TUGAS PAPER BAB 7

KONSEP MOTIVASI
Muhammad Faiz Abdurrahman || 17/411865/EK/21515

Motivation: the processes that account for an individual’s intensity (how hard a person tries), direction
(that benefits that organization) and persistence (how long a person can maintain) of effort toward
attaining a goal. It clearly seems to be an issue.

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory: a hierarchy of 5 needs in which, as each need is
substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. The needs are:
1. Physiological: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex & other bodily needs (at the bottom of Δ).
2. Safety: security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social: affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship.
4. Esteem: internal factors like self-respect, autonomy and achievement, and external factors like
status, recognition and attention.
5. Self-actualization: drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes
6. growth, achieving one’s potential en self-fulfillment (at the top of Δ).

A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates, so you need to understand what level of hierarchy
that person is currently on and focus on satisfying the needs at or above that level. Lower-order needs:
satisfied externally (physiological and safety needs).
Higher-order needs: satisfied internally (social, esteem, and self-actualization needs). Research,
however, does not validate the theory, even though it’s a popular theory.

Clayton Alderfer attempted to rework Maslow’s need hierarchy to align it more closely with empirical
research called the ERG theory: a theory that posits three groups of core needs: existence (physiological
& safety), relatedness (social & status) and growth (esteem & self- actualization). Alderfer didn’t
assume the needs to be in a rigid hierarchy but you could be focusing on all three needs categories
simultaneously. Research has been more supportive of his theory.

Douglas McGregor:
 Theory X: the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility and must
be coerced to perform.
 Theory Y: the assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility and can
exercise self-direction.

Source: Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior, Global Edition, 18th Edition. Pearson (Intl), 20180514. VitalBook file.
Herzberg’s Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory)
A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with
dissatisfaction. Satisfaction is not the opposite of dissatisfaction: removing dissatisfying characteristics
from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying.
 Hygiene factors: external factors/working conditions (pay, company policies, physical working
conditions, relations with others, job security, quality of supervision).
o When adequate: neither dissatisfied nor satisfied.
 Motivation factors: internal factors (promotional opportunities, opportunities for personal
growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement).
Criticisms of the theory: limited procedure by its methodology; reliability is questioned; no overall
measure of satisfaction was utilized; and he assumed a relationship between satisfaction and
productivity while he only looked at satisfaction.

McClelland’s theory of needs

 Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards
to strive to succeed.
 Need for power (nPow): the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have
behaved otherwise.
 Need for affiliation (nAff): the desire for friendly, close interpersonal relationships.
This theory has the best research support compared to the others but it has less practical effect: the three
needs are namely subconscious (unaware), so measuring them is hard.

Contemporary theories: represent the current state of thinking in explaining employee motivation.
These are:
 Cognitive evaluation theory: a theory which states that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior
that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of
motivation (because of a loss of control over own behavior, and because of a different
explanation for why that person works there).
o Make an individual’s pay non-contingent on performance in order to avoid decreasing
intrinsic motivation
o BUT: extrinsic verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, whereas extrinsic tangible
rewards undermine it
o Recent outgrowth: self-concordance: the degree to which a person’s reasons for
pursuing a goal is consistent with the person’s interests and core values. If high, people
are more satisfied with their jobs.

Source: Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior, Global Edition, 18th Edition. Pearson (Intl), 20180514. VitalBook file.
  Goal-setting theory: a theory which says that specific and difficult goals, with
o feedback (guide behavior), lead to higher performance.
o Three other factors in addition to feedback: goal commitment; task characteristics; and
national culture
o Management by objectives (MBO): a program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively (different from goal-setting theory) set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress. Goals are tangible, verifiable, and measurable

 Self-efficacy theory (social cognitive theory): an individual’s belief that they are capable of
performing a task. High increases your effort and acceptance criticism.
o Complements goal-setting theory
o Four ways to increase self-efficacy:
 Enactive mastery: gaining relevant experience with the task/job
 Vicarious modeling: becoming more confident because you see others doing
the task
 Verbal persuasion: becoming more confident because someone convinces you
that you have the necessary skills. Best way: Pygmalion effect / Galatea effect:
self-fulfilling prophecy.
 Arousal: leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task

 Reinforcement theory: a theory which says that behavior is a function of its consequences. It
is environmentally caused. Reinforcers control behavior – any consequences that, when
immediately following responses, increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated. It
ignores the inner state so it is not a theory of motivation; it only looks at what controls behavior.

 Equity theory: a theory which says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. There are four referent
comparisons that an employee can use:
o Self-inside: an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s
current organization
o Self-outside: an employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the
employee’s current organization
o Other-inside: another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s
organization
o Other-outside: another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s
organization

Source: Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior, Global Edition, 18th Edition. Pearson (Intl), 20180514. VitalBook file.
 When employees perceive inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
o Change their inputs (e.g. exert less effort).
o Change their outcomes (e.g. on piece-rate: higher quantity to increase pay)
o Distort perception of self (e.g. I work harder than I thought I did)
o Distort perception of others (e.g. His job is not as desirable as I thought)
o Choose different referent (e.g. I may not make as much as him, but I do make much
than the other)
o Leave the field (e.g. quit)
The theory establishes the following propositions relating to inequitable pay:
o Overrewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid employees
(payment by time)
o Overrewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than will
equitably paid employees (payment by quantity of production)
o Underrewarded employees will produce less/poorer quality of output (payment by
time)
o Underrewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units than will
equitably paid employees (payment by quantity of production)
Criticism on the theory: not all people are equity sensitive; people seek for equity in the
distribution on other organizational rewards; and historically it was distributive justice:
perceived fairness on the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Nowadays it’s
organizational justice: an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of
distributive, procedural and interactional justice.
o Distributive justice: see above
o Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution
of rewards (explanations; consistent; unbiased; accurate)
o Interactional justice: the perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity,
concern and respect.

What managers should do: recognize employees’ sensitivity to unfairness in procedures; openly
share allocation decisions; be consistent/unbiased; focus on the source of the problem.
 Expectancy theory: a theory which says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be follow by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. Three relationships are:
o Effort-performance relationship: the probability perceived by the individual that
exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance
o Performance-reward relationship: the degree to which the individual believes that
performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome

Source: Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior, Global Edition, 18th Edition. Pearson (Intl), 20180514. VitalBook file.
 o Rewards-personal goals relationship: the degree to which organizational rewards
satisfy an individual’s personal goals/needs and the attractiveness of those potential
rewards for the individual
It explains why many workers aren’t motivated: their skill level may be deficient; rewards are
also given for other reasons than performance; distribution of rewards is limited.

Global implications
 Some theories don’t apply and others do across cultures.
 Maslow’s needs hierarchy: the levels can differ in their order across cultures.
 The achievement need is more applicable to Anglo-American countries.
 Equity theory does not count for all cultures (collectivist cultures).
 The desire for interesting work applies to almost everyone.

Source: Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational Behavior, Global Edition, 18th Edition. Pearson (Intl), 20180514. VitalBook file.