gases in electron arrangement. Bonding produces new substances and usually involves
only the 'outer shell' or 'valency' electrons
The phrase CHEMICAL BOND refers to the strong electrical force of attraction between the atoms or ions in the
structure. The combining power of an atom is sometimes referred to as its valency and its value is linked to the number
of outer electrons of the original uncombined atom
COVALENT BONDING - sharing electrons to form molecules with covalent bonds, the bond is usually formed
between two non-metallic elements in a molecule.
COORDINATE COVALENT BONDING A coordinate covalent bond is special because it involves a shared pair of
electrons that came from a single atom.
METALLIC BONDING The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions NOT atoms surrounded by a 'sea of
electrons' forming giant lattice. These free or 'delocalised' electrons are the 'electronic glue' holding the particles
together. There is a strong electrical force of attraction between these mobile electrons (-) and the 'immobile'
positive metal ions (+) and this is the metallic bond.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation) and is usually a metal.
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (anion) and is usually a non-metallic element.
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NOBLE GASES are very reluctant to share, gain or lose electrons to form a chemical bond. For most other elements
the types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements or compounds are described in detail below. In all the
electronic diagrams ONLY the outer electrons are shown.
2. Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of bond usually formed
between two non-metallic elements. The molecules might be that of an element ie one type of atom only OR from
different elements chemically combined to form a compound.
The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two positive nuclei of the two atoms of the
bond, and the electrons between them.
One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared electrons between the same two
atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share 3 pairs of electrons and give a triple bond.
Example 1: 2 hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the element hydrogen H2
and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo helium structure of 2 outer
electrons around each atom's nucleus. Any covalent bond is formed from the mutual attraction of two positive
nuclei and negative electrons between them.
Example 2: 2 chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Cl2
and combine to form where both atoms have a pseudo argon structure of 8
outer electrons around each atom. All the other halogens would be similar eg F2, Br2 and I2 etc. Valency of halogens is 1
here.
Example 3: 1 atom of hydrogen (1) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the molecule of the compound
hydrogen chloride HCl
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and combine to form where hydrogen is electronically like helium and chlorine like
argon. All the other hydrogen halides will be similar eg HF, HBr and HI etc.
Example 4: 2 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule of the compound we
call water H2O
and and combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like
helium and the oxygen atom becomes like neon. The molecule can be shown as with two hydrogen - oxygen
single covalent bonds. Hydrogen sulphide will be similar, since sulphur (2.8.6) is in the same Group 6 as oxygen. Valency
of oxygen and sulphur is 2 here.
Example 5: 3 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the molecule of the compound
we call ammonia NH3
three of and one combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically
like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon. The molecule can be shown as with three nitrogen -
hydrogen single covalent bonds (
Example 6: 4 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule of the compound we
call methane CH4
four of and one of combine to form so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically
like helium and the nitrogen atom becomes like neon. The molecule can be shown as with four carbon -
hydrogen single covalent bonds. SiH4 will be similar because silicon (2.8.4) is in the same group as carbon.
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All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds. Below are three examples 7-9, where there is a
double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have stable Noble Gas outer electron arrangements around each
atom. Carbon has a valency of 4.
Example 7: Two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the molecules of the element oxygen O2.
The molecule has one O=O double covalent bond . Oxygen valency 2.
Example 8: One atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two atoms of oxygen (2.6) to
form carbon dioxide CO2. The molecule can be shown as with two carbon = oxygen double
covalent bonds Valencies of C and O are 4 and 2 respectively.
Example 9: Two atoms of carbon (2.4) combine with four atoms of hydrogen (1) to
form ethene C2H4. The molecule can be shown as with one carbon = carbon double bond and
four carbon - hydrogen single covalent bonds The valency of carbon is still 4.
Examples 10-13: The scribbles below illustrate some more complex examples. Ex. 10 nitrogen; Ex. 11
ethane; Ex. 12 chloromethane and Ex. 13 methanol. The valencies or combining power in theses examples are N 3, H 1, C
4, Cl 1 and O 2.
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MULTIPLE BONDS
Why multiple bonds form: Nonmetal atoms bond to reach a stable or low energy condition. This
happens when a main-group atom shares enough electrons to achieve a rare gas valence shell.
Sometimes the number of electrons needed cannot be provided by sharing electrons simply in single
bonds(pairs).
Nitrogen molecules are an example of this situation. Nitrogen atoms have five valence electrons. We
know that molecules of N2 exist based on a great deal of measurements. If two nitrogen atoms
simply formed a single bond the dot structure would look like the illustraton below. Each nitrogen
atom would have only six electrons not an octet. The single bond doesn't provide the two nitrogen
atoms with an octet. If the octet rule is to be followed, the nitrogen atoms must share more than two
electrons.
The trial and error method is used to decide how many shared electrons are needed to create a
structure where the octet rule is met. Since one bond didn't work the next thing to try is a double
bond where the atoms share four electrons. Unfortunately the double bond structure only provides 7
valence shell electrons not eight.
Because the single and double bonds didn't do the trick the next thing to try is a triple bond where the nitrogen
atoms share six electrons. The count for both atoms when a triple bond is used in the structure shows that the
octet rule is met.
Multiple bonds are very common in carbon compounds. The carbon atom can form four bonds. These
four bonds can be all single,CH3CH3, two single and one double, CH2CH2, two double, one single and
one triple, CHCH.
Ethane has a single bond carbon- Ethene has a double carbon-carbon Acetylene has a triple carbon-carbon
carbon bond bond bond
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The carbon-carbon single bond has a The carbon-carbon double bond has a The carbon-carbon triple bond has a
bond length of 154 picometers. bond length of 133 picometers. bond length of 120 picometers.
The carbon-carbon bond lengths decrease as the number of shared electrons and bonds increase. This is reasonable
because there are more electrons attracted to each nucleus. The repulsions between positive nuclei decrease as more
electrons are shared. The relative lengths for the three types of bonds are summarized here. REMEMBER these
compare bonds between pairs of atoms like ;
C:::C, C::C, C:C or C:::N, C::N, C:N or N:::N, N::N N:N or N::O , N:O
Carbon also occurs in the form of graphite. The carbon atoms form
joined hexagonal rings forming layers 1 atom thick.
There are three strong covalent bonds per carbon, BUT, the fourth
bond carbon can form from its four outer electrons, is shared between the
three bonds shown (this requires advanced level concepts to fully explain,
and this bonding situation also occurs in fullerenes described below).
The layers are only held together by weak intermolecular forces
shown by the dotted lines NOT by strong covalent bonds.
Like diamond and silica (above) the large molecules of the layer ensure
graphite has typically very high melting point because of the strong
2D bonding network (note: NOT 3D network)..
Graphite will not dissolve in solvents because of the strong bonding
BUT there are two crucial differences compared to diamond ...
o Electrons, from the 'shared bond', can move freely through
each layer, so graphite is a conductor like a metal (diamond is
an electrical insulator and a poor heat conductor). Graphite is used in
electrical contacts eg electrodes in electrolysis.
o The weak forces enable the layers to slip over each other so
where as diamond is hard material graphite is a 'soft' crystal, it
feels slippery. Graphite is used as a lubricant.
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3. Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions. Ions are atoms, or groups
of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal. The overall charge on the ion is
positive due to excess positive nuclear charge (protons do NOT change in chemical reactions).
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic element. The overall
charge on the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess, of negative electrons.
The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2 or 3, with a non-metal from Group 6 or Group 7
(The Halogens)
Example 1: A Group 1 metal + a Group 7 non-metal eg sodium + chlorine sodium chloride NaCl or ionic formula
Na+Cl- In terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine atom forming a single
positive sodium ion and a single negative chloride ion. The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, sodium
becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.
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* NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples a number subscript has been used, as in
ordinary chemical formula.
Example 3: A Group 3 metal + a Group 7 non-metal eg aluminium + fluorine aluminium fluoride AlF3 or ionic
formula Al3+(F-)3 In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to three fluorine
atoms forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions. The atoms have become stable ions,
because electronically, aluminium and fluorine becomes electronically like neon. Valency of Al is, F is 1.
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Example 4: A Group 1 metal + a Group 6 non-metal eg potassium + oxygen potassium oxide K2O or ionic
formula (K+)2O2- In terms of electron arrangement, the two potassium atoms donates their outer electrons to one
oxygen atom. This results in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative oxide ion. All the ions have the
stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like). Valencies, K 1, oxygen 2. Na 2O, Na2S, K2S etc. will be
similar.
Example 5: A Group 2 metal + a Group 6 non-metal eg calcium + oxygen calcium oxide CaO or ionic formula
Ca2+O2- In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates its two outer electrons to one oxygen atom. This
results in a double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures
2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like). the valency of both calcium and oxygen is 2. MgO, MgS, or CaS will be similar
electronically (S and O both in Group 6)
Example 6: A Group 3 metal + a Group 6 non-metal eg aluminium + oxygen aluminium oxide Al2O3 or ionic
formula (Al3+)2(O2-)3 In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer electrons to
three oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double negative oxide ions. All the ions
have the stable electronic structure of neon 2.8. Valencies, Al 3 and O 2.
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The alternate positive and negative ions in an ionic
solid are arranged in an orderly way in a giant ionic lattice
structure shown on the left.
The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction
between the positive and negative ions next to each
other in the lattice.
The bonding extends throughout the crystal in all
directions.
Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic compounds.
This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle)
and have high melting and boiling points, so they are not
very volatile!
The bigger the charges on the ions the stronger the bonding
attraction eg magnesium oxide Mg2+O2- has a higher melting
point than sodium chloride Na+Cl-.
Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic compounds are
crystalline solids at room temperature.
They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are
broken along planes of ions which shear away. They are NOT
malleable like metals.
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all,
so don't make assumptions.
The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because
the ions are not free to move to carry an electric current.
However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in
water, the liquid will now conduct electricity, as the ion
particles are now free.
4. BONDING IN METALS
Electron-Sea Model of Metals
In the electron-sea model, a metal crystal is considered to be a
three-dimensional array of metal cations immersed in a sea of
valence electrons. The delocalized valence electrons are free to
move throughout the crystal and are not associated with any
one particular metal cation. The mobility of the electrons
accounts for the high electrical conductivity of metals.
Thermal conductivity can also be ascribed to the mobile
electrons that conduct heat by carrying kinetic energy from
one part of the crystal to another. Three-dimensional
delocalized bonding allows the metal to be both malleable and
ductile.
The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions NOT atoms surrounded by a 'sea of electrons' forming another
type of giant lattice.
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between these mobile electrons (-) and the 'immobile' positive metal ions (+) and this is the
metallic bond.
1. Shows the regular arrangement of the atoms in a metal crystal and the white spaces show where the free
electrons are (yellow circles actually positive metal ions).
2. Shows what happens when the metal is stressed by a strong force. The layers of atoms can slide over each other
and the bonding is maintained as the mobile electrons keep in contact with atoms, so the metal remains intact
BUT a different shape.
3. Shows an alloy mixture. It is NOT a compound but a physical mixing of a metal plus at least one other material
(shown by red circle, it can be another metal eg Ni, a non-metal eg C or a compound of carbon or manganese,
and it can be bigger or smaller than iron atoms). Many alloys are produced to give a stronger metal. The
presence of the other atoms (smaller or bigger) disrupts the symmetry of the layers and reduces the 'slip ability'
of one layer next to another. The result is a stronger harder less malleable metal.
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A coordinate covalent bond is special because it involves a shared pair of electrons that came from a single atom. Ammonia had
a nitrogen atom with an unshared pair of electrons. These can be shared with an electron defficient atom like H +.
6. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular forces are those forces that occur between particles (molecules, atoms, or ions).
The strength of these forces at a given temperature dictates whether a substance will have the
properties of a solid, a liquid, or a gas. The term van der Waals forces encompasses all types of
intermolecular forces. All intermolecular forces arise from electrostatic interactions governed by
the basic rule that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Hydrogen Bonds
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A hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen that is bonded to a very electronegative atom (O, N,
or F) and an unshared electron pair on another electronegative atom.
Hydrogen bonds can be quite strong. Substances that form hydrogen bonds have unusually high boiling
points due to the extra energy that must be used to separate the molecules.
DONE
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CHEMICAL TESTS
INORGANIC TESTS
TEST FOR TEST OBSERVATIONS TEST CHEMISTRY
METHOD
hydrogen lit splint or spill squeaky pop! (might 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l) + energy!
gas H2 see condensation on
test tube)
carbon dioxide gas bubble into turns cloudy – fine Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ==> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
CO2 limewater milky white precipitate
(aqueous calcium of calcium carbonate
hydroxide solution)
oxygen gas O2 glowing splint or re-ignites it - C(in wood) + O2(g) ==> CO2(g)
spill flame
Hydrogen (i) blue litmus and (i) litmus turns red, (i) Strongly acid gas, (ii) in water forms chloride
chloride gas (ii) drop of silver (ii) white precipitate ions - hence precipitate with silver nitrate.
nitrate on the end with silver nitrate
HCl, in water of a glass rod
hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen As above. In water as above but cream as above - combination of acid and halide ion
bromide HBr and they are HBr or yellow HI tests
Hydrogen iodide hydrobromic acid precipitate
HI and hydriodic acid.
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Sulphur freshly made paper changes from the dichromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72-(aq) is reduced to
dioxide potassium orange to green the green Cr3+(aq) ion
dichromate(VI)
gas SO2 paper
Ammonia gas strong pungent (i) litmus turns blue, (i) only common alkaline gas and (ii) forms fine
NH3 odour*, (i) red (ii) white clouds with ammonium chloride crystals with HCl (*volatile
litmus, (ii) fumes HCl fumes. organic aliphatic amines give the same result,
conc. hydrochloric and smell more fishy)
acid
Chlorine (i) blue litmus, (ii) pungent green gas, (i) (i) non-metal, is acid in aqueous solution and a
gas Cl2 drop silver nitrate litmus turns red and powerful oxidising agent, (ii) forms chloride ion in
[test (ii) on on the end of a then is bleached water
its own is no good, could be glass rod white, (ii) white
HCl] precipitate
Iodine solid (i) heating, (ii) test (i) purple vapour, (ii)
aqueous solution blue black colour with
or solid with starch starch solution
solution
Nitrogen( no simple relatively nasty brown gas strong oxidising agent
IV) oxide unambiguous test
(or
nitrogen dioxide)
NO2
Water liquid H2O (i) white (i) turns from white to (i) blue hydrated copper(II) crystals or solution
anhydrous blue, (ii) turns from formed, (ii) hydrated cobalt ion formed
copper(II) blue to pink [Co(H2O)6]2+
sulphate, (ii) dry
blue cobalt
chloride paper
Carbonate ion CO32- add any dilute fizzing - colourless carbonate/hydrogencarbonate + acid ==> salt +
(or hydrogencarbonate strong acid to the gas - turns water + carbon dioxide, then white precipitate
HCO3-) suspected limewater milky with limewater.
carbonate - if cloudy (see above
colourless gas CO2)
given off, test with
limewater
Sulphate to a solution of the white precipitate of Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)
ion [sulphate(VI)] suspected sulphate barium sulphate
add dilute any soluble barium salt + any soluble sulphate
SO42- hydrochloric acid ==> barium sulphate
and a few drops of
barium chloride
or nitrate solution
Sulphite ion (i) add dilute (i) acrid (i) sulphite salt + hydrochloric acid ==> chloride
[sulphate(IV)] SO3
2- hydrochloric acid choking salt + sulphur dioxide, (ii) the sulphur dioxide
to the suspected sulphur reduces the dichromate(VI) to chromium(III).
sulphite, (ii) test dioxide gas formed, Note: sulphites do not give ppt. with acidified
any gas evolved (ii) the dichromate barium chloride/nitrate because sulphites dissolve
with fresh paper turns from in acids.
potassium orange to green
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dichromate(VI)
paper
Sulphid (i) If soluble, add a (i) Black ppt. of lead (i) Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) => PbS(s)
e ion few drops lead(II) sulphide.
ethanoate solution. (ii) MS(s) + 2H+(aq) => M2+(aq) + H2S(g) (e.g. M =
(ii) Rotten egg smell Pb, Fe, Cu, Ni etc.) Then reaction (i) above
S2- for (ii) (ii) If solid, add dil. of hydrogen sulphide occurs.
dangerous hydrogen HCl(aq) acid, test and the H2S gas turns
sulphide formed gas with lead(II) lead(II) ethanoate
ethanoate paper. paper black.
Chloride ion (i) if soluble, add (i) white (i) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s) , any soluble
dilute nitric acid precipitate silver salt + any soluble chloride ==> silver
and silver nitrate of silver chloride precipitate, (ii) Cl-(s) + H2SO4(l) ==>
Cl- chloride soluble in HSO4-(s) + HCl(g) , then Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ==>
solution, (ii) if
insoluble salt, add dilute ammonia, (ii) AgCl(s)
conc. sulphuric get fumes of
acid, warm if hydrogen chloride
necessary then which turn blue litmus
test gas as for HCl red and give a white
above. precipitate with silver
nitrate solution
Bromide ion (i) if soluble, add (i) cream (i) Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) ==> AgBr(s) any soluble
dilute nitric acid precipitate silver salt + any soluble bromide ==> silver
and silver nitrate of silver bromide precipitate, (ii) bromide ion is oxidised
Br- bromide, only soluble to bromine and the sulphuric acid is reduced to
solution, (ii) if
insoluble salt, add in concentrated sulphur dioxide
conc. sulphuric ammonia, (ii) orange
acid, warm if vapour, test for
necessary sulphur dioxide.
Iodide ion I- (i) if soluble, add (i) yellow (i) Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) ==> AgI(s) , any soluble silver
dilute nitric acid precipitate salt + any soluble iodide ==> silver iodide
and silver nitrate of silver precipitate, (ii) iodide ion is oxidised to iodine and
solution, (ii) if iodide insoluble in the sulphuric acid is reduced to hydrogen
insoluble salt can concentrated sulphide, (iii) insoluble lead(II) iodide formed,
heat with conc. ammonia, (ii) purple Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ==> PbI2(s)
sulphuric acid, (ii) vapour and rotten egg
get purple fumes smell!, (iii) a yellow
of iodine and very precipitate forms
smelly hydrogen
sulphide, (iii) if
soluble, add
lead(II) nitrate
solution
Nitrate ion [or (i) boil the (i) the fumes (i) the aluminium powder is a powerful reducing
nitrate(V)] NO3 suspected nitrate
- contain agent and converts the nitrate ion, NO3-, into
with sodium ammonia, ammonia gas, NH3
hydroxide solution which turns red litmus
and fine aluminium blue, see ammonia (ii) NO complex of iron(II) formed
powder (Devarda's test details
Alloy)
(ii) Where the liquids
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or ammonia (NH3) containing the calcium ion: Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Ca(OH)2(s) white ppt. * The
solutions (both alkalis, suspected ion. ppt. is not soluble in excess of NH3 or NaOH.
giving hydroxide ions, Both the magnesium ion: Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Mg(OH)2(s) white ppt. *
OH-, in their solutions) precipitate The ppt. is not soluble in excess of NH3 or NaOH. You could distinguish
formed and the Mg from Ca with a flame test.
effect of excess
copper(II) ion: Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Cu(OH)2(s)
alkali are
***blue/turquoise ppt. - this does dissolve in excess ammonia to
important
give a deep blue solution.
observations.
iron(II) ion: Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Fe(OH)2(s) dark green ppt.*
The ppt. is not soluble in excess of NH3 or NaOH.
All precipitates
white, unless iron(III) ion: Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) ==> Fe(OH)3(s) brown ppt.* The
otherwise stated ppt. is not soluble in excess of NH3 or NaOH.
and all tend to be zinc ion: Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ==> Zn(OH)2(s) white ppt. The ppt.
gelatinous in dissolves in both excess sodium hydroxide or ammonia to give a clear
nature. colourless solution.
ppt. = precipitate.
MISCELLANEOUS (i) add potassium (i) Pb2+(aq) +2I-(aq) ==>PbI2(s) lead(II) iodide ppt.
CATION TESTS: iodide solution =>
yellow precipitate
(i) Lead(II) ion
Metal Carbonates Sometimes heating copper(II) carbonate==> copper(II) oxide + carbon dioxide: CuCO3(s)
a metal carbonate ==> CuO(s) + CO2(g)
strongly to
decompose it [green] ==> [black] + [colourless gas, test with limewater, white
provides some precipitate]
clues to its
identity. Adding
zinc carbonate==> zinc oxide + carbon dioxide
acid => CO2 and
the colour of the
resulting solution ZnCO3(s) ==> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(eg blue Cu2+(aq),
may also provide [white] ==> [yellow hot, white cold] +[colourless gas, test with
clues. The metal limewater, white precipitate]
ion solution might
also give a flame
colour or a
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hydroxide
precipitate with
sodium hydroxide
eg copper.
ORGANIC TESTS
TEST FOR TEST OBSERVATIONS TEST CHEMISTRY
METHOD
ALKENE or bubble gas the orange/brown R2C=CR2 + Br2 ==> BrR2C-CR2Br
alkyne any other through, or add bromine, decolourises,
non-aromatic liquid to, a solution as a saturated RC CR + 2Br2 ==> Br2RC-CRBr2
unsaturated of bromine in colourless organic
hydrocarbons hexane or water bromo-compound is
R = H, alkyl or aryl
formed (saturated
alkanes give no fast
reaction with bromine)
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o The rate of diffusion increases with increase in temperature as the particles gain
kinetic energy and move faster.
o Other evidence for random particle movement:
When smoke particles are viewed under a microscope they appear to 'dance around'
when illuminated with a light beam at 90o to the viewing direction. This is because the
smoke particles show up by reflected light and 'dance' due to the millions of random hits
from the fast moving air molecules. This is called 'Brownian motion'. At any given
instant of time, the hits will not be even, so the smoke particle get a greater bashing in a
random direction.
If a long glass tube is filled at one with a plug of cotton wool soaked in conc.
hydrochloric acid, and a similar plug of conc. ammonia solution at the other end. If left
undisturbed and horizontal, despite the lack of tube movement (eg shake to mix), a
white cloud forms about 1/3rd along from the conc. acid tube end.
What happens is the colourless gases ammonia and hydrogen chloride diffuse
down the tube and react to form fine white crystals of the salt ammonium
chloride.
NH3(g) + HCl(g) ==> NH4Cl(s)
Note the rule: The smaller the molecular mass, the faster the molecules
move.
Therefore the smaller the molecular mass, the faster the gas diffuses.
eg Mr(NH3) = 14 + 1x3 = 17, moves faster than Mr(HCl) = 1 + 35.5 =
36.5
AND that's why they meet nearer the HCl end of the tube!
So the experiment is not only evidence for molecule movement, its
also evidence that different molecular masses move on at
different speeds.
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Changes of State
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Sublimation
Sublimation:
o This is when a solid, on heating, directly changes into a gas, AND the gas on cooling
re-forms a solid directly. They usually involve just a physical change BUT its not always
that simple!
Theory in terms of particles:
o When the solid is heated the particles vibrate with increasing force from the added thermal
energy.
If the particles have enough kinetic energy of vibration to partially overcome the particle-
particle attractive forces you would expect the solid to melt.
HOWEVER, if the particles at this point have enough energy at this point that would have
led to boiling, the liquid will NOT form and the solid turns directly into a gas.
Overall endothermic change, energy absorbed and 'taken in' to the system.
o On cooling, the particles move slower and have less kinetic energy.
Eventually, when the particle kinetic energy is low enough, it will allow the particle-
particle attractive forces to produce a liquid.
BUT the energy may be low enough to permit direct formation of the solid, ie the
particles do NOT have enough kinetic energy to maintain a liquid state!
Overall exothermic change, energy released and 'given out' to the
surroundings.
Examples:
1. Even at room temperature bottles of solid iodine show crystals forming at the top of the bottle
above the solid. The warmer the laboratory, the more crystals form when it cools down at night!
I2 (s) I2 (g) (physical change only)
2. The formation of a particular form of frost involves the direct freezing of water vapour (gas).
Frost can also evaporate directly back to water vapour (gas) and this happens in the 'dry'
extremely cold winters of the Gobi Desert.
H2O (s) H2O (g) (physical change only)
3. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) is formed on cooling the gas down to less than -78oC. On
warming it changes directly to a very cold gas!, condensing any water vapour in the air to a
'mist', hence its use in stage effects.
CO2 (s) CO2 (g) (physical change only)
4. On heating strongly in a test tube, the white solid ammonium chloride, decomposes into a
mixture of two colourless gases ammonia and hydrogen chloride. On cooling the reaction is
reversed and solid ammonium chloride reforms at the cooler top of the test tube.
Ammonium chloride + heat ammonia + hydrogen chloride
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g) (this involves both chemical and physical changes)
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Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture consisting of particles 0.1–2.0 nm in diameter.
Homogeneous mixtures having larger particles (2–500 nm) are classified as colloids.
Suspensions are mixtures with even larger particles, but they are not considered true
solutions because they separate upon standing.
For solutions in which a gas or solid is dissolved in a liquid, the dissolved substance is
called the solute and the liquid is called the solvent. When one liquid is dissolved in
another, the minor component is usually considered the solute.
Solution: a homogeneous mixture containing particles the size of a typical ion or covalent
molecule
Colloid: a homogeneous mixture containing particles with diameters in the range 2–500 nm
A supersaturated solution can form when more than the equilibrium amount of solute is
dissolved at an elevated temperature, and then the supersaturated solution is slowly cooled.
The amount of solute per unit solvent required to form a saturated solution is called the
solute's solubility. A substance's solubility is a characteristic of that substance. Figure 11.5
illustrates the solubilities of some solids, and their temperature dependence.
When two liquids are completely soluble in each other they are said to be miscible.
The effect of temperature on gas solubility is more predictable than solid solubility. Most
gases become less soluble in water as the temperature increases.
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Pressure has little effect on the solubility of liquids and solids. The solubility of gases is
strongly influenced by pressure
Saturated solution: a solution containing the maximum possible amount of dissolved solute at
equilibrium
Supersaturated solution: a solution containing a greater-than-equilibrium amount of solute
Solubility: the amount of a substance that dissolves in a given volume of solvent
Miscible: mutually soluble in all proportions
Henry's law: The solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given temperature is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas over the solution
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METALS
IMPORTANCE OF METALS
More then three quarters of elements in the periodic table are metals.
We cook food, heat the food on metals stoves.
We travel in metallic vehicals like car, airplanes, ships.
The concreate wall and roofs of houses are reinforced with metal rods.
Coins, taps, cutlary, pins, needles paper pins etc. are all made up of metals.
PROPERTY REASON
Metals are malleable and ductile i.e. they can be layers of metals can slide over each other.
drawn into sheets and wires
Metals usually have high melting points, high Strong metallic bond
boiling points and high densities
Calcium reacts readily with cold water and vigrously with hot water to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
Calcium + water ------------ Calcium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O (l) ------------- Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
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Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water but vigrously with steam to form salt and hydrogen gas.
Zinc do not react with cold water but reacts slowly with steam to form zinc oxide and hydrogen gas.
Iron do not react with cold water but rusting occur very slowly in the presence of oxygen. Red hot iron
reacts very slowly with steam to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
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Magnesium reacts very fastly to form magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid -------- Magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) ------------- MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Copper powder burns with dull red glow to form copper oxide. CuO
Iron powder or wire burns with a bright yellow flame to form iron oxide Fe3O4
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Magnesium burns with a bright white flame to produce white solid magnesium oxide. MgO
REACTIVITY SERIES
Metals can be arranged in order of their chemical reactivity. The reactivity series is based on the reaction
of metals with water or dilute hydrochloric acid. When metal recats with acid or water, the metal atom
lose electron to become ion.
The more readily a metal gives up electrons to form ions, the more reactive it is.
Corrode easily
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Hydrogen is sometimes placed in the reactivity series. Metals below hydrogen in the series do not react
with acids to produce hydrogen gas.
Zinc + copper (II) sulphate solution ----------- Copper + zinc sulphate solution.
Zinc displace copper from the copper sulphate solution because it is more reactive than copper and readily
give up electrons to form positive ions. The electrons are transferred from zinc atom to copper (II) ions.
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Other examples:
The less reactive the metal, the easier it is for hydrogen to take oxygen from its oxide. The oxides of vary
recative metals such as aluminium oxide and sodium oxide cannot be reduced to the metal by hydrogen.
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The more reactive the metal the more harder it for carbon to take oxygen from its oxide. Iron is more
reactive than copper, iron oxide and carbon must be heated very strongly for the reaction to take place.
Carbon is unable to take oxygen from the oxides of very reactive such as calcium and sodium.
A METAL ORE is a mineral or mixture of minerals from which economically viable amounts of metal
can be obtained. Two important ores to know:
Name of Mineral Chemical Name Formula Metal extracted Usual method of Extraction
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Introduction
The Earth's crust contains many different rocks. Rocks are a mixture of minerals and from some we
can make useful substances.
A mineral can be a solid metallic or non-metallic element or a compound found naturally in the
Earth's crust.
A metal ore is a mineral or mixture of minerals from which economically viable amounts of
metal can be extracted, i.e. its got to have enough of the metal, or one of its compounds, in it to be
worth digging out! Ores are often oxides, carbonates or sulphides. They are all finite resources so
we should use them wisely!
In order to extract a metal, the ore or compound of the metal must undergo a process called
reduction to free the metal (i.e. the positive metal ion gains negative electrons to form the
neutral metal atom, or the oxide loses oxygen, to form the free metallic atoms).
Generally speaking the method of extraction depends on the metals position in the reactivity
series.
The reactivity series of metals can be presented to include two non-metals, carbon and
hydrogen, to help predict which method could be used to extract the metal.
o lower Pt Au Ag Cu (H) Pb Sn Fe Zn (C) Al Mg Ca Na K higher in series
o RULE: Any element higher in the series can displace any other lower element
Metals above zinc and carbon in the reactivity series cannot usually be extracted with carbon or
carbon monoxide. They are usually extracted by electrolysis of the purified molten ore or other
suitable compound
o eg aluminium from molten aluminium oxide or sodium from molten sodium chloride.
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21.2 Metallurgy
Metallurgy is the combination of science and technology used to extract metals from their ores. Ores
are complex mixtures of metal-containing material and useless impurities called gangue. The steps
involved in extracting a metal include the following:
The metal may be mixed with other elements to modify its properties or to form an alloy, a metallic
solution of two or more elements
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Ores can also be concentrated by chemical means. In the Bayer process, the Al 2O3 in bauxite is
separated from Fe2O3 impurities by treating the ore with NaOH.
Roasting, or heating in air, is another chemical treatment used to convert minerals to compounds that
are more easily reduced to the metal.
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Reduction
The more active metals are obtained by reducing their ores with a chemical reducing agent. Zinc is
obtained by reducing ZnO with coke, a form of carbon.
Carbon cannot be used to reduce metals that form stable carbides, such as tungsten. Tungsten(VI) oxide
is reduced with hydrogen gas.
The most active metals cannot be reduced with chemical reducing agents, so these metals are produced
by electrolytic reduction,.
Refining
The metals obtained from reducing ores generally require purification. Some metals, including zinc, can
be purified by distillation. Nickel is purified using the Mond process, a chemical method in which
Ni(CO)4 is formed and then decomposed at a higher temperature. The equilibrium shift at the higher
temperature favors pure nickel.
Extraction
of Metal
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The cast iron or pig iron produced in a blast furnace must be purified. In the basic oxygen process,
molten iron from the blast furnace is mixed with pure oxygen gas in a furnace lined with basic
oxides. The impurities in the iron are oxidized and the acidic oxides react with CaO to yield a
molten slag. Phosphorus impurities react in this process to form a calcium phosphate slag.
Raw materials for the electrolysis process: The redox details of the electrode processes:
Bauxite ore of impure aluminium oxide At the negative (-) cathode, reduction
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[Al2O3 made up of Al3+ and O2- ions] occurs (electron gain) when the positive
Carbon (graphite) for the electrodes. aluminium ions are attracted to it. They gain
Cryolite reduces the melting point of the ore three electrons to change to neutral Al atoms.
and saves energy, because the ions must be
free to move to carry the current Al3+ + 3e- ==> Al
Electrolysis means using d.c. electrical
energy to bring about chemical changes At the positive (+) anode, oxidation takes
eg decomposition of a compound to place (electron loss) when the negative
form metal deposits or release gases. The oxide ions are attracted to it. They lose two
electrical energy splits the compound! electrons forming neutral oxygen molecules.
At the electrolyte connections called the
anode electrode (+, attracts - ions) and
2O2- ==> O2 + 4e-
the cathode electrode (-, attracts + ions).
An electrolyte is a conducting melt or
solution of freely moving ions which Note: Reduction and Oxidation always go
carry the charge of the electric current. together!
The overall electrolytic decomposition is ...
o aluminium oxide => aluminium +
oxygen
o 2Al2O3 ==> 4Al + 3O2
o and is a very endothermic process,
lots of electrical energy input!
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Titanium ore is mainly the oxide TiO 2, which is converted into titanium tetrachloride TiCl4
The chloride is then reacted with sodium or magnesium to form titanium metal and sodium
chloride or magnesium Chloride.
This reaction is carried out in an atmosphere of inert argon gas so non of the metals
involved becomes oxidised by atmospheric oxygen.
TiCl4 + 2Mg ==> Ti + 2MgCl2 or TiCl4 + 4Na ==> Ti + 4NaCl
These are examples of metal displacement reactions eg the less reactive titanium is
displaced by the more reactive sodium or magnesium.
Overall the titanium oxide ore is reduced to titanium metal (overall O loss, oxide => metal)
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Aluminium is a reactive metal but it is resistant to corrosion. This is because aluminium reacts
in air to form a layer of aluminium oxide which then protects the aluminium from further
attack.
o This is why it appears to be less reactive than its position in the reactivity series of
metals would predict.
For some uses of aluminium it is desirable to increase artificially the thickness of the
protective oxide layer in a process is called anodising.
o This involves removing the oxide layer by treating the aluminium sheet with sodium
hydroxide solution.
o The aluminium is then placed in dilute sulphuric acid and is made the positive electrode
(anode) used in the electrolysis of the acid.
o Oxygen forms on the surface of the aluminium and reacts with the aluminium metal to
form a thicker protective oxide layer.
Aluminium can be alloyed to make 'Duralumin' by adding copper (and smaller amounts
of magnesium, silicon and iron), to make a stronger alloy used in aircraft components (low
density = 'lighter'!), greenhouse and window frames (good anti-corrosion properties), overhead
power lines (quite a good conductor and 'light'), but steel strands are included to make the
'line' stronger and poorly electrical conducting ceramic materials are used to insulate the wires
from the pylons and the ground.
The properties of iron can be altered by adding small quantities of other metals or carbon to
make steel. Steels are alloys since they are mixtures of iron with other metals or with non-
metals like carbon or silicon.
Making Steel:
o (1) Molten iron from the blast furnace is mixed with recycled scrap iron
o (2) Then pure oxygen is passed into the mixture and the non-metal impurities such as
silicon or phosphorus are then converted into acidic oxides (oxidation process) ..
eg Si + O2 ==> SiO2, or 4P + 5O2 ==> P4O10
o (3) Calcium carbonate (a base) is then added to remove the acidic oxide impurities (in
an acid-base reaction). The salts produced by this reaction form a slag which can be
tapped off separately.
eg CaCO3 + SiO2 ==> CaSiO3 + CO2 (calcium silicate slag)
o Reactions (1)-(3) produce pure iron.
o Calculated quantities of carbon and/or other metallic elements such as titanium,
manganese or chromium are then added to make a wide range of steels with particular
properties.
o Because of the high temperatures the mixture is stirred by bubbling in
unreactive argon gas!
o Economics of recycling scrap steel or ion: Most steel consists of >25% recycled
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iron/steel and you do have the 'scrap' collection costs and problems with varying steel
composition* BUT you save enormously because there is no mining cost or overseas
transport costs AND less junk lying around! (NOTE: * some companies send their own
scrap to be mixed with the next batch of 'specialised' steel they order, this saves both
companies money!)
Different steels for different uses:
o High % carbon steel is strong but brittle.
o Low carbon steel or mild steel is softer and is easily shaped and pressed eg into a
motor car body.
o Stainless steel alloys contain chromium and nickel and are tougher and more
resistant to corrosion.
o Very strong steels can be made by alloying the iron with titanium or manganese
metal.
Steel can be galvanised by coating in zinc, this is physically done by dipping the object into a
bath of molten zinc. On removal and cooling a thin layer of zinc is left on. The zinc chemically
bonds to the iron via the free electrons of both metals - its all the same atoms to them! It can
also be done by electroplating.
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USES OF METALS
PROPERTIES THAT MAKE IT
METAL USES
SUITABLE
a) Car batteries.
a) Design of battery makes recharging
Lead
possible.
b) Solder (Pb/Sn) alloys
b) low melting point.
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\Aluminium does not oxidise (corrode) as quickly as its reactivity would suggest. Once a thin oxide
layer of Al2O3 has formed on the surface, it forms a barrier to oxygen and water and so prevents
further corrosion of the aluminium.
Aluminium is a useful structural metal. It can be made harder, stronger and stiffer by mixing it with small
amounts of other metals (e.g magnesium) to make alloys.
Copper and Lead are both used in roofing situations because neither is very reactive and the compounds
formed do not flake away as easily as rust does from iron. Lead corrodes to a white lead oxide or
carbonate and copper corrodes to form a basic green carbonate (combination of the hydroxide
Cu(OH)2 and carbonate CuCO3 eg seen as green roof on buildings).
Both metals have been used for piping but these days lead is considered too toxic and copper is
usually used as the stronger, but equally unreactive alloy with zinc, brass. Now of course, most piping is
flowing in the plastic direction which doesn't corrode at all!
The Group 1 Alkali Metals rapidly corrode in air and need to be stored under oil.
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Apart from their structural weakness they would hardly used for any outside purpose!
DONE
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The higher the metal in the series, the more reactive it is ie the faster, more vigorous and more exothermic
the reaction.
METAL in
decreasing Reactivity and Reactions
reactivity order
Caesium Burns vigorously with a blue flame when heated in air to form the
white powder caesium oxide.
4Cs(s) + O2(g) ==> 2Cs2O(s)
Cs
Because it is extremely reactive, it explodes with cold water
forming the alkali caesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
2Cs(s) + 2H2O(l) => 2CsOH(aq) + H2(g)
Caesium was first extracted in 1860 by electrolysis of the
molten chloride CsCl.
Rubidium Burns vigorously with a red flame when heated in air to form the
white powder rubidium oxide.
4Rb(s) + O2(g) ==> 2Rb2O(s)
Rb
Extremely reactive, can ignite in air, it explodes with cold water
forming the alkali rubidium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(l) => 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g)
Rubidium was first extracted in 1861 by electrolysis of the
molten chloride RbCl.
Potassium Burns vigorously with a lilac flame when heated in air to form the
white powder potassium oxide.
4K(s) + O2(g) ==> 2K2O(s)
K
The reaction of potassium with water - the reaction is the
same as for sodium (full description below) BUT it is faster and
more exothermic AND so the hydrogen is ignited to give a purple
or lilac flame. The hydrogen flame is coloured by the excitation of
potassium atoms in the very hot flame. The very rapid reaction
with cold water forms the alkali potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) => 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium was first extracted in 1807 by electrolysis of the
molten chloride KCl. [top]
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Sodium Burns vigorously with a yellow flame when heated in air to form
the white powder sodium oxide.
4Na(s) + O2(g) ==> 2Na2O(s) (also forms Na2O2)
Na
The reaction of sodium with water: the sodium melts to a
silvery ball and fizzes as it spins over the water. The rapid
exothermic reaction produces a colourless gas which gives a
squeaky pop! with a lit splint (hydrogen). Universal indicator will
turn from green to purple/violet as the strong alkali sodium
hydroxide is formed. The initially sodium floats because it is less
dense than water.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) => 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium was first extracted in 1807 by electrolysis of the molten
chloride NaCl
Lithium Burns vigorously with a red flame when heated in air to form the
white powder lithium oxide.
4Li(s) + O2(g) ==> 2Li2O(s)
Li
Quite a fast reaction with cold water forming the alkali lithium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas. For full description see sodium
above, but the reaction is not as fast.
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) => 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
Lithium was first extracted in 1821 by electrolysis of the molten
chloride LiCl.
Calcium Burns with a brick red flame when strongly heated in air to form
the white powder calcium oxide.
2Ca(s) + O2(g) ==> 2CaO(s)
Ca
Quite reactive with cold water forming the moderately soluble
alkali calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) => Ca(OH)2(aq/s) + H2(g)
Very reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless
soluble salt calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) => CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Not very reactive with dilute sulphuric acid because the colourless
calcium sulphate formed is not very soluble and coats the metal
inhibiting the reaction.
Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) => CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
Calcium was first extracted in 1808 by electrolysis of the molten
chloride CaCl2.
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Magnesium Burns with a bright white flame when strongly heated in air to
form a white powder of magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) ==> 2MgO(s)
Mg
Slow reaction with water forming the slightly soluble alkali
magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) => Mg(OH)2(aq/s) + H2(g)
With steam, the reaction is faster with heated magnesium and the
white powder magnesium oxide is formed with the hydrogen.
Magnesium will burn with a bright white flame in steam, if
previously ignited in air!
Mg(s) + H2O(g) => MgO(s) + H2(g)
In fact it will even burn in carbon dioxide forming black specks of
carbon!
2Mg(s) + CO2(g) ==> 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Very reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless
soluble salt magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) => MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Very reactive with dilute sulphuric acid forming colourless soluble
magnesium sulphate and hydrogen.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) => CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
Magnesium was first extracted in 1808 by electrolysis of the
molten chloride MgCl2.
Aluminium Surface goes white when strongly heated in air to form aluminium
oxide. Theoretically its quite a reactive metal but the oxide layer
as an inhibiting effect. This is why it appears to be less reactive
Al
than its position in the reactivity series of metals would predict.
o 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) ==> 2Al2O3(s)
Aluminium has no reaction with water or steam due to a
protective aluminium oxide layer of Al 2O3. [note: Chromium
behaves chemically in the same way, forming a protective layer of
chromium(III) oxide, Cr2O3, and so its anti-corrosion properties
are used in stainless steels and chromium plating]
The thermit reaction: However the true reactivity of aluminium
can be spectacularly seen when its grey powder is mixed with
brown iron(III) oxide powder. When the mixture is ignited with a
magnesium fuse (high activation energy!), it burns very
exothermically in a shower of sparks to leave a red hot blob of
iron and white aluminium oxide powder.
o aluminium + iron(III) oxide ==> iron + aluminium oxide
o 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) ==> Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s)
Slow reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid to form the colourless
soluble salt aluminium chloride and hydrogen gas.
o 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) => 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
The reaction with dilute sulphuric acid is extremely slow to form
colourless aluminium sulphate and hydrogen.
o 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) => Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Aluminium was first extracted in 1825 by electrolysis of its molten
oxide Al2O3.
(Carbon C, a non- Elements higher than carbon ie aluminium or more reactive, must be
extracted by electrolysis (or displacing it with an even more reactive
metal) metal). Metals below it, ie zinc or a less reactive, can be extracted by
reducing the hot metal oxide with carbon. [top]
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Zinc Surface goes white when strongly heated in air to form zinc oxide
(yellow when hot).
2Zn(s) + O2(g) ==> 2ZnO(s)
Zn
No reaction with cold water.
When the metal is heated in steam zinc oxide and hydrogen are
formed.
Zn(s) + H2O(g) => ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Quite reactive with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the colourless
soluble salt zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) => ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Quite reactive with dilute sulphuric acid forming the colourless
soluble salt zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(g) => ZnSO4(s) + H2(g)
(this reaction is catalysed by adding a trace of copper sulphate
solution)
Zinc can be extracted by reducing the hot metal oxide on heating
with carbon
2ZnO(s) + C(s) => 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
A zinc coating (galvanising) is used to protect iron from rusting.
The more reactive zinc oxidises 1st. Blocks of zinc attached to steel
are used as 'sacrificial corrosion'.
Zinc was known and used in India and China before 1500 so it
must have been extracted like copper or iron by carbon reduction
of the oxide, sulphide or carbonate. [top]
Iron Surface goes dark grey-black when strongly heated in air to form
a tri-iron tetroxide. When steel wool is heated in a bunsen flame it
burns with a shower of sparks - large surface area - increased rate
Fe
of reaction - so even moderately reactive iron has its moments!
3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) ==> Fe3O4(s)
No reaction with cold water (rusting is a joint reaction with
oxygen).
When the metal is heated in steam an iron oxide (unusual
formula) and hydrogen are formed. This oxide is 'technically'
diiron(III)iron(II) oxide!!!!
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) => Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Slow reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the soluble
pale green salt iron(II) chloride and hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) => FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Slow reaction with dilute sulphuric acid forming the soluble pale
green salt iron(II) sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + H2SO4(g) => FeSO4(s) + H2(g)
Iron can be extracted by reducing the hot metal oxide on heating
with carbon monoxide formed from carbon in the blast
furnace eg
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) => 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Fe3O4(s) + 4CO(g) => 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)
For the past 2500 years. iron has been extracted from pre-historic
times using charcoal (C). Known in Anglo-Saxon as 'iron' and in
Roman times in Latin as 'ferrum' hence the Fe symbol! [top]
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Tin Slow reaction when heated in air to form white tin(IV) oxide or tin
dioxide
Sn(s) + O2(g) ==> SnO2(s)
Sn
No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam.
Very slow reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid forming the
slightly soluble tin(II) chloride and hydrogen gas.
Sn(s) + 2HCl(aq) => SnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Very slow reaction with dilute sulphuric acid forming the colourless
slightly soluble tin(II) sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Sn(s) + H2SO4(g) => SnSO4(s) + H2(g)
Tin can be extracted from its oxide by heating with carbon. Tin
has been known from pre-historic times. Known in Anglo-Saxon as
'tin' and in Latin - 'stannum' hence the symbol Sn! [top]
Lead Slow reaction when heated in air to form red/yellow lead(II) oxide
and tri-lead tetroxide
2Pb(s) + O2(g) ==> 2PbO(s)
Pb
and 3Pb(s) + 2O2(g) ==> Pb3O4(s)
No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam.
Very slow and effectively no reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid
or dilute sulphuric acid.
Lead can be extracted from its oxide by heating with carbon.
Probably used from pre-historic times and known in Anglo-Saxon
as 'lead' and in Latin 'plumbum' hence the symbol Pb! [top]
Hydrogen H Non of the metals below hydrogen can react with acids to form hydrogen
gas. They are least easily corroded metals and partly accounts for their
value and uses in jewellery, electrical contacts etc.[top]
non-metal
Copper Surface blackens when strongly heated in air to form copper(II)
oxide.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) ==> 2CuO(s)
Cu
No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam.
No reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.
Copper can be extracted by reducing the hot black metal oxide
on heating with carbon
2CuO(s) + C(s) => 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
The elemental metal can be found 'native' and was probably first
used over 6000 years ago in Turkey by literally beating it out of
rocks and into shape (malleable at room temperature!) - no high
temperature technology used or available. It has been extracted
by carbon reduction of a copper mineral for at least 3000 years.
Latin 'cuprum' meaning Cyprus?, anyway that's why its symbol is
Cu! [top]
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No reaction when heated in air.
Ag
it was 'siolfur' meaning 'silver in nature' and in Latin 'argentum'
hence its symbol Ag. [top]
Gold
No reaction when heated in air
No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam.
No reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.
Au
Gold can be readily extracted from its ores easily by reduction BUT
it is usually found 'native' as the element because it is so
unreactive and has been used from pre-historic times in jewellery
for at least 6000 years. Known in Anglo-Saxon as 'gold'. Gold is
rather a soft metal and is 'hardened' by alloying with other metals
- pure gold is 24 carat - 22, 18, 15, 12 and 9 carat gold are
legalised, meaning it has that carat number/24 as parts of gold as
a measure of its purity and value! [top]
Platinum
No reaction when heated in air.
No reaction with cold water or when heated in steam.
No reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.
Pt
It seems ironic that despite its apparent lack of 'reactivity' it is a
very potent catalyst eg catalytic converter in cars.
Spanish 'platina' meant 'silvery in nature'. Like gold, it is a very
rare metal but was known by pre-Columbian South American
Indians and brought to Europe in about 1750. It is used in
expensive jewellery, laboratory ware (eg inert crucible container)
and catalytic converters in car exhausts. [top]
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Fe(OH)3
o Rusting is an oxidation because it involves iron
gaining oxygen (Fe ==> Fe2O3) or iron atoms losing
electrons (Fe - 3e- ==> Fe3+.
o See more examples of oxidation and reduction below.
The rusting of iron is a major problem in its use as a structural
material.
Iron and steel (alloy of iron) are most easily protected by paint
which provides a barrier between the metal and air/water. Moving
parts on machines can be protected by a water repellent oil or grease layer.
This 'rusting' corrosion can be prevented by connecting iron to a more reactive metal (e.g. zinc or
magnesium). This is referred to as sacrificial protection or sacrificial corrosion, because the
more reactive protecting metal is preferentially oxidised away, leaving the protected metal intact.
The picture illustrates what might be seen after a few days.* Iron or steel can also be protected by
mixing in other metals (e.g. chromium) to make non-rusting alloys called stainless steel. The
chromium, like aluminium, forms a protective oxide layer.
* Theoretically, any iron ions formed by oxidation would be reduced by electrons from the oxidation
of the more reactive 'sacrificed' metal.
Coating iron or steel with a thin zinc layer is called 'galvanising'. The layer is produced by
electrolytic deposition by making the iron/steel the negative cathode or by dipping the iron/steel
object in molten zinc (more details). The zinc preferentially corrodes or oxidises to form a zinc oxide
layer that doesn't flake off like iron oxide rust does. Also, if the surface is scratched, the exposed
zinc again corrodes before the iron and continues to protect it.
Steel tin cans are protected by relatively unreacted tin and works well as long as the thin tin layer is
complete. HOWEVER, if a less reactive metal is connected to the iron, it then the iron rusts
preferentially (try scratching a 'tin' can and leave out in the rain and note the corrosion by the
scratch!)
Aluminium does not oxidise (corrode) as quickly as its reactivity would suggest. Once a thin oxide
layer of Al2O3 has formed on the surface, it forms a barrier to oxygen and water and so
prevents further corrosion of the aluminium.
Aluminium is a useful structural metal. It can be made harder, stronger and stiffer by mixing it with
small amounts of other metals (e.g magnesium) to make alloys.
Copper and Lead are both used in roofing situations because neither is very reactive and the
compounds formed do not flake away as easily as rust does from iron. Lead corrodes to a white lead
oxide or carbonate and copper corrodes to form a basic green carbonate (combination of the
hydroxide Cu(OH)2 and carbonate CuCO3 eg seen as green roof on buildings).
Both metals have been used for piping but these days lead is considered too toxic and copper
is usually used as the stronger, but equally unreactive alloy with zinc, brass. Now of course, most
piping is flowing in the plastic direction which doesn't corrode at all!
The Group 1 Alkali Metals rapidly corrode in air and need to be stored under oil.
Apart from their structural weakness they would hardly used for any outside purpose!
DONE
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I hope you aren't going to tear open the package and count the nails. We agree that
The coefficients of a balanced chemical equation indicate the number of moles of each substance
in the
reaction. Thus, at the level of moles:
One mole of propane reacts with five moles of oxygen to form three moles of carbon dioxide and
four moles of water.
Avogadro's number is an accident of nature. It is the number of particles that delivers a mole of
a substance. Avogadro's number = 6.022 x 1023.
The reason why the value is an accident of nature is that the mole is tied to the gram mass
unit.
The gram is a convenient mass unit because it matches human sizes. If we were a thousand times
greater in size ( like Paul Bunyan) we would find it handy to use kilogram amounts. This means the
kilogram mole would be convenient. The number of particles handled in a kilogram mole is 1000
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times greater. The kilo Avogadro number for the count of particles in a kilomole is 6.022 x 1026.
If humans were tiny creatures (like Lilliputians) only 1/1000 our present size, milligrams would be
more convenient. This means the milligram mole would be more useful. The number of particles
handled in a milligram mole (millimole) would be 1/1000 times smaller. The milli Avogadro
number for the count of particles in a millimole is 6.022 x 1020.
Because it is not practical to count individual molecules, chemists use ratios of the masses of
molecules to carry out reactions. Mass ratios are determined by using the molecular masses of the
substances involved in a reaction.
Molecular mass provides the mass ratio we need for carrying out reactions. The mass ratio of one
HCl molecule to one ethylene molecule is 36.5 to 28 in the following equation.
More useful, however, is the fact that the mass ratio in grams is also 36.5 to 28.0. If we were to
combine 36.5 g HCl with 28 g ethylene in the laboratory, they would react in a 1:1 molecular ratio.
The molar mass of carbon is defined as the mass in grams that is numerically equal to the average
atomic weight. This means
This is the mass of carbon that contains 6.022 x 1023 carbon atoms. Avogadro's number is 6.022 x
1023 particles.
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The formula weight for water = weight from hydrogen + weight from oxygen
Example 1.
What is the molar mass for sulfur dioxide, SO2 (g), a gas used in
bleaching and disinfection processes.
1. Look up the atomic weight for each of the elements in the formula.
1 sulfur atom = 32 1 oxygen atom = 16
2. Count the atoms of each element in the formula unit. .
one sulfur atom ; two oxygen atoms
3. The formula weight = weight from sulfur + weight from oxygen
4. The formula weight = 1 sulfur atom x (32 ) + 2 oxygen atoms x (16 )
5. The formula weight SO2 = 32 + 32. = 64
Example 2: The formula for methane the major component in natural gas is CH4.
The formula weight for methane = weight from hydrogen + weight from carbon
The formula weight = weight from hydrogen + weight from carbon + weight from chlorine
The formula weight = 5 H atoms x 1.0 + 2 C atom x 12.0 + 1 Cl atom x 35.5 = 64.5
The molar mass for ethyl chloride = 64.5 grams
Mole, Molar Mass and Mass Conversions
Example.
How many grams of hydrogen are needed to give 3. moles of hydrogen?
1. Calculate the molar mass for hydrogen. Look up the atomic weight/mass in the periodic table
The molar mass for hydrogen is 1 mole H2 = 2 grams H2
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The practical way is to multiply the molar mass by the number of moles. This converts
mole to grams
(1000 grams H2O )(1 mole H2O/ 18. grams H2O) = 55.55 moles H2O
Example.
How many moles of sulfur dioxide, SO2 (g), are in 2000 grams of the
gas?
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4. Convert 2000 grams of SO2 to moles. The "conversion factor" is the molar mass.
(2000 grams SO2 )(1 mole SO2 /64. grams SO2 ) = 31.25 moles SO2,
The coefficients in the balanced equation tell the moles of each substance involved in
the equation
C : O : CO
2moles : 1 mole : 2moles
The reaction between nitrogen and oxygen to produce nitrogen dioxide is analyzed
here.
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Exercise: What is the mol ratio for nitrogen to oxygen? Answer: 1 mole N2 : 2 moles O2
Example:
How many grams of carbon are required to react completely with 100 g Fe2O3?
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Step 1: Write a balanced chemical equation (or check to see that a given equation is balanced). In this
case, a balanced chemical equation was given. Organize the information in the problem. It's often
helpful to write the amounts given underneath the balanced chemical equation.
100 g ?g
Step 2: Convert grams of a given substance to moles. Remember that substances react in terms of their
mole ratios, not their mass ratios. To convert grams of Fe2O3 to moles, we need to know the molar mass
of this compound.
= 160 g/mol
Step 3: Use coefficients in the balanced chemical equation to find the mole ratio. Relate moles of what
you were given to moles of what you are determining using the mole ratio.
Step 4: Convert moles to grams using molar mass as a conversion factor. It's always a good idea to
check to make sure you have answered the question you were asked. Here you were asked to calculate
grams of carbon. Another step or two would be necessary if you had been asked to report your answer in
some other unit, such as kg.
Example:
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reactants involved.
According to the stoichiometry of the balanced equation, the mole ratio should be
We see that there is not enough NO2, and thus NO2 is the limiting reactant. H2O is the excess reactant.
Once the limiting reactant is consumed, no additional product can be formed. We therefore use the
limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product.
All of the limiting reactant is consumed, so no NO2 remains. Stoichiometry will allow us to calculate the
amount of H2O remaining by first determining how much H2O reacts.
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Example: What is the theoretical yield of Al2S3 when 10.0 g of aluminum is reacted with excess
sulfur according to the equation below?
Next, we relate moles of aluminum to moles of product using the stoichiometric coefficients as a
mole ratio:
Example: A student performing the reaction above collected 18.7 g Al2S3. What is her percent
yield?
Percent Yield
The percent yield is defined as
The predicted yield is determined by the masses used in a reaction and the mole ratios in the
balanced equation. This predicted yield is the "ideal". It is not always possible to get this amount
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of product. Reactions are not always simple. There often are competing reactions. For example, if
you burn carbon in air you can get carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide formed. The two
reactions occur simultaneously. Some carbon atoms end up in CO and others end up in CO2
Example:
What is the percent yield for a reaction if you predicted the formation of 21. grams of
C6H12 and actually recovered only 3.8 grams?
1. Recall
definition of
percent yield.
Example:
A reaction between solid sulfur and oxygen produces sulfur dioxide.
The reaction started with 384 grams of S6 (s). Assume an unlimited supply of
oxygen. What is the predicted yield and the percent yield if only 680 grams of
sulfur dioxide are produced?
1 S6 (s) 6 O2 (g) 6 SO2 (g)
Step 1 : Calculate the molar masses for S6 (s) and SO2(g). The oxygen has no effect on the
answer because there is more than you need.
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moles S6 (s) = [384 g S6 (s)][ 1 mole S6 (s)/ 192 g S6 (s)] = 2 moles S6 (s)
Step 4: Calculate the moles of SO2(g) expected using the mole ratio 6 SO2(g) / 1 S6 (s)
Step 5: Calculate the grams of SO2(g) predicted using 1 mole SO2(g) = 64 grams SO2(g)
grams SO2(g) = 12 moles SO2(g)[64 grams SO2(g)/1 mole SO2(g)] = 768 g SO2(g)
Step 6: Calculate the percent yield using the definition
Percent yield = 100[actual yield/ predicted yield] = 100[680 grams SO2(g)/ 768 g SO2(g)]= 89%
Many chemical reactions occur in solution. In order to make stoichiometric calculations for these
reactions, we need to be able to express the concentration of reactants in solution. One of the most useful
concentration units is moles/dm3 (molarity abbreviated M). Using moles/dm3 as a conversion factor is
quite useful.
In the laboratory, solutions are prepared according to several steps. Let's prepare 250 mL of a 0.100 M
solution of NaCl. (Unless otherwise noted, solutions are aqueous and water is the solvent.)
First, we have to do a calculation. We need to know how many grams of NaCl to weigh.
Next, we weigh this amount on a balance and transfer the solid to a 250 mL volumetric flask—a very
precise piece of glassware designed to contain only a specific volume of liquid.
Finally, we add our solvent—in this case, water—to the flask. First, we add a small amount to dissolve
the solute. Then we add water up to the calibration mark on the flask and mix well.
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Solution Stoichiometry
Moles/dm3 serves as a useful link between the volume of a solution and the number of moles of a solute.
The flow diagram below summarizes the steps in stoichiometry calcuations involving solutions.
Example:
How many mL of a 0.90 M solution of HCl is
required to react with 4.16 g CaCO3, according
to the equation below?
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq)-------CaCl2(aq) +
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
In this problem, we are given the
concentration of the HCl solution. We are
given a mass in grams of one of the reactants.
So our first step is to convert mass to moles.
Now we can convert moles of HCl to volume of HCl using the moles/dm3.
8.31 x 10-2 mol HCl (1 dm3 solution / 0.90 mol HCl) = 9.23 x 10-2 L HCl solution
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The Rates of
Chemical Reactions
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The rate of a reaction that produces a gas can also be measured by following the mass
loss as the gas is formed and escapes from the reaction flask.
o The method is ok for reactions producing carbon dioxide or oxygen,
o but not very accurate for reactions giving hydrogen (low mass loss).
When sodium thiosulphate reacts with an acid, a yellow precipitate of sulphur is formed.
o To follow this reaction you can measure how long it takes for a certain amount of
sulphur to form.
o You do this by observing the reaction down through a conical flask, viewing a
black cross on white paper (see diagram below).
o The X is eventually obscured by the sulphur precipitate and the time noted.
o sodium thiosulphate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + sulfur dioxide +
water + sulphur
o Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ==> 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(aq) + H2O(l) + S(s)
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By using the same flask and paper X you can obtain a relative measure of the speed of
the reaction in forming the same amount of sulphur.
The speed or rate of reaction can expressed as 'x amount of sulphur'/time, so the rate is
proportional to 1/time for a given set
o You can investigate the effects of
(a) the hydrochloric acid or sodium thiosulphate concentration
(b) the temperature of the reactants.
Increasing the concentration of acid molecules increases the frequency or chance
at which they hit the surface of marble chips to dissolve them (slower faster).
Increasing the concentration of reactant A or B will increase the chance or
frequency of collision between them and increase the speed of product formation
(slower faster).
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Most molecular collisions do not result in chemical change.
Before any change takes place on collision, the colliding molecules must have a minimum
kinetic energy called the Activation Energy shown on the energy level diagrams below.
o Going up and to top 'hump' represents bond breaking on reacting particle
collision.
The arrow up represents this minimum energy needed to break bonds to
initiate the reaction.
o Going down the other side represents the new bonds formed in the reaction
products.
It does not matter whether the reaction is an exothermic or an endothermic energy
change.
Now when heated molecules have a greater kinetic energy, a greater proportion of them
have the required activation energy to react.
The increased chance of 'fruitful' higher energy collisions greatly increases the speed of
the reaction.
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energy
The green chlorophyll molecules absorb the photon energy packets and
initiate the chemical changes shown above.
o Photochemical Smog:
This is very complex chemistry involving hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
ozone, nitrogen oxides etc.
Many of the reactions to produce harmful chemicals are catalysed by light
energy.
More examples of interpreting graphical results (see two other graphs and notes)
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W might represent taking double the quantity of reactants to forming twice as much gas eg same volume
of reactant solution but doubling the concentration, so producing twice as much gas with initially double
the speed (gradient).
DONE
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Introduction to electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of electrically inducing chemical changes in a conducting melt or
solution eg splitting an ionic compound into the metal and
non-metal.
Any molten or dissolved material in which the liquid contains free moving ions is called
the electrolye. Compounds that dissociate to a large extent (70 to 99%) into ions when dissolved in
water are classified as strong electrolytes. Compounds that dissociate to a small extent are termed weak
electrolytes.
Ions are charged particles eg Na+ sodium ion, or Cl- chloride ion, and
their movement or flow constitutes an electric current, because a current is
moving charged particles.
What does the complete electrical circuit consist of?
There are two ion currents in the electrolyte flowing in opposite directions
+
positive cations eg Na attracted to the negative cathode
electrode,
-
and negative anions eg Cl attracted to the positive anode
electrode,
remember no electrons, they flow in metal wires or carbon
(graphite)!
The circuit of 'charge flow' is completed by the electrons moving
around the external circuit eg copper wire, metal or graphite
electrode, from the positive to the negative electrode
The molten or dissolved materials are usually acids, alkalis or salts and
their electrical conduction is usually accompanied by chemical changes
eg decomposition.
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The chemical changes occur at the electrodes which connect the electrolyte liquid
containing ions with the external d.c. electrical supply.
Liquids that conduct must contain freely moving ions to carry the current and
complete the circuit.
o You can't do electrolysis with an ionic solid!, the ions are too tightly held by
chemical bonds and can't flow from their ordered situation!
o When an ionically bonded substances are melted or dissolved in water the
ions are free to move about.
However some covalent substances dissolve in water and form ions.
eg hydrogen chloride HCl, dissolves in water to form 'ionic'
hydrochloric acid H+Cl-(aq)
The solution or melt of ions is called the electrolyte which forms part of the circuit. The circuit is
completed by eg the external copper wiring and the (usually) inert electrodes like graphite (form
of carbon) or platinum AND electrolysis can only happen when the current is switched on and the
circuit complete.
ELECTROLYSIS SPLITS a COMPOUND:
o When substances which are made of ions are dissolved in water, or melted
material, they can be broken down (decomposed) into simpler substances by
passing an electric current through them.
o This process is called electrolysis.
o Since it requires an 'input' of energy, it is an endothermic process.
During electrolysis in the electrolyte (solution or melt of free moving ions) ...
o positive metal or hydrogen ions move to the negative electrode (cations
attracted to cathode), eg in the diagram, sodium ions Na+ , move to the -ve
electrode,
o and negatively charged ions
move to the positive electrode
(anions attracted to anode), eg
in the diagram, chloride ions Cl-,
move to the +ve electrode.
During electrolysis, gases may be given
off, or metals dissolve or are
deposited at the electrodes.
o Metals and hydrogen are formed
at the negative electrode from
positive ions by electron gain (reduction), eg in molten sodium chloride
+ -
sodium ions change to silvery grey liquid sodium, Na + e ==> Na
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o and non-metals eg oxygen, chlorine, bromine etc. are formed from negative
ions changing on the positive electrode by electron loss (oxidation), eg in
molten sodium chloride
- -
chloride ions change to green chlorine gas, 2Cl -2e ==> Cl2.
In a chemical reaction, if an oxidation occurs, a reduction must also occur too (and
vice versa) so these reactions 'overall' are called redox changes.
o You need to be able to complete and balance electrode equations or recognise them and
derive an overall equation for the electrolysis.
Pb2+ + 2 e ----------------- Pb
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Electrolysis of Molten Bauxite
Raw materials for the electrolysis process: The redox details of the electrode processes:
Bauxite ore of impure aluminium oxide At the negative (-) cathode, reduction
[Al2O3 made up of Al3+ and O2- ions] occurs (electron gain) when the positive
Carbon (graphite) for the electrodes. aluminium ions are attracted to it. They
Cryolite reduces the melting point of gain three electrons to change to neutral Al
the ore and saves energy, because the atoms.
ions must be free to move to carry
the current Al3+ + 3e- ==> Al
Electrolysis means using d.c.
electrical energy to bring about At the positive (+) anode, oxidation takes
chemical changes eg place (electron loss) when the negative
decomposition of a compound to oxide ions are attracted to it. They lose two
form metal deposits or release gases. electrons forming neutral oxygen molecules.
The electrical energy splits the
compound!
2O2- ==> O2 + 4e-
At the electrolyte connections called
the anode electrode (+, attracts -
ions) and the cathode electrode (-, Note: Reduction and Oxidation always go
attracts + ions). An electrolyte is a together!
conducting melt or solution of The overall electrolytic decomposition is
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freely moving ions which carry the ...
charge of the electric current. o aluminium oxide => aluminium
+ oxygen
o 2Al2O3 ==> 4Al + 3O2
o and is a very endothermic process,
lots of electrical energy input!
ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTIONS
Electrolysis of Brine
Sodium chloride solution gives equal volumes of hydrogen gas (-) and
green chlorine gas (+) with sodium hydroxide left in solution. However in
dilute solution, oxygen gas as well as chlorine gas is produced.
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Reaction at cathode ( negative electrode)
Sodium chloride + Water -- Hydrogen gas + Chlorine gas + Sodium hydroxide
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Chlorine gas liberated at anode.
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Copper(II) sulphate with copper electrodes, the copper deposits at cathode and the copper dissolves from
anode. The blue colour of the Cu2+ ions stays constant because Cu deposited = Cu dissolved. Both involve a 2
electron transfer so it means mass of Cu deposited = mass of Cu dissolving.
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K+ Cl- Chlorine
Na+ Br- Bromine
Ca2+ Hydrogen gas from I- Iodine
Mg2+
Al3+ water
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ELECTROPLATING
The coating of a metal object with another
metal object is called Electroplating. It is
carried out in a cell called plating bath. It
contains an electrolyte. For silver plating
electrolyte is a solution of silver salt. The
article to be plated is made the cathode in the
cell so that metal ions move to it when current
is switched on.
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o(ii) the 'half-cell' voltages quoted in the diagram are measured against the
H+(aq)/H2(g) system which is given the standard potential of zero volts.
Cells or batteries are useful and convenient portable sources of energy but they are expensive
compared to what you pay for 'mains' electricity.
5. Fuel Cells
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current.
Hydrogen's potential use in fuel and energy applications includes powering
vehicles, running turbines or fuel cells to produce electricity, and
generating heat and electricity for buildings and very convenient for
remote and compact situations like the space shuttle.
When hydrogen is the fuel, the product of its oxidation is water, so this is
potentially a clean non-polluting and non-greenhouse gas? fuel.
Most fuel cells use hydrogen, but alcohols and hydrocarbons can be used.
A fuel cell works like a battery but does not run down or need recharging
as long as the 'fuel' supply is there.
It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied.
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together in series to give a bigger working voltage.
Note on reverse action:
o If there is spare electricity from another source available, you can
run the fuel cell in reverse and electrolyse the water to make
hydrogen and oxygen (acting as an electrolyser).
o The two gases are stored, and when electricity or heat needed, the
fuel cell can then be re-run using the stored gaseous fuel.
o this is called a regenerative fuel cell system.
o You can use solar energy from external panels on the space shuttle
to do this, and use the fuel when in the 'darkness of night'.
summary of hydrogen-
equation
oxygen fuel cell
2H2(g) ==> 4H+(aq) + 4e- (at -ve
1 oxidation
anode electrode*)
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- ==>
2
2H2O(l) (at +ve cathode
reduction
electrode*)
3=1+2 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l)
DONE
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o BASES eg oxides and hydroxides are substances that react and neutralise
acids to form salts and water. Bases which are soluble in water are
called alkalis.
Acids
Some common acids are listed below:
Bases
Most bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals. Not all bases fit into these categories,
however (e.g. ammonia). Some examples of bases are shown below:
Reactions of Acids
With metals
Metals above copper in the reactivity series will react with acids, giving off hydrogen
gas. The metal dissolves, forming a salt.
This is why acids corrode metals, and must be stored in glass containers.
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Neutralisation
Acids are neutralised by bases. If you have indigestion (too much acid in the stomach),
you may take a tablet containing a base (e.g. magnesia, MgO). A farmer may spread lime
(calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) on fields to make the soil less acidic.
To understand why water is formed, we must consider what happens to the ions that are
present in the reacting solutions:
The H+ ions from the acid combine with the OH- ions from the alkali – we can show this
by writing a simple ionic equation:
Water is formed. So if equal amounts of acid and alkali are mixed, the resulting solution
will be neutral.
The Na+ and Cl- ions do not take part in the neutralisation reaction, they just remain in
solution - they are spectator ions. It is unnecessary to include them in the ionic equation.
When an acid and a base are mixed in stoichiometric proportions, their acidic and
basic properties disappear as the result of a neutralization reaction.
Because the salts that form in neutralization reaction are generally strong electrolytes,
we can write the neutralization reaction as an ionic equation.
When the spectator ions are removed, the net ionic equation is revealed.
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This net ionic equation is the same for the neutralization reaction of any strong acid
and strong base.
For the reaction of a weak acid with a strong base, a similar neutralization occurs.
Consider the neutralization of HF with KOH.
Formation of H30+ion
The hydrogen ion H+(aq) does not exist as such in aqueous solutions. Hydrogen ions
combine with water molecules to give a more stable species, the hydronium ion H3O+,
as demonstrated in the following equation:
Acids can contain different numbers of acidic hydrogens, and can yield different numbers
of H3O+ ions in solution.
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carbon monoxide (note that CO2 carbon dioxide is weakly acidic) and NO
nitrogen monoxide (note that NO2 nitrogen dioxide is strongly acidic in
water). There is no way of simply predicting this kind of behaviour from
periodic table patterns!
Salts
We have seen that when an acid reacts with a base, a salt is formed:
Here sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) is the salt formed. Salts are ionic compounds.
The metal ion is provided by the base (in this case sodium ions, Na+).
The non-metal ion is provided by the acid (in this case sulphate ions, SO42-).
Note: Ammonia (NH3) is an unusual base - it does not contain a metal. It forms
ammonium salts, containing the ammonium ion, NH4+.
Soluble Salts
All common potassium, sodium and ammonium salts
All nitrates
All common ethanoates
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Apparatus used: (1) balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and glass stirring rod; (2)
beaker/rod, bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (3) filter funnel and filter paper, evaporating
(crystallising) dish; (4) evaporating (crystallising) dish. (ii) A measuring cylinder is adequate for
measuring the acid volume, you do not need the accuracy of a pipette or burette required in
method (a).
Useful for making salts of less reactive metals, e.g. lead, copper.
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Useful particularly for making salts of more reactive metals, e.g. calcium, sodium.
e.g. calcium carbonate + nitric acid calcium nitrate + water + carbon dioxide
Add excess metal carbonate to acid. Wait until no more CO2 is evolved.
Filter to remove excess carbonate, then continue as in method 1…
(1) A known volume of acid is pipetted into a conical flask and universal indicator added. The
acid is titrated with the alkali in the burette
(3). The volume of alkali needed for neutralisation is then noted, this is called the
endpoint. (1-3) are repeated with both known volumes mixed together BUT without the
contaminating indicator.
(4) The solution is transferred to an evaporating dish and heated to partially evaporate the
water.
(6) The residual liquid can be decanted away and the crystals can be carefully collected and
dried by 'dabbing' with a filter paper OR the crystals can be collected by filtration (below) and
dried (as above).
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Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation. This involves mixing solutions of two
soluble salts that between them contain the ions that make up the insoluble salt. Here is
an example:
When the two solutions are mixed, a white solid precipitate of barium sulphate is
formed.
Ba2+ Mg2+ 1. At the start, the ions of each soluble salt move
Cl- about freely in solution, in their separate containers.
Cl- SO42-
Ba2+ Cl- 2. After mixing, the ions of the two solutions are free to
Cl- collide with each other, so new combinations of ions are
possible.
Mg2+
SO42-
precipitate of
solid BaSO4
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Notice this equation does not include the spectator ions, only the ions that combine to
form the precipitate.
Once the reaction is complete, the precipitate can be filtered off, washed with distilled
water and dried.
This method can also be used to prepare many insoluble metal hydroxides and
carbonates.
The ionic equation for this reaction, which shows the formation of the precipitate whilst
missing out the spectator ions is as follows:
Types of Salts
Normal Salts:
Normal salts are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in the acid have been
completely replaced by metallic ions.
Acid salts:
Acid salts are formed when replaceable hydrogen ions in acids are only partially replaced
by a metal. Acid salts are produced only by acids containing more then one replaceable
hydrogen ion. Therefore an acid with two replaceable ions e.g. H2SO4 will form only one
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acid salt, while acid with three replaceable hydrogen ions e.g. H3PO4 will form two
different acid salts.
An acid salt will turn blue litmus red. In the presence of excess metallic ions an acid salt
will be converted into a normal salt as its replaceable hydrogen ions become replaced.
Basic Salts:
Basic salts contain the hydroxide ion, OH-. They are formed when there is insufficient
supply of acid for the complete neutralization of the base. A basic salt will turn red litmus
blue and will react with excess acid to form normal salt.
The pH scale is a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
To find the pH of a solution an indicator is used like Universal Indicator. An indicator is a
substance or mixture of substances that when added to the solution gives different colours
depending on the pH of the solution. Universal indicator is a very handy indicator for
showing whether the solution is acid, neutral or alkaline and gives the pH to the
nearest pH unit.
Water is a neutral liquid with a pH of 7 (green). When a substance dissolves in water it
forms an aqueous (aq) solution that may be acidic, neutral or alkaline.
Acidic solutions have a pH of less than 7, and the lower the number, the stronger the
acid is. The colour can range from orange-yellow (pH 3-6) for partially ionised weak acids
like ethanoic acid (vinegar) to carbonated water. Strong acids like hydrochloric, sulphuric
and nitric are fully ionised and give a pH 1 or less! and a red colour with universal
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INDICATORS.
Indicators are the substances that have different colors in acidic and in
alkaline solution. Some important indicators are given below
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the ammonium
the alkaline soluble base ammonia, NH3, no
NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3 ion in the salts
stable oxide or hydroxide
from ammonia,
NH4+
2a. magnesium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> magnesium chloride + water 2b.
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
6a. calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> calcium chloride + water + carbon
dioxide
7a. sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water + carbon
dioxide
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IONIC EQUATIONS
Aqueous Reactions and Net Ionic Equations
The equations written up to this point have been molecular equations. All substances have been
written using their full chemical formulas as if they were molecules. Because we now know that
strong electrolytes dissociate in water to their component ions, it is more accurate to write an ionic
equation in which all of the ionic species are shown.
In many reactions only certain ions change their 'chemical state' but other ions remain in
exactly the same original physical and chemical state.
The ions that do not change are called 'spectator ions'.
The ionic equation represents the 'actual' chemical change and omits the spectator ions.
2.Rewrite the equation showing the ions that form in solution when each soluble electrolyte
dissociates into its component ions. Only dissolved strong electrolytes are written in ionic
form.
3.Identify and cancel the spectator ions that occur unchanged on both sides of the equation.
When reactions between ions occur, at least one kind of ion is removed from the "field of action".
Simply put, its concentration decreases as the reaction proceeds.
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When writing these equations, do so to answer the following three (3) questions:
Examples
a) KCl + NaNO3 NR
Since the hydrogen ion and the nitrate ion are spectators, the net ionic reaction is the result.
(1) Acid-base reactions: Acids can be defined as proton donors. A base can be defined as
a proton acceptor.
o eg any acid-alkali neutralisation involves the hydroxide ion is (base) and this accepts a
proton from an acid.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) which can be re-written as
H+Cl-(aq) + Na+OH-(aq) ==> Na+Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ==> H2O(l)
the spectator ions are Cl- and Na+
(2) Insoluble salt formation: An insoluble salt is made by mixing two solutions of soluble
compounds to form the insoluble compound in a process called 'precipitation'.
o (a) Silver chloride is made by mixing solutions of solutions of silver nitrate and sodium
chloride.
silver nitrate + sodium chloride ==> silver chloride + sodium nitrate
Ag+NO3-(aq) + Na+Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + Na+NO3-(aq)
the ionic equation is: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) ==> AgCl(s)
the spectator ions are NO3- and Na+
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o Lead(II) iodide can be made by mixing lead(II) nitrate solution with potassium iodide
solution.
lead(II) nitrate + potassium iodide ==> lead(II) iodide + potassium nitrate
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) ==> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
the ionic equation is: Pbg2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) ==> PbI2(s)
the spectator ions are NO3- and K+
o (c) Calcium carbonate forms on eg mixing calcium chloride and sodium carbonate
solutions
calcium chloride + sodium carbonate ==> calcium carbonate + sodium chloride
CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) ==> CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
ionically: Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) ==> CaCO3(s)
the spectator ions are Cl- and Na+
o (d) Barium sulphate forms on mixing eg barium chloride and dilute sulphuric acid
barium chloride + sulphuric acid ==> barium sulphate + hydrochloric acid
BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)
ionically: Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)
the spectator ions are CO32- and H+
(3) Redox reaction analysis:
o (a) magnesium + iron(II) sulphate ==> magnesium sulphate + iron
Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq) => MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s)
this is the 'ordinary molecular' equation for a typical metal displacement
reaction, but this does not really show what happens in terms of atoms, ions and
electrons, so we use ionic equations like the one shown below.
The sulphate ion SO42-(aq) is called a spectator ion, because it doesn't change in
the reaction and can be omitted from the ionic equation. No electrons show up in the
full equations because electrons lost by x = electrons gained by y!!
Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) ==> Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s)
Mg oxidised by electron loss, Fe2+ reduced by electron gain
o (b) zinc + hydrochloric acid ==> zinc chloride + hydrogen
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) => ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
the chloride ion Cl- is the spectator ion
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) ==> Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Zn oxidised by electron loss, H+ reduced by electron gain
o (c) copper + silver nitrate ==> silver + copper(II) nitrate
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) ==> 2Ag + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
the nitrate ion NO3- is the spectator ion
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) ==> 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Cu oxidised by electron loss, Ag+ reduced by electron gain
o (d) halogen (more reactive) + halide salt (of less reactive halogen) ==> halide salt (of
more reactive halogen) + halogen (less reactive)
X2(aq) + 2K+Y(aq) ==> 2K+X(aq) + Y2(aq)
X2(aq) + 2Y-(aq) ==> 2X-(aq) + Y2(aq)
the potassium ion K+ is the spectator ion
halogen X is more reactive than halogen Y, F > Cl > Br > I)
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DONE
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Industrial Chemistry
Lime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) are both used to reduce the
acidity of soil on land, they are both faster and stronger acting than limestone powder. They are
also used to reduce acidity in lakes and rivers due to acid rain. They are also used to
neutralise potentially harmful industrial acid waste including sulphur dioxide in the flue gases of
power stations.
In the test for carbon dioxide, calcium hydroxide solution (limewater) forms a white milky
precipitate of calcium carbonate (back to where you started!).
o calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide ==> calcium carbonate + water
o Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ==> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
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The oxides and hydroxides readily react with acids.
o general word equation: oxide or hydroxide + acid ==> salt + water
examples ...
calcium oxide + hydrochloric acid ==> calcium chloride + water
calcium hydroxide + nitric acid ==> magnesium nitrate + water
calcium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ==> calcium sulphate + water
CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ==> Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CaSO4(aq,s*) +2 H2O(l)
* the sulphates of eg calcium and barium are not very soluble, this slows the reaction
down!
Calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide also react with acids to form salt.
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Sulphuric acid is used as car battery acid and is used to make fertilisers, dyes
and detergents.
o eg ammonia + sulphuric acid ==> ammonium sulphate (a fertiliser salt)
o 2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> (NH4)2SO4(aq) => evaporation to get crystals
o Its acid action make it good for cleaning metal surfaces in industry.
Sulphuric acid is manufactured from the raw materials sulphur, air and water.
(1) Sulphur is burned in air to form sulphur dioxide (exothermic).
o In the reaction the sulphur is oxidised (O gain) S(s) + O2(g) ==> SO2(g)
Note: Sulphur dioxide itself is a useful chemical in its own right:
o It is used as a bleach in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper manufacture
o and its toxic nature makes it useful as a food preservative by killing bacteria.
(2) In the reactor the sulphur dioxide is mixed with air and the mixture passed over a
catalyst of vanadium oxide V205 at a high temperature (about 450°C) and at a pressure of
between one and two atmospheres. It is a 2nd exothermic oxidation and is known as the
Contact Process.
In the reactor the sulphur dioxide is oxidised in the reversible exothermic reaction ...
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rule)
(3) The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form fuming
sulphuric acid (oleum).
o SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) ==> H2S2O7(l)
(4) Water is then carefully added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid
(98%).
o H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) ==> 2H2SO4(l)
o If the sulphur trioxide is added directly to water an acid mist forms which is
difficult to contain because the reaction to form sulphuric acid solution is very
exothermic!
Good anti-pollution measures need to be in place since the sulphur oxides are harmful
and would cause local acid rain! To help this situation AND help the economics of the
process, any unreacted sulphur dioxide is recycled through the reactor.
Concentrated sulphuric acid can be used in the laboratory as a dehydrating agent.
Dehydration is the removal of water or the elements of water from a compound.
o When added to some organic compounds containing hydrogen and oxygen, e.g.
sugar, concentrated sulphuric acid removes the elements of water from the
compound leaving carbon.
o When added to copper sulphate crystals concentrated sulphuric acid removes the
water of crystallisation leaving anhydrous copper sulphate
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Ammonia is oxidised with oxygen from air using a hot platinum catalyst to form nitrogen
monoxide and water.
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
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The gas is cooled and reacted with more oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide.
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
This is reacted with more oxygen and water to form nitric acid.
4NO2(g)+ O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HNO3(aq)
Nitric acid is used in dye making processes and artificial nitrogenous fertilisers (see below).
AND
These equations are sometimes written in terms of the ficticious 'ammonium hydroxide' which is, as
shown above, quite simply an aqueous solution of ammonia, but this is how it looks in some
textbooks! About 1% of the dissolved ammonia forms ammonium and hydroxide
o ammonium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ammonium sulphate + water
o 2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
o ammonium hydroxide + nitric acid ammonium nitrate + water
o NH4OH(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq) + H2O(l)
If ammonium salts are mixed with sodium hydroxide solution, free ammonia is formed
(detected by smell and damp red litmus turning blue).
o eg ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide ==> sodium chloride + water + ammonia
o NH4Cl + NaOH ==> NaCl + H2O + NH3
Artificial fertilisers are important to agriculture and used on fields to increase crop yields
but they should be applied in a balanced manner (see below).
o Fertilisers usually contain compounds of three essential elements for healthy and
productive plant growth to increase crop yield. They replace nutrient minerals used by a
previous crop or enriches poor soil and more nitrogen gets converted into plant protein.
nitrogen eg from ammonium or nitrate salts like ammonium sulphate, ammonium
sulphate or ammonium phosphate or urea
phosphorus eg from potassium phosphate or ammonium phosphate
potassium eg from potassium phosphate, potassium sulphate.
o Fertilisers must be soluble in water to be taken in by plant roots.
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Problems with using 'artificial' fertilisers
Overuse of ammonia fertilisers on fields can cause major environmental problems as well as
being uneconomic.
Ammonium salts are water soluble and get washed into the groundwater, rivers and streams by
rain contaminating them with ammonium ions and nitrate ions.
This contamination causes several problems.
Excess fertilisers in streams and rivers cause eutrophication.
o Overuse of fertilisers results in appreciable amounts of them dissolving in rain water.
o This increases levels of nitrate or phosphate in rivers and lakes.
o This causes 'algal bloom' ie too much rapid growth of water plants on the surface where the
sunlight is the strongest.
o This prevents light from reaching plants lower in the water.
o These lower plants decay and the active aerobic bacteria use up any dissolved oxygen.
o This means any microorganisms or higher life forms relying on oxygen cannot respire.
o All the eco-cycles are affected and fish and other respiring aquatic animals die.
o The river or stream becomes 'dead' below the surface as all the food webs are
disrupted.
Nitrates are potentially carcinogenic (cancer or tumor forming).
o The presence in drinking water is a health hazard.
o Rivers and lakes can be used as initial sources for domestic water supply.
o You cannot easily remove the nitrate from the water, it costs too much!
o So levels of nitrate are carefully monitored in our water supply.
.
The Industrial Electrolysis of Sodium Chloride Solution or brine -
made from concentrated 'rock salt' solution
Summary of the ions involved and what
happens to them at the two electrodes
negative ions from ions from salt positive
electrode water electrode
product product
H2(g) <= <= H+(aq) Cl-(aq) => => Cl2(g)
ion left OH- Na+ <= ion left
=>
When electricity is passed through the sodium
chloride solution (brine) there are three
products, (1) hydrogen is formed at the
negative electrode (-ve cathode), (2) chlorine
Summary equation: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l)
at the positive electrode (+ve anode) and (3)
==> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
sodium hydroxide is left in solution.
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The industrial electrodes must The electrode equation theory and details
be made of an inert material
like titanium which is not The (-) cathode attracts the Na+ and H+
attacked by chlorine or alkali. ions. The hydrogen ions are reduced by
However a simple cell using electron (e-) gain to form hydrogen
carbon electrodes can be used molecules:
to demonstrate the industrial 2H+(aq) + 2e- ==> H2(g)
process in the laboratory. The The (+) anode attracts the OH- and Cl-
cathode gas gives a ions. The chloride ions are oxidised by
squeaky pop with a lit electron loss to give chlorine molecules:
splint - hydrogen. The anode gas turns 2Cl-(aq) ==> Cl2(g) + 2e-
damp blue litmus red and then bleaches
it white - chlorine.
Chemical Economics
The greater the amount of starting materials (reactants) the greater amount of new
substances (products) formed.
However in the real world chemical processes are not 100% perfectly efficient!
o The amount that you actually make is called the yield.
o The percentage % yield = actual yield x 100 / predicted yield
o The predicted yield assumes there is no loss of product, ie no waste, and the
reaction goes 100% in the desired direction.
o If no product is obtained then the yield is 0%!
o In reality, yields can typically range from 5% to 95% for a variety of chemical
processes.
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o Time is money! so catalysts save time and money by speeding up the
reaction.
o The rate of reaction must be high enough to give a reasonable yield in
reasonable time eg at least within 24 hours for a continuously working plant.
o Often with equilibrium reactions, it is possible to recycle unreacted
starting materials back through the reactor. The % yield must be high
enough at least per day, but an initial low yield is quite acceptable if the unreacted
starting materials can be recycled many times on a continuous basis through the
reactor.
o Optimum reaction conditions are geared to the lowest cost situation. This
often means 'balancing' the rate of reaction versus the highest % yield. It is often
best to get a low yield fast and recycle!
o Automating the chemical plants with sensors, controls, computer software etc.
significantly reduces the wages bill.
DONE
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(1) S ==> SO2 [burning sulphur - oxidised] (1) CuO ==> Cu [loss of oxygen from copper(II)
oxide to form copper atoms]
(2) CH4 ==> CO2 + H2O [burning methane
to water and carbon dioxide, C and H gain O] (2) Fe2O3 ==> Fe [iron(III) oxide reduced to iron]
(3) NO ==> NO2 [nitrogen monoxide (3) NO ==> N2 [nitrogen monoxide reduced to
oxidised to nitrogen dioxide] nitrogen]
(4) SO32- ==> SO42- [oxidising the sulphite (4) SO3 ==> SO2 [sulphur trioxide reduced to sulphur
ion to the sulphate ion] dioxide]
(c) The loss or removal of electrons from (d) The gain or addition of electrons by an atom,
an atom, ion or molecule eg ion or molecule eg ...
(1) Fe ==> Fe2+ + 2e- [iron atom loses 2 (1) Cu2+ + 2e- ==> Cu [the copper(II) ion gains 2
electrons to form the iron(II) ion] electrons to form neutral copper atoms)
(2) Fe2+ ==> Fe3+ + e- [the iron(II) ion loses (2) Fe3+ + e- ==> Fe2+ [the iron(III) ion gains an
1 electron to form the iron(III) ion] electron and is reduced to the iron(II) ion]
(3) 2Cl- ==> Cl2 + 2e- [the loss of electrons (3) 2H+ + 2e- ==> H2 [hydrogen ions gain electrons
by chloride ions to form chlorine molecules] to form neutral hydrogen molecules]
(e) An oxidising agent is the species that (f) A reducing agent is the species that removes
gives the oxygen or removes the the oxygen or acts as the electron donor
electrons
REDOX REACTIONS - in a reaction overall, oxidation and reduction must go together
(g) Redox reaction analysis based on the oxygen definitions
(1) copper(II) oxide + hydrogen ==> copper + water
o CuO(s) + H2(g) => Cu(s) + H2O(g)
o copper oxide reduced to copper, hydrogen is oxidised to water
o hydrogen is the reducing agent (removes O from CuO)
o copper oxide is the oxidising agent (donates O to hydrogen)
(2) iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide ==> iron + carbon dioxide
o Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) => 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
o the iron(III) oxide is reduced to iron, the carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide
o CO is the reducing agent (O remover from Fe2O3)
o the Fe2O3 is the oxidising agent (O donator to CO)]
(3) nitrogen monoxide + carbon monoxide ==> nitrogen + carbon dioxide
o 2NO(g) + 2CO(g) ==> N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
o nitrogen monoxide is reduced to nitrogen
o carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide
o CO is the reducing agent and NO is the oxidising agent
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(4) iron(III) oxide + aluminium ==> aluminium oxide + iron (the thermit reaction)
o Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) ==> Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s)
o iron(III) oxide is reduced and is the oxidising agent
o aluminium is oxidised and is the reducing agent
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Oxidation Number
Oxidation numbers are a useful tool for determining whether a substance has been oxidized or
reduced. An element that undergoes a change in oxidation number in the course of a reaction has
been oxidized or reduced. Let's learn how to assign oxidation numbers.
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Na H2 Cl2 S Xe
3. An atom in a polyatomic ion or a molecular compound usually has the same oxidation
number it would have if it were in a monoatomic ion.
a. Elements to the left on the periodic table are "cationlike" and have positive oxidation
numbers.
b. Elements to the right on the periodic table are "anionlike" and have negative oxidation
numbers.
Consider NH3.
c. Hydrogen
d. Oxygen
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HOOH (O –1 oxidation number)
e. Halogens
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers is 0 for a neutral compound and is equal to the net charge
for a polyatomic ion.
Oxidizing and Reducing agents
Oxidation and reduction always occur together. Whenever one atom loses electrons (is
oxidized), another atom must gain those electrons (be reduced). The reactants can be
classified as either a reducing agent or an oxidizing agent.
Reducing agent
causes reduction
loses one or more electrons
is oxidized
oxidation number of atom increases
Oxidizing agent
causes oxidation
gains one or more electrons
is reduced
oxidation number of atom decreases
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The elements at the top of the table readily give up electrons and are stronger reducing
agents. The elements at the bottom give up electrons less readily and are weaker reducing
agents. Any element higher in the activity series will react with the ion of any element
lower in the activity series.
1. Combustion is the burning of fuel by oxidation with oxygen in air. Fuels include natural gas, wood,
paper, and other organic substances composed of carbon and hydrogen. Some metals also burn in air.
2. Bleaching is the use of redox reactions to decolorize or lighten colored materials. Oxidizing agents
used in bleaching include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and sodium hypochlorite (NaClO).
4. Metallurgy is the science of extracting and purifying metals from their ores.
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5. Undesirable oxidation reactions are termed corrosion. The rusting of iron in moist air is a familiar
process with enormous economic impact.
6. Respiration is the process of breathing and using oxygen for the many biological redox reactions
that occur in living organisms.
DONE
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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
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More on examples of relating the physical properties of the
fractions to their uses and dangers
down the list the molecule gets bigger, more viscous, higher boiling and less flammable
The refinery gas fractions, under pressure, are conveniently pumped to burner systems, but are easily
ignited and explosive.
Vehicle fuels must be liquid for compact and convenient storage but they must be easily vapourised to mix
with air in the engine prior to ignition. The ease of vaporisation does however make them flammable!
Paraffin and kerosine are less flammable and safer, but not as easily ignited.
Fuel oil is not too viscous to pump to a central heating burner, and it is not very volatile and so not as
flammable and dangerous as petrol or diesel etc. for domestic use.
Lubricating oil must be quite viscous to stick onto surfaces. Smaller molecules might be more runny but
they would evaporate away! It is also water repellent and helps reduce corrosion on moving machine
parts.
Candle wax is very convenient as a solid for humble lamp (especially in power cuts!), but via a wick, the
heat from the flame is sufficient to vaporise the hydrocarbons to burn them.
Bitumen is a water repellent solid at room temperature but is readily melted (sometimes too easily in hot
weather). Used as base for a road chipping top surface or sometimes directly. It is also used to waterproof
roofing felt.
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(1) is the molecular formula: a summary of the totals of each atoms of each element in one
molecule; (2) is a 'shorthand' version of the structural formula (3); (3) is called the structural
formula: it shows how all the atoms are linked with the covalent bonds -; (4) is a '3D'
representation of the structural formula (3)
methane
(main molecule
(1) , (3) , (4) in natural gas)
ethane
(1) (2) (3) (4)
propane
(1) (2) (3)
butane
(1) (2) (3)
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When hydrocarbons are burned in air a fast exothermic reaction occurs releasing heat and
forming carbon dioxide and water.
It is an oxidation reaction due to O gain by C and H.
The carbon dioxide is chemically detected with limewater - with which it forms a white
precipitate (milky appearance) of calcium carbonate.
The water is chemically detected either by (i) anhydrous white copper sulphate turning
blue OR (ii) anhydrous blue cobalt chloride paper turning pink.
A physical test for water is to measure its boiling point (should be 100oC).
(one CO2 for every C and one H2O for every two H's in the hydrocarbon molecule)
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The ALKENE hydrocarbons series
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing a double bond as well as single bonds. These are called
unsaturated molecules because two atoms can join onto the bond when it opens up. The first two in
the series are shown below. They are extremely reactive and important compounds in the chemical
industry and are converted into very useful compounds eg plastics. They are made from cracking
processes (see below)
1) is the molecular formula: a summary of the totals of each atoms of each element in one
molecule; (2) is a 'shorthand' version of the structural or displayed formula (3); (3) is called the
structural or displayed formula: it shows how all the atoms are linked with the covalent bonds -
ethene
(1) , (2) , (3)
propene
(1) (2a) (2b) (3)
(1) , (2)
butene
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.... or
propene + bromine
==> 1,2-
dibromopropane
CRACKING a problem!!
When crude oil has been distilled into useful fractions it is found that the quantities produced
do not match the ratio required for commercial needs eg we have an insatiable appetite
for petrol and diesel in our cars and there are two many left-overs of the larger molecules
which do not make good fuels or have other uses. Fuel oil, naphtha and bitumen in crude oil
exceed demand.
Also, alkenes are not found in crude oil and they one of the most valuable types of organic
molecule in the chemical industry eg to make polymers (plastics) or ethanol (an alcohol).
The two deficiencies are remedied by the process of cracking which converts useless big
molecules into useful smaller ones.
CRACKING is done by heating some of the less used fractions to a high temperature
vapour and passing over a suitable hot catalyst. The cracking reaction is an example of
thermal decomposition - a reaction that breaks down molecules into smaller ones
using heat. The main products from cracking alkanes from oil are smaller alkanes (eg
for petrol or diesel) and alkenes (eg for plastics).
The equations below illustrate the process, small molecules are used to show the overall
molecular change clearly BUT in practice the 'starter' molecules are likely to be more those
shown in equations (3) and (4). The cracking involves breaking single carbon-carbon
bonds to form the alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons) and alkenes (unsaturated hydrocarbons)
products
(1)
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(2)
The formation of big polymer molecules called polyalkenes from small molecules called alkenes
When catalysed and heated under pressure, alkenes link together when the double bond
opens. The spare bonds are used to join up the molecules.
The original small molecule is called the monomer and the long molecule is called the polymer,
which is the sort of molecule most plastics consist of. The polymer is now a saturated molecule
but has the same C:H ratio as the original alkene.
So lots of small molecules join up to form a big long molecule in a process called addition
polymerisation and the polymers are named as poly(name of original alkene).
Poly(ethene) from ethene is a cheap but very useful plastic used for plastic bags and bottles.
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Poly(propene) from propene is stronger and more hard wearing than polythene and is used for making
crates, fibres and ropes.
Poly(chloroethene), old name PVC, from chloroethene (vinyl chloride) is tougher than poly(ethene) and
very hard wearing and has good heat stability, so is used for covering electrical wiring and plugs. It also
replacing metals as gas and water drain pipes and has found a use as artificial leather and readily dyed to
bright colours!
Polystyrene is made from styrene (another alkene monomer) and is used in a gas expanded form for
packaging and insulation.
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Our economy, like many other countries has become very dependent on the extraction, sale and use
of oil based products. BUT, there is high price to be paid at times whether it be pollution effects or
warring countries with oil economics factors.
Oil rig accidents, broken pipelines, oil tanker wrecks etc. all have terrible effects on the plant and
animal life of the locality as we see from the horrible TV pictures of seabirds coated in oil, and toxic oil
slicks covering the beaches and sands.
The burning of oil and other fossil fuels is contributing to the 'Greenhouse Effect' of global warming.
The extra carbon dioxide forming absorbs and traps sunlight (or more precisely the re-radiated
sunlight energy from the Earth's surface) rather like a greenhouse. The effects are predicted to be
dramatic eg rising sea levels as polar ice melts causing flooding in low lying land regions, more energy
in the global weather system leads to more frequent violent weather patterns, ..
Fossil fuels contain the element sulphur or compounds of sulphur. When the fuel is burned the
sulphur also burns to form sulphur dioxide. This is an acidic gas and dissolves in rainwater, it then
reacts with water and oxygen to form a very dilute solution of sulphuric acid.
o Sulphur dioxide is a harmful gas and lung irritant and contributed to 5000 extra deaths in
the great 'London Smog' in the 1950's.
o The formation of acid rain has several bad effects on the environment eg
the low pH causes plant damage, particularly trees,
kills certain life forms and so damages eco cycles and food chains in rivers or lakes
harming wildlife like trout,
increases the 'weathering' corrosion rates of building stone (particularly limestone).
High temperature combustion also produces other pollutants including ...
o Nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2, which are acidic and contribute further to acid rain (above),
and are also involved in the chemistry of 'photochemical smog' - which produces chemicals
harmful to respiration and eyes. Many of the reactions are initiated by sunlight.
o Carbon monoxide CO, which is toxic, and also involved in the chemistry of 'photochemical
smog'. This is formed by inefficient combustion
o Unburned hydrocarbons, CxHy, which can be carcinogenic and are also involved in
photochemical smog chemistry.
But catalytic converters* can significantly reduced these three unwanted emissions
(see above for CO and NO removal, and CxHy gets oxidised to CO2 and H2O). * eg
using platinum-rhodium transition metal catalysts, these are dispersed on ceramic bed
to give a big surface area for the best reaction rate.
There are other indirect pollution problems to do with burning fossil fuels:
o Lead compounds are added to petrol to improve engine performance. This produces lead
compound emissions into the environment. Lead compounds are nerve toxins so it is fortunate
they are being phased out in many countries.
o Photochemical smog is mentioned in the previous paragraph.
And finally, should we using a very valuable source of organic chemicals by merely burning most
of it? AND how long will oil reserves last? AND what happens if the oil runs out?
Hydrogen gas can be used as fuel and a long-term possible alternative to fossil fuels.
o It burns with a pale blue flame in air reacting with oxygen to be oxidised to form water.
o hydrogen + oxygen ==> water or 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l)
o It is a non-polluting clean fuel since the only combustion product is water and so its use
would not lead to all environmental problems associated with burning fossil fuels.
o It would be ideal if it could be manufactured by electrolysis of water eg using solar cells.
o Hydrogen can be used to power fuel cells on the "Extra Electrochemistry" page.
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n-butane
Isobutane
Neopentane
Isopentane n-pentane
n-pentane
Isopentane
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on other pages .. [basic Oil Products notes - if not on this page] [enzymes] and on
this page .. [1. combustion] [2. alkane/alkene 'families'] [3. alcohols like ethanol]
[4. other organic molecule families eg carboxylic acids, esters, polymers] [5.
Natural molecules - carbohydrates, sugars, amino acids, proteins, fats, oils etc.] [6. Vitamin C,
Drugs and Food Additives] [7. CFC's, Ozone and free radicals] [multiple choice quiz - still under
development] and [email query or comment]
KEYWORDS: .. addition(alkene reactions) .. alcohols .. alkanes .. alkenes .. amino acids(from hydrolysis) .. analgesics ..
aspirin (soluble/insoluble/action) .. carbohydrates .. carboxylic acids .. cellulose .. CFC's .. colourings .. combustion ..
cracking .. disaccharide .. drugs .. E numbers .. esters .. ethanoic acid .. ethanol .. fats (saturated/unsaturated) .. fibre ..
flavourings .. food additives .. fractional distillation .. free radicals .. fuel .. glucose .. glycerol .. glycine .. homologous
series .. hydrolysis(starch, protein, fats) .. ibuprofen .. isomerism/isomers .. macromolecule .. margarine ..
monosaccharide .. Nylon .. oils(and fats) .. organic .. ozone .. paracetamol .. plastics/polymers(burning, structure) ..
polyamide .. polypeptides .. polysaccharides .. proteins .. preservatives .. saturated .. soaps .. starch .. sucrose ..
sugars(from hydrolysis, cyclic structure) .. sweeteners .. Terylene .. thermosoftening .. thermosetting .. triglycerides ..
unsaturated .. vinegar .. vitamin C .. [email comment or query]
All organic compounds consist partly of carbon atoms. Coal, crude oil, natural gas (methane) and wood contain
organic compounds
o all are used as fuels, either directly like coal or natural gas,
o or indirectly as coke from coal or petrol from crude oil etc.,
o and apart from wood, they are finite (limited reserve) fossil (from decayed organic material) fuels.
Many hydrocarbons are fuels ie a substance burned to release heat energy.
When organic compounds are burned in a plentiful supply of air the carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide and the
hydrogen is oxidised to water.
In a limited supply of air incomplete combustion occurs forming carbon monoxide and/ or carbon. Carbon monoxide is
poisonous because it reduces the capacity of blood to carry oxygen.
Combustion equations and tests for combustion products are all on the Oil Notes web page.
Each fossil fuel has a different cost, efficiency and cleanliness on burning. Generally speaking in 'cleanliness' the order is
methane (natural gas) > alkanes in petrol > heavy oil and from left to right there is also an increase in C/H atom
ratio in the molecule so more CO2 produced too. Some notes on other fuels (but they are designed for more advanced
level courses) and a fossil fuel survey on Oil Products Notes page
The combustion of plastics (and other organic compounds) which contain chlorine and nitrogen produce poisonous fumes
when burnt eg choking hydrogen chloride HCl and toxic hydrogen cyanide HCN respectively. Especially where there is a limited
supply of air. The combustion products of carbon (toxic CO and CO 2) and hydrogen (H2O) are also formed.
Hydrogen gas can be used as fuel.
o It burns with a pale blue flame in air reacting with oxygen to be oxidised to form water.
o hydrogen + oxygen ==> water or 2H2(g) + O2(g) ==> 2H2O(l)
o It is a non-polluting clean fuel since the only combustion product is water and so its use would not lead to all
environmental problems associated with burning fossil fuels.
o It would be ideal if it could be manufactured by electrolysis of water eg using solar cells.
o Hydrogen can be used to power fuel cells on the "Extra Electrochemistry" page.
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2a INTRODUCTION
Organic compounds belong to different families. The compounds in each family have a similar chemical structure and a similar chemical
formula. Each family of organic compounds forms what is called a homologous series. Different families arise because carbon atoms
readily join together in chains (catenation) and strongly bond with other atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The result is a
huge variety of 'organic compounds'. The name comes from the fact that most of the original organic compounds studied by
chemists came from plants or animals.
A homologous series is a family of compounds which have a general formula* and have similar chemical properties
because they have the same functional group of atoms (eg C=C alkene, C-OH alcohol or -COOH carboxylic acid).
o * Match the general formula pattern with the alkane and alkene examples shown below.
members of a homologous series have similar physical properties such as appearance, melting/boiling points, solubility etc.
but show trends in them eg steady increase in melting/boiling point with increase in carbon number or molecular mass.
The molecular formula represents a summary of all the atoms in the molecule (see examples below).
The structural or displayed formula shows the full structure of the molecule with all the individual bonds and atoms shown
(though there are different 'sub-styles' of varying detail, see below).
2b ALKANES
These are obtained directly from crude oil by fractional distillation (see oil notes).
The saturated hydrocarbons form an homologous series called alkanes with a general formula CnH2n+2
Saturated means the molecule has no C=C double bonds, only carbon-carbon single bonds, and so has combined
with the maximum number of atoms ie no atoms can add to it. The alkanes don't really have a functional group and have
quite a limited chemistry BUT they are still a clearly defined homologous series.
Alkane examples: The gases: methane CH4, ethane C2H6, propane C3H8, butane C4H10, liquids: pentane C5H12, hexane C6H14
etc. The first four alkane structures are shown on the oil notes page. Names end in ...ane
Carbon always forms 4 bonds with other atoms and hydrogen 1 bond with other atoms eg Propane: molecular formula C3H8,
structural and displayed formula styles include ...
o or or
Isomerism occurs when two or more compounds have the same chemical formula but have different structures. eg for the
molecular formula C4H10 there are two possibilities - one 'linear' and one with carbon chain 'branching' ...
o butane: or or
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2c ALKENES
These cannot be obtained directly from crude oil and must be made by cracking (see oil notes).
The unsaturated hydrocarbons form an homologous series called alkenes with a general formula CnH2n Unsaturated
means the molecule has a C=C double bond to which atoms or groups can add.
Alkene examples: Names end in ...ene
o ethene C2H4, or
o propene C3H6, or or
o butene or
The alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because of the presence of the carbon=carbon double bond. The alkenes
undergo addition reactions in which one of the carbon=carbon double bonds breaks allowing each carbon atom to form a
covalent bond with another atom such as hydrogen or bromine.
Examples of addition reactions are: with hydrogen under pressure and in the presence of a nickel catalyst to form an
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alkane
Ethanol structure: or or or
Ethanol is used as a solvent, as a fuel (can be mixed with petrol), and used to make 'ethyl esters' (see below) as well as
the 'potent' chemical present in alcoholic drinks!
o The % alcohol in wines, spirits and beer varies from 1-40%
o There are health and social issues about the medical and behavioral aspects of alcohol consumption.
o Methylated spirit is mainly ethanol but poisonous and nasty tasting chemicals like methanol are added so it is not
used as a beverage!
Ethanol can be produced by fermentation of sugars. The raw materials are mixed with water and yeast at just above
room temperature. The yeast contains enzymes which are biological catalysts. The sugars react to form ethanol and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide is allowed to escape and air is prevented from entering the reaction vessel to stop oxidation of
ethanol to ethanoic acid ('acetic acid' or vinegar!). When the reaction is over the ethanol is separated from the reaction mixture
by fractional distillation.
o eg glucose ==enzyme==> ethanol + carbon dioxide
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o C6H12O6(aq) ==> 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
o Ethanol, from a solution made from fermented sugar cane, can be concentrated by fractional distillation. In Brazil it is
blended with petrol to give an alternative motor vehicle fuel.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) ==> 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
The alcohols form an homologous series with the functional group C-OH. It is the presence of this functional group that
gives alcohols their characteristic properties. The simplest homologous series of alcohols have the general formula
CnH2n+1OH eg
Ethanol is shown above and the simplest, lowest carbon number one, is methanol (shown below)
o or or
o All the alcohols are flammable colourless liquids with a not un-pleasant odour?
o They all behave chemically in the same way but the boiling point steadily rises with increase in molecule
size.
The next two are called propanol and butanol, the names end in ...ol
o CH3-CH2-CH2-OH or and
Alcohols react, reversibly, with carboxylic acids to form esters and water. Ethyl ethanoate is formed by the reaction of
ethanoic acid with ethanol eg
o ethanoic acid + ethanol ethyl ethanoate + water
o + + H2O
o its an equilibrium, 2/3rds conversion, and catalysed by a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
Alcohols react with sodium to form hydrogen.
o normal fizzing is observed and the salt product is soluble in the alcohol itself.
o eg ethanol + sodium ==> sodium ethoxide + hydrogen
o 2C2H5OH + 2Na ==> 2C2H5O-Na+ + H2
Ethanol can be produced by the reaction of steam and ethene in the presence of a strong acid catalyst (Phosphoric
acid). The reversible reaction is carried out at a moderately high temperature (eg 300 oC) and a high pressure (eg 60 x
atmospheric pressure). The higher temperature and catalyst speed up the reaction and increasing pressure moves the
equilibrium to the right (side least gaseous molecules at 300 oC)
o + H2O ==>
Advantages and disadvantages of the two methods of making ethanol:
o advantages of fermentation: cheap and renewable resource like sugar cane (Brazil), sugar beet
o disadvantages of fermentation: slow reaction and made by an inefficient batch process, poor quality product eg
low aqueous concentration, other organic chemicals formed to and yeast cell residues to remove .
o advantages of ethene route: fast and efficient continuous process, relatively pure product, country may have local
oil supply (eg North Sea for UK, Middle East countries)
o disadvantages of ethene route: using a non-renewable finite resource (crude oil/cracking)
Ethanol can be oxidised to form ethanoic acid which is a useful organic chemical. BUT it is this oxidation of ethanol that
results in alcoholic drinks turning sour (eg cider, wine) when exposed to air. Ethanoic acid (old name 'acetic acid') is the basis of
vinegar and is also used in making esters (eg pear drop essence, or .
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o + O2 ==> + H2O
o This oxidation can also be done by heating the ethanol with a mixture of sulphuric acid and potassium
dichromate(VI) solution. The mixture turns from orange to green.
o When burned, ethanol, like any alcohol, forms carbon dioxide and water
CH3CH2OH + 2O2 ==> 2CO2 + 3H2O
Ethanol can be dehydrated to ethene by passing the alcohol vapour over heated aluminium oxide catalyst.
o ==> + H2O
o This reaction is potentially an important source of organic chemicals eg plastics from a renewable resource since the
ethanol can be made by fermentation of carbohydrates etc.
Alcohols from propanol upwards, ie from carbon number 3 or greater, will form isomers.
o You will find plenty of examples on the advanced organic chemistry page for alcohols.
The steroid, cholesterol, contains the alcohol group -OH. Cholesterol is an essential steroid to humans but if too much is
produced it can cause heart disease.
http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=cholesterol&Units=SI gives the skeletal formula structure of
cholesterol (this structure representation is only dealt with at advanced level). All the lines in the structure represent bonds
between carbon atoms except the 'dash' for the -OH alcohol group in the bottom right of the molecule. Also note the 'alkene'
double bond functional group to the right of the -OH group.
4b. Polymers do not form a homologous series but they are all organic compounds having very long molecules.
o methanoic acid: or or
o ethanoic acid: or or
o propanoic acid: or or
Vinegar contains ethanoic acid (old name 'acetic acid'), see above in section 3 Alcohols above. It is used as a preservative and
in food flavourings.
Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of the fibre, acetate rayon.
Oranges, lemons and many soft drinks contain a carboxylic acid eg citric acid.
Aspirin is a carboxylic acid. Aspirin is a drug used for pain relief and is taken regularly by those at risk from heart attacks.
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is another carboxylic acid and is present in fresh fruit and vegetables.
Carboxylic acids are weak acids, typically solutions are around pH3 (yellow-orange-pink with universal indicator).
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o [theory on Extra Aqueous Chemistry page look for keywords]
They react and are neutralised by ... with examples ...
o metals to form salts and hydrogen
ethanoic acid + magnesium ==> magnesium ethanoate + hydrogen
2CH3COOH + Mg ==> (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
o alkali bases to form a carboxylic acid salt and water eg ...
eg ethanoic acid + potassium hydroxide ==> potassium ethanoate + water
CH3COOH + KOH ==> CH3COOK + H2O
o carbonate and hydrogencarbonate bases to produce a carboxylic acid salt, water and carbon dioxide eg ...
eg ethanoic acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate ==> sodium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ==> CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
OR propanoic acid + sodium carbonate ==> sodium propanoate + water + carbon dioxide
2CH3CH2COOH + Na2CO3 ==> 2CH3CH2COONa + H2O + CO2
Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form members of another homologous series called esters. Concentrated sulphuric
acid acts as a catalyst in this reaction. See the formation of ethyl ethanoate above in section 3. above.
o and
o show the structures of other esters made from ethanoic acid: namely methyl ethanoate using methanol, and propyl
ethanoate from propyl alcohol
o and what would the structure of their original alcohols be and what would the structure of butyl ethanoate be?
Esters are usually sweet smelling and widely used as fragrances (eg perfumes) and food flavourings.
Polymers (plastics) consist of a tangled mass of very long molecules in which the atoms are joined by strong covalent
bonds to form long chains, but there are much weaker intermolecular forces holding the material together.
In thermosoftening plastics like poly(ethene), poly(propene) or poly(chloroethene) PVC, because the inter-molecular
attractive forces between the chains are weak, the plastic softens when heated and hardens again when cooled. It also means
the polymer molecules can slide over each other. This means they can be easily stretched or moulded into any desired shape.
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o However it is possible to manufacture and process plastics in which the polymer chains are made to line up. This
greatly increases the intermolecular forces between the 'aligned' polymer molecules and strong fibre strands of the
plastic can be made.
o Examples: The addition polymer poly(propene) and the condensation polymers nylon and Terylene
When a thermosetting plastic is first heated covalent bonds are formed between adjacent chains of the polymers. These
strong covalent cross-linkages give the material a high melting point and greatly increased strength and rigidity. They also
prevent thermosetting plastics from being softened with heat and therefore from being stretched or re-shaped. However it does
make a much stronger material and not as flammable. On heating strongly they do NOT melt, but tend to char, gradually giving
off gases.
Melamine (used in furniture) and many glues are examples of thermosetting polymers.
Problems with using plastics are on the Oil Products Notes page.
Some important structure, strength and 1D to 3D dimension concepts) in the "Chemical Bonding" notes.
(3 units etc.)
This is the same linkage (-CO-NH-) that is found in linked amino acids in naturally occurring macromolecules called proteins,
where it is called the 'peptide' linkage.
Terylene (a polyester) is formed by condensation polymerisation and the structure of Terylene represented as
(3 units etc.)
This is the same kind of 'ester linkage' (-COOC-) found in fats which are combination of long chain fatty carboxylic acids and
glycerol (alcohol with 3 -OH groups, a 'triol').
Terylene and nylon are good for making 'artificial' or 'man-made' fibres used in the clothing and rope industries. In
the manufacturing process the polymer chains are made to line up. This greatly increases the intermolecular forces between the
'aligned' polymer molecules and strong fibre strands of the plastic can be made.
Some important structure, strength and 1D to 3D dimension concepts in "Chemical Bonding" notes.
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5. Naturally Occurring Molecules
Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats are the main nutrient constituents of food.
5a. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a whole series naturally occurring molecules based on the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Historically the name 'carbohydrate' comes from the fact that all their formulae seemed to be based on Cx(H2O)y (see key
above) BUT this is not the way to think of their formula.
They range from relatively small molecules called monosaccharide (means one basic unit), or disaccharide (two basic
units combined) to very large natural polymers or macromolecules called polysaccharides (many units combined). A
summary of them is shown in the key diagram above along with some familiar names from biology.
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Sucrose is a disaccharide made from combining two monosaccharide molecules, glucose and fructose by the
elimination of a water.
o On hydrolysis sucrose reforms the glucose and fructose.
o 2C6H12O6 <=> C12H22O12 + H2O
This diagram of starch or cellulose is in 'skeletal formula' style and both are polymers of glucose - can you see the connection
between each 'unit' and the structure of glucose itself?
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The hydrolysis products from polysaccharides can be analysed with paper chromatography.
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The 'long-chain fatty acids' can be unsaturated, with one or more C=C double bonds, and so forming unsaturated oils
or fats (2nd diagram below of the triglyceride formed from oleic acid).
Some sub-notes on Oil and Fat Structure: (health issues dealt with further down)
o They have the same linkages as Terylene but with different units.
o They are not as big as polymer molecules, but a lot bigger than a single petrol or sugar molecule.
o There can be 1 to 3 different saturated or unsaturated fatty acid components, so lots of variation possible in
structure of the oil or fat. The diagrams just assume three molecules of the same 'fatty' acid.
o Monounsaturated fats have one C=C double bond in them, polyunsaturated fats usually have at least
three C=C bonds in their molecular structure.
o For the same molecular size in terms of carbon number, unsaturated fats have slightly lower intermolecular
forces because the C=C double bond produces a kink in the carbon chain and they can't pack as closely together as
the saturated molecules.
This gives unsaturated fats a lower melting point and so they tend to occur as eg vegetable oils rather
than saturated low melting solids from meat and dairy products.
o However, this means these unsaturated oils are not as conveniently 'spreadable' as 'butter'.
To overcome this problem, 'margarine' was invented. The vegetable oils are reacted with hydrogen using the
gas and a nickel catalyst.
This reaction adds hydrogen atoms to the double bonds making a more saturated and more 'spreadable' solid
fat we call 'margarine'.
The reaction for any double bond is: >CH=CH< + H2 == Ni ==> -CH2-CH2-
BUT it does mean that it is more like animal fat now but various blendes have been developed to suit your
dietary needs or desires!
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If you wish to know more about fats and oils there is plenty on the web! eg ....
o http://www.healthnet.org.uk/diet/fatoil.htm
o http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/lipids.htm
o http://www.nutristrategy.com/fatsoils.htm
5d. Chromatography
Hydrolysis means breaking down a molecule with water to form two or more products.
o Hydrolysis is accelerated if the substance is heated with acid or alkali solutions.
When proteins are heated with aqueous acid they are hydrolysed to amino acids.
Acid hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (eg. starch) gives simple sugars.
Chromatography is useful in separating and identifying the products of hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins.
o The hydrolysis can be done by boiling the carbohydrate or protein with hydrochloric acid.
o The hydrolysed mixture is then 'spotted' onto the pencil base line of the chromatography paper.
Known sugars or amino acids are also spotted onto the base line too.
The prepared paper is then placed vertically in a suitable solvent, which rises up the paper.
o Since the products are colourless, the dried chromatogram is treated with another chemical to produce a coloured
compound.
Ninhydrin produces purple spots with amino acids
and resorcinol makes coloured spots with sugars.
o You can then tell which amino acids made up the protein or the sugars from which the carbohydrate was formed.
The number of different spots tells you how many different amino acids or sugars made up the natural
macromolecule.
Spots which horizontally match the standard known molecule spots confirm identity.
Starch gives one spot because only glucose is formed on hydrolysis.
(C5H10O5)n + nH2O ==> n C6H12O6 (where n is a very large number)
o More details on chromatography.
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Drugs can be defined as an externally administered substances which modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body,
usually for the bodies greater well-being. Poisons can be defined in the same way, but hopefully not intentionally and have
undesired effects!
o An analgesic is a drug used to reduce pain and is type of anti-inflammatory agent.
o The molecular structure of three well known analgesics are shown in the diagram below.
o All are used for 'headache' treatment, and hopefully using this website and others will help minimise their use!
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The central hexagonal ring of 6 carbon atoms is called a 'benzene' or 'aromatic' ring. The 4th outer electron of carbon
(group 4) is delocalised, so the expected 4th bond per C atom forms part of a 'communal' system (more on this at
advanced level, but the covalence rule of 4 for carbon is not broken!, you have seen this situation before, check out
graphite. You can show a benzene ring as a simple hexagon with a circle in it
The modern pharmaceutical industry has its origins in herbal and other traditional medicine.
eg An extract of willow herb extract can be made from the leaves, bark and seeds of the willow tree. Amongst other
ailments it was given to help curing feverish headaches and relief of pain in childbirth. When ingested the body
hydrolyses and oxidises the naturally occurring 'precursor' molecule to form salicylic acid* which is the 'active'
molecule in the body. in the 1890's the German chemist Hoffmann experimented with various chemical modifications of
salicylic acid and found the best and chemically stable form was 'aspirin' (shown below). He tried the variations on
his own father! who survived to provide valuable 'clinical trials' - hardly acceptable these days! * 'Oil of winter
green' from certain plants is the methyl ester of salicylic acid and has similar 'medicinal effects'.
Aspirin (and the others shown) are not very soluble in water. Soluble aspirin is made by neutralising the carboxylic
acid with the alkali sodium hydroxide to make the much more soluble sodium salt of the acid. The reaction, using
skeletal formula, is shown in the diagram below the three analgesic drug structures.
New drugs and testing them:
It costs a lot of money to develop a new medicine so the price charged by the pharmaceutical company must cover the
cost of research, production and marketing.
Patents are taken out to protect the company's commercial interests in the new medicine.
There can be a range of formulations of a particular medicine when you buy it over the counter eg tablet of
100% aspirin, soluble aspirin (via Na + salt of the acid from neutralisation) and aspirin might form part of a
mixture including substances that have other beneficial effects.
The main point here is that aspirin, like many drugs, can have multi-functional effects, hopefully all beneficial.
BUT this, sadly, is not always the case, because with any new drug there is always the danger of
unknown side-effects.
Therefore there is a tremendous responsibility on pharmaceutical companies to ensure the development of safe
and effective drugs.
Lots of time and money spent on discovering and developing new drugs and there are lots of
factors to consider:
o From the discovery of a potentially useful molecule, sometimes called the 'lead molecule', which can be
from natural source or produced in some other project etc.
o Is there room in the commercial market place for it?
o Do research to see if its safe, otherwise further development is a waste of time and money or if
not safe, can its molecular structure be modified?
o Can the modification be safe? and more effective?
o In what form, can it be/needs to be, administered in? for clinical trials.
o Carefully clinical trials in various phases, noting particularly if any side-effects which may
be harmful.
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o Do you test new drugs on animals? - an emotive issue, can non-animal testing always
allow the safe development of new products?
o Do you test new drugs on patients in a life threatening situation, give them a last chance
at some risk?
o Patient health and safety issues versus very big drug company commercial interests are a
matter of public concern.
o Any new drug must finally pass all the tests before legally licensed for patient consumption ...
sadly, the 'drug companies' and the 'powers to be' do not always get it right (eg
phthalidomide), but do not the benefits outweigh the occasional tragedy which we
should do our best to avoid?
Food additives are chemicals added to food to give particular effects eg colourings, flavourings, preservation and
sweetening.
o Colourings to make food more attractive, to fit in with the consumers perception of what it should look like.
o Flavourings to make food more 'tasty', less 'bland', and to fit in with the consumers perception of what it should taste
like.
o Preservatives are to increase the 'shelf-life' of packaged food, decrease risk of food poisoning.
o Sweeteners counter bitterness or pander to our taste!
E-numbers are reference numbers used by the European Union to help identification of food additives.
o All food additives used in the European Union are identified by an E-number.
o The "E" stands for "Europe" or "European Union".
o Normally each food additive is assigned a unique number, though occasionally, related additives are given an extension
(eg a,b,i or ii etc.) to another E-number.
o The Commission of the European Union assigns E-numbers after the additive is cleared by the Scientific
Committee on Food (SCF), the body responsible for the safety evaluation of food additives in the European
Union. A summary is given below.
E-numbers are only used for substances added directly to food products, so contaminants, enzymes and processing
aids, which may be classified as additives in the USA, are not included in the E-number system.
There is an EU directive on food labeling which requires food additives to be listed in the product ingredients whenever
they are added for technological purposes.
o This includes colouring, sweetening and favor enhancement as well as for preservation, thickening, emulsifying
and the like.
o Ingredients must be listed in descending order of weight, which means that are generally found close to the
end of the list of ingredients.
o However, substances used in the protection of plants and plant products, flavorings and substances added as
nutrients (e.g., minerals, trace elements or vitamins) do not need to be included in the ingredient list.
o Because of this, some substances that are regulated as food additives in other countries may be exempt from
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the food additive definition in the EU.
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effects, so back to the CFC problem!
o The chemically very stable CFCs diffuse up into the stratosphere and decompose when hit by ultraviolet light
(uv) to produce free radicals, including free chlorine atoms, which themselves are highly reactive free radicals.
eg CCl2CF2 ==> CClF2. + Cl. (note the C-Cl bond is weaker than the C-F bond)
o The formation of chlorine atom radicals is the root of the problem because they readily react with ozone and
change it back to much more stable ordinary oxygen.
O3 + Cl. ==> O2 + ClO. bye bye ozone! and no uv removed in the process!
o Therefore many countries are banning the use of CFCs, but not all despite the fact that scientists predict it will
take many years for the depleted ozone layer to return to its 'original' O 3 concentration.
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