Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
312
冢 冣 冢 冣 冢 冣
(a) The following formulas, in terms of the outside R+t Ro Ro
Zp p p
radius, are equivalent to and may be used instead of R R Ro −t
those given in UG-27(c) and (d).
(1) For cylindrical shells (circumferential stress), (2) Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints).
When the thickness of the cylindrical shell under internal
PRo SEt
tp or Pp (1) design pressure exceeds one-half of the inside radius,
SE + 0.4P R o − 0.4t
or when P exceeds 1.25SE, the following formulas
shall apply:
where
R o p outside radius of the shell course under consid- When P is known and t is desired,
eration, in. (mm)
1⁄
(2) For spherical shells,
冢 冣
1⁄ 2
2 Z −1
t p R (Z − 1) p Ro 1⁄
(3)
2
PR o 2SEt Z
tp or Pp (2)
2SE + 0.8P R o − 0.8t
where
Other symbols are as defined in UG-27.
冢SE + 1冣
P
Zp
冢 冣 冢 冣 冢 冣
1⁄ R+t Ro Ro
1⁄ 2 Zp p p
2 (Z −1) R R Ro − t
t p R (Z − 1) p R o 1⁄
(1)
2
Z
Symbols are as defined in UG-27 and 1-1.
where
SE + P
Zp
SE − P
1-3 THICK SPHERICAL SHELLS
Where t is known and P is desired, When the thickness of the shell of a wholly spherical
vessel or of a hemispherical head under internal design
冢 Z + 1冣
Z−1 pressure exceeds 0.356R, or when P exceeds 0.665SE,
P p SE (2)
the following formulas shall apply:
313
3 3
冢 R 冣 p 冢R − t冣
1⁄
R+t Ro
Yp
冢 冣
1⁄ 3
3 Y −1 o
t p R (Y − 1) p R o 1⁄
(1)
3
Y
Symbols are as defined in UG-27 and 1-1.
where
1-4 FORMULAS FOR THE DESIGN OF
FORMED HEADS UNDER
2(SE + P) INTERNAL PRESSURE
Yp
2SE − P
(a) The formulas of this paragraph provide for the
design of formed heads of proportions other than
those given in UG-32, in terms of inside and outside
When t is known and P is desired, diameter.
(b) The symbols defined below are used in the
formulas of this paragraph (see Fig. 1-4):
tp minimum required thickness of head after form-
冢 Y + 2冣
Y−1 ing, in. (mm)
P p 2SE (2)
Pp internal design pressure (see UG-21), psi (kPa)
314
TABLE 1-4.1
VALUES OF FACTOR K
(Use Nearest Value of D/ 2h; Interpolation Unnecessary)
D /2h 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0
K 1.83 1.73 1.64 1.55 1.46 1.37 1.29 1.21 1.14 1.07 1.00
D /2h 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 ...
K 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.66 0.61 0.57 0.53 0.50 ...
Dp inside diameter of the head skirt; or inside length (c) Ellipsoidal Heads 1
of the major axis of an ellipsoidal head; or inside
diameter of a cone head at the point under con-
sideration measured perpendicular to the longi-
tudinal axis, in. (mm) PDK 2SEt
Do p outside diameter of the head skirt; or outside tp or P p (1)
2SE − 0.2P KD + 0.2t
length of the major axis of an ellipsoidal head;
or outside diameter of a cone head at the point
under consideration measured perpendicular to PDo K
the longitudinal axis, in. (mm) tp
2SE + 2P (K − 0.1)
Sp maximum allowable working stress, as given in
Subsection C, psi (kPa), except as limited by
footnote 1 to 1-4(c) and (d), UG-24, UG-32(e), or
and UW-12.
Ep lowest efficiency of any Category A joint in
2SEt
the head (for hemispherical heads this includes Pp (2)
KD o − 2t (K − 0.1)
head-to-shell joint). For welded vessels, use the
efficiency specified in UW-12.
rp inside knuckle radius, in. (mm) where
Lp inside spherical or crown radius for torispherical
and hemispherical heads, in. (mm) 2
冤 冢 冣冥
1 D
Lp K1 D for ellipsoidal heads in which K1 is ob- Kp 2+
6 2h
tained from Table UG-37, in. (mm)
Lo p outside spherical or crown radius, in. (mm)
L / rp ratio of the inside crown radius to the inside Numerical values of the factor K are given in Table
knuckle radius, used in Table 1-4.2 1-4.1.
Mp a factor in the formulas for torispherical heads Example 1. 2 Determine the required thickness t of
depending on the head proportion L / r a seamless ellipsoidal head, exclusive of provision for
hp one-half of the length of the minor axis of the corrosion for the following conditions:
ellipsoidal head, or the inside depth of the ellip- D p 40 in; h p 9 in; P p 200 psi; S p 13,750
soidal head measured from the tangent line psi; E p 1.00.
(head-bend line), in. (mm)
Kp a factor in the formulas for ellipsoidal heads
depending on the head proportion D / 2h 1
Ellipsoidal heads designed under K > 1.0 and all torispherical heads 01
D / 2hp ratio of the major to the minor axis of made of materials having a specified minimum tensile strength
exceeding 70,000 psi (482 MPa) shall be designed using a value of
ellipsoidal heads, which equals the inside S equal to 20,000 psi (137.2 MPa) at room temperature and reduced
diameter of the skirt of the head divided by in proportion to the reduction in maximum allowable stress values
twice the inside height of the head, and is at temperature for the material as shown in the appropriate table
(see UG-23).
used in Table 1-4.1 2
This calculation is intended only to illustrate the use of the formula
␣p one-half of the included (apex) angle of the cone herein. Other paragraphs in this Division may have to be satisfied
at the center line of the head to permit use of the full tabular stress value.
315
From Table 1-4.1, K p 1.14. Substituting in Eq. (1), Example 1. 2Determine the required thickness t, exclu-
sive of allowance for corrosion, of a torispherical head
200 × 40 × 1.14 for the following conditions:
tp p 0.33 in. D p 40 in.; L p 40 in.; r p 4 in.; P p 200 psi;
[2 × 13,750 × (1.00) − (0.2 × 200)]
S p 13,750 psi; E p 1.00 (seamless head).
or PD
tp
2 cos ␣ (SE − 0.6P)
2SEt
Pp (4) or
ML o − t (M − 0.2)
2SEt cos ␣
where Pp (5)
D + 1.2t cos ␣
冢 冪 r冣
L
M p 1⁄4 3 + PD o
tp
2 cos ␣ (SE + 0.4P)
316
TABLE 1-4.2
VALUES OF FACTOR M
(Use Nearest Value of L/r ; Interpolation Unnecessary)
L/r 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
M 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.22
L/r 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
M 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 1.36 1.39 1.41 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.50
L/r 9.5 10.00 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 162⁄31
M 1.52 1.54 1.56 1.58 1.60 1.62 1.65 1.69 1.72 1.75 1.77
NOTE:
(1) Maximum ratio allowed by UG-32(j) when L equals the outside diameter of the skirt of the head.
317
TABLE 1-5.1 and the quantity is larger than the PRL /2 term, the
VALUES OF ⌬ FOR JUNCTIONS AT THE LARGE design shall be in accordance with U-2(g). The calcu-
CYLINDER FOR ␣ ≤ 30 deg. lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not
P/SsE1 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2).
⌬, deg. 11 15 18 21 23 The effective area of reinforcement can be determined
in accordance with the following formula:
P/SsE1 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.0091 ...
⌬, deg. 25 27 28.5 30 ...
NOTE:
AeL p (ts − t) 冪 RL ts + (tc − tr ) 冪 RL tc /cos ␣ (2)
(1) ⌬ p 30 deg. for greater values of P/SsE1.
Any additional area of reinforcement which is required
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 RL ts from the
TABLE 1-5.2 junction of the reducer and the cylinder. The centroid
VALUES OF ⌬ FOR JUNCTIONS AT THE SMALL
of the added area shall be within a distance of 0.25
CYLINDER FOR ␣ ≤ 30 deg.
× 冪 RL ts from the junction.
P/SsE1 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.02
⌬, deg. 4 6 9 12.5
(e) Reinforcement shall be provided at the junction
of the conical shell of a reducer without a flare and
P/SsE1 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.1251 the small cylinder when the value of ⌬ obtained from
⌬, deg. 17.5 24 27 30 Table 1-5.2, using the appropriate ratio P /Ss E1 , is less
NOTE: than ␣.
(1) ⌬ p 30 deg. for greater values of P/SsE1. The required area of reinforcement shall be at least
equal to that indicated by the following formula when
Qs is in tension:
(c) For a cone-to-cylinder junction, the following
冢 冣
values shall be determined at large end and again at kQs Rs ⌬
Ars p 1− tan ␣ (3)**
the small end in order that both the large end and the Ss E1 ␣
small end can be examined:
Determine P /Ss E1 and then determine ⌬ at the large At the small end of the cone-to-cylinder juncture,
end and at the small end, as appropriate, from Tables the PRs /2 term is in tension. When f2 is in compression
1-5.1 and 1-5.2. and the quantity is larger than the PRs /2 term, the
Determine k: design shall be in accordance with U-2(g). The calcu-
k p 1 when additional area of reinforcement is not lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not
required exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2).
p y /Sr Er when a stiffening ring is required, but The effective area of reinforcement can be determined
k is not less than 1.0 in accordance with the following formula:
(d) Reinforcement shall be provided at the junction
of the cone with the large cylinder for conical heads
and reducers without knuckles when the value of ⌬ Aes p 0.78 冪 Rs ts [(ts − t) + (tc − tr) /cos ␣] (4)
obtained from Table 1-5.1, using the appropriate ratio
P /Ss E1 , is less than ␣. Interpolation may be made in Any additional area of reinforcement which is required
the Table. shall be situated within a distance of 冪 Rs ts from the
The required area of reinforcement shall be at least junction, and the centroid of the added area shall be
equal to that indicated by the following formula when
within a distance of 0.25 冪 Rs ts from the junction.
QL is in tension:
( f ) Reducers not described in UG-36(e)(5), such as
冢 冣
kQL RL ⌬ those made up of two or more conical frustums having
ArL p 1− tan ␣ (1)**
Ss E 1 ␣ different slopes, may be designed in accordance with (g).
(g) When the half-apex angle ␣ is greater than 30
At the large end of the cone-to-cylinder juncture,
deg., cone-to-cylinder junctions without a knuckle may
the PRL /2 term is in tension. When f1 is in compression
be used, with or without reinforcing rings, if the design
is based on special analysis, such as the beam-on-
** For some of the terms of the above equation(s), it may be
necessary to convert millimeters to meters to obtain a rational result elastic-foundation analysis of Timoshenko, Hetenyi, or
in SI units. Watts and Lang. See U-2(g). When such an analysis
318
is made, the calculated localized stresses at the disconti- conforming to the several types illustrated in Fig. 1-6,
nuity shall not exceed the following values. shall be designed in accordance with the formulas
(1) (Membrane hoop stress) + (average discontinu- which follow.
ity hoop stress) shall not be greater than 11⁄2 SE, where (b) The symbols used in the formulas of this para-
the “average discontinuity hoop stress” is the average graph are defined as follows:
hoop stress across the wall thickness due to the disconti- tp minimum required thickness of head plate after
nuity at the junction, disregarding the effect of Poisson’s forming, in. (mm)
ratio times the longitudinal stress at the surfaces. Lp inside spherical or crown radius, in. (mm)
(2) (Membrane longitudinal stress) + (discontinuity rp inside knuckle radius, in. (mm)
longitudinal stress due to bending) shall not be greater Pp internal pressure (see UG-21) for the pressure
than 4SE. on concave side, and external pressure for the
The angle joint (see 3-2) between the cone and pressure on convex side [see UG-28(f)], psi
cylinder shall be designed equivalent to a double butt- (kPa)
welded joint, and because of the high bending stress, Sp maximum allowable stress value, psi (kPa) (see
there shall be no weak zones around the angle joint. UG-23)
The thickness of the cylinder may have to be increased Tp flange thickness, in. (mm)
to limit the difference in thickness so that the angle Mo p the total moment, in.-lb (kNWm), determined as
joint has a smooth contour. in 2-6 for heads concave to pressure and 2-11
The joint efficiencies E shall be in accordance with for heads convex to pressure; except that for
UW-12. heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (d),
HD and hD shall be as defined below, and an
additional moment Hr hr (which may add or sub-
1-6 SPHERICALLY DISHED COVERS
tract) shall be included where
(BOLTED HEADS)
Hr pradial component of the membrane load
(a) Circular spherical dished heads with bolting in the spherical segment, lb (kN), acting
flanges, both concave and convex to the pressure and at the intersection of the inside of the
319
flange ring with the center line of the (1) head thickness
dished cover thickness (a) for pressure on concave side,
pHD cot 1
hr plever arm of force Hr about centroid of 5PL
flange ring, in. (mm) tp (1)
6S
HD paxial component of the membrane load in
the spherical segment, lb (kN), acting at (b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick-
the inside of the flange ring ness shall be determined based on UG-33(c) using the
p0.785 B 2 P outside radius of the spherical head segment;
hD pradial distance from the bolt circle to the (2) flange thickness for ring gasket
inside of the flange ring, in. (mm)
1 pangle formed by the tangent to the center
冪 SB 冤A − B冥
Mo A + B
line of the dished cover thickness at its Tp (2)**
point of intersection with the flange ring,
and a line perpendicular to the axis of the
dished cover (3) flange thickness for full face gasket
冪S 冤 冥
P B (A + B)(C − B )
冢 冣
B T p 0.6 (3)
parc sin A−B
2L + t
NOTE: The radial components of the membrane load in the spherical
segment are assumed to be resisted by its flange.
NOTE: Since Hr hr in some cases will subtract from the total moment,
the moment in the flange ring when the internal pressure is zero (Within the range of flange standards listed in Table
may be the determining loading for flange design.
U-3, the flange and drillings may conform to the
standards, and the thickness specified therein shall be
Ap outside diameter of flange, in. (mm) considered as a minimum requirement.)
Bp inside diameter of flange, in. (mm) ( f ) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (c)
Cp bolt circle, diameter, in. (mm) (no joint efficiency factor is required):
(c) It is important to note that the actual value of (1) head thickness
the total moment Mo may calculate to be either plus (a) for pressure on concave side,
or minus for both the heads concave to pressure and
the heads convex to pressure. However, for use in all 5PL
of the formulas which follow, the absolute values for tp (4)
6S
both P and Mo are used.
(d) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (a): (b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick-
(1) the thickness of the head t shall be determined ness shall be determined based on UG-33(c) using the
by the appropriate formula in UG-32 for pressure outside radius of the spherical head segment;
on concave side, and UG-33(a)(1) for pressure on (2) flange thickness for ring gasket for heads with
convex side; round bolting holes
(2) the head radius L or the knuckle radius r shall
冪
comply with the limitations given in UG-32; 1.875Mo (C + B)
TpQ+ (5)**
SB (7C − 5B )
(3) the flange shall comply at least with the require-
ments of Fig. 2-4 and shall be designed in accordance
where
with the provisions of 2-1 through 2-7 for pressure on
concave side, and 2-11 for pressure on convex side.
冢 冣
(Within the range of flange standards listed in Table PL C + B
Qp **
4S 7C − 5B
U-3, the flange and drillings may conform to the
standards, and the thickness specified therein shall be
considered as a minimum requirement.)
** For some of the terms of the above equation(s), it may be
(e) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (b) necessary to convert millimeters to meters to obtain a rational result
(no joint efficiency factor is required): in SI units.
320
(3) flange thickness for ring gasket for heads with (2) flange thickness
bolting holes slotted through the edge of the head
TpF+ 冪 F2 + J (10)
冪
1.875Mo (C + B)
TpQ+ (6)**
SB(3C − B)
where
where
冢 冣 PB 冪 4L2 − B 2
PL C + B
Qp
4S 3C − B Fp
8S (A − B)
冢 SB 冣 冢 A − B冣
Mo A+B
冪
3BQ (C − B) Jp
TpQ+ Q2 + (7)
L
321
FIG. 1-7-1
The rules are limited to radial nozzles in cylindrical reinforcing plate, and/or nozzle flange divided by the
shells that do not have internal projections, and do not shell material allowable stress is at least 0.80.
include any analysis for stresses resulting from exter-
nally applied mechanical loads. For such cases U-2(g)
NOTE: The bending stress Sb calculated by Eq. (5) is valid and
shall apply. applicable only at the nozzle neck-shell junction. It is a primary
1-7(b)(2) The membrane stress Sm as calculated bending stress because it is a measure of the stiffness required to
by Eq. (1) or (2) below shall not exceed S, as defined maintain equilibrium at the longitudinal axis junction of the nozzle-
in UG-37 for the applicable materials at design condi- shell intersection due to the bending moment calculated by Eq. (3).
tions. The maximum combined membrane stress Sm
and bending stress Sb shall not exceed 1.5S at design Case A (See Fig. 1-7-1)
conditions. Sb shall be calculated by Eq. (5) below.
1-7(b)(3) Evaluation of combined stresses from
internal pressure and external loads shall be made in
accordance with U-2(g).
Sm p P 冢R(Rn + tn + 冪Rmt) + Rn(t + te + 冪Rnmtn)
As 冣 (1)
冢 冣
strength reduction ratio requirements of UG-41 need R(Rn + tn + 冪Rmt) + Rn(t + 冪Rnmtn)
not be applied, provided that the allowable stress ratio Sm p P (2)
As
of the material in the nozzle neck, nozzle forging,
322
FIG. 1-7-2
Cases A and B (See Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2) Ip moment of inertia of the larger of the shaded
areas in Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2 about neutral
冢 6 + R R e冣 P
R3n axis, in.4 (mm4)
Mp n (3)**
ap distance between neutral axis of the shaded area
in Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2 and the inside of
vessel wall, in. (mm)
a p e +t / 2 (4)
Rmp mean radius of shell, in. (mm)
Rnmp mean radius of nozzle neck, in. (mm)
Ma ep distance between neutral axis of the shaded area
Sb p (5)**
I and midwall of the shell, in. (mm)
Smp membrane stress calculated by Eq. (1) or (2),
psi (kPa)
1-7(b)(5) Nomenclature. Symbols used in Figs.
Sbp bending stress at the intersection of inside of
1-7-1 and 1-7-2 are as defined in UG-37(a) and as
the nozzle neck and inside of the vessel shell
follows:
along the vessel shell longitudinal axis, psi (kPa)
Asp shaded (cross-hatched) area in Fig. 1-7-1, Case
Syp yield strength of the material at test temperature,
A or Case B, in.2 (mm2)
see Table Y-1 in Subpart 1 of Section II, Part
D, psi (kPa)
** For some of the terms of the above equation(s), it may be
necessary to convert millimeters to meters to obtain a rational result 1-7(c) It is recommended that special consideration
in SI units. be given to the fabrication details used and inspection
323
324
325
The effective area of reinforcement can be determined temperature line for the design temperature, the design
in accordance with the following formula: shall be either per U-2(g) or by changing the cone or
cylinder configuration, stiffening ring location on the
AeL p 0.55冪 DL ts (ts + tc /cos ␣) (2) shell, and /or reducing the axial compressive force to
reduce the B value to below or at the material/tempera-
Any additional area of stiffening which is required ture line for the design temperature. For values of B
having multiple values of A, such as when B falls on
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 RL ts from the
a horizontal portion of the curve, the smallest value
junction of the reducer and the cylinder. The centroid
of A shall be used.
of the added area shall be within a distance of 0.25
Step 6. Compute the value of the required moment
× 冪 RL ts from the junction. of inertia from the formulas for Is or I′s. For the
When the cone-to-cylinder or knuckle-to-cylinder circumferential stiffening ring only,
juncture is a line of support, the moment of inertia
for a stiffening ring at the large end shall be determined ADL2 ATL
by the following procedure. Is p
14.0
Step 1. Assuming that the shell has been designed
and DL , LL , and t are known, select a member to be For the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone section,
used for the stiffening ring and determine cross-sectional
area ATL . Then calculate factor B using the following
ADL2 ATL
formula. If FL is a negative number, the design shall I ′s p
10.9
be in accordance with U-2(g):
Step 7. Determine the available moment of inertia
冢A 冣
FL DL
B p 3⁄4 ** of the ring only I or the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone I ′.
TL
Step 8. When the ring only is used,
where
I ≥ Is
326
lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not A p 2B / Ex . For value of B above the material /
exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2). temperature line for the design temperature, the design
The effective area of reinforcement can determined shall be either per U-2(g) or by changing the cone or
in accordance with the following formula: cylinder configuration, stiffening ring location on the
shell, and /or reducing the axial compressive force to
Aes p 0.55冪 Ds ts [(ts − t) + (tc − tr) /cos ␣] (4) reduce the B value to below or at the material /
temperature line for the design temperature. For values
Any additional area of stiffenerwhich is required of B having multiple values of A, such as when B
falls on a horizontal portion of the curve, the smallest
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 Rs ts from the
value of A shall be used.
junction, and the centroid of the added area shall be
Step 6. Compute the value of the required moment
within a distance of 0.25 冪 Rs ts from the junction. of inertia from the formulas for Is or I ′s .
When the cone-to-cylinder or knuckle-to-cylinder
juncture is a line of support, the moment of inertia For the circumferential stiffening ring only,
for a stiffening ring at the small end shall be determined
by the following procedure. ADs2 ATS
Is p
Step 1. Assuming that the shell has been designed 14.0
and Ds, Ls, and t are known, select a member to be
used for the stiffening ring and determine cross-sectional For the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone section,
area ATS. Then calculate factor B using the following
formula. If Fs is a negative number, the design shall ADs2 ATS
I ′s p
be in accordance with U-2(g): 10.9
冢A 冣
Fs Ds Step 7. Determine the available moment of inertia
B p 3⁄4
TS of the ring only I or the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone
I ′.
where Step 8. When the ring only is used,
I ≥ Is
Fs p PN + f2 tan ␣
and when the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone is used:
R tan ␣ Ls RL2 − Rs2
Np s + + **
2 2 6Rs tan ␣ I ′ ≥ I ′s
Step 2. Enter the right-hand side of theapplicable If the equation is not satisfied, a new section with
material chart in Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D for a larger moment of inertia must be selected, and the
the material under consideration at the value of B calculation shall be done again until the equation is met.
determined by Step 1. If different materials are used
for the shell and stiffening ring, use the material chart The requirements of UG-29(b), (c), (d), (e), and (f )
resulting in the larger value of A in Step 4 below. and UG-30 are to be met in attaching stiffening rings
Step 3. Move horizontally to the left to the to the shell.
material / temperature line for the design metal tempera- (d) Reducers not described in UG-36(e)(5), such as
ture. For values of B falling below the left end of the those made up of two or more conical frustums having
material / temperature line, see Step 5 below. different slopes, may be designed in accordance with (e).
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart (e) When the half-apex angle ␣ is greater than 60
and read the value of A. deg., cone-to-cylinder junctions without a knuckle may
Step 5. For values of B falling below the left end be used, with or without reinforcing rings, if the design
of the material / temperature line for the design tempera- is based on special analysis, such as the beam-on-
ture, the value of A can be calculated using the formula elastic-foundation analysis of Timoshenko, Hetenyi, or
Watts and Lang. See U-2(g). The effect of shell and
cone buckling on the required area and moment of
** For some of the terms of the above equation(s), it may be
necessary to convert millimeters to meters to obtain a rational result inertia at the joint is to be taken into consideration in
in SI units. the analysis. When such an analysis is made, the
327
328