SPE/DOE 27824

Surfactant Flooding: Technical and Economical Conditions

To Succeed
S.R. Jakobsen and Frank Hovland, Petec A/S
SPE Members

-~ht 1~. W* of pafmbum Enoi*, Inc.

This paper was Ppamd for presentation at the SPE/OOE NMh Sympmsium on Improved Oil Recovw hefd in Tuba, Okfahoma, U.S.A., 17-M April 1994

This paper was adecfed bf pmwnatbn by an SPE Program Commilbe Mowing rewiw of intormafii contained In an abafracf 8ubmHfed by the author(s). Contenm of the paper,
necewrily Ntbcf
as presented, have ml taen reviewed by lfw SOcbly of Pelrobum Enginearn and are subjecf to oarreclbn by the author(s). The nwwbd, nY pmsemted, do6a not
any podtii of the SocbIY of Pefrofeum Engineers, W officam, w mentws. POP6M wewnfed at SPE meetirw am 8@cf to publfcatbn revisw by Edbbl Cammlffwa of the society
d~~-. Pwmiwbnmqb~mm*M& ~wW~tis.lll_tiw Mb~. ~ti_*Mtin~wk~
of where and by whom the M b presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Sox 8S38SS, Rbfwdson, TX 75wHSSE, U.S.A., Tefex 16324S SPEUT.

Four major North Sea fields have been selected for a

Surfactant flooding in four North Sea sandstone reservoirs
have been studied by numerical simulations. The paper
discusses the technical and the economical potential for
surfactant flooding in these reservoirs, in addition to the
uncertainty involved. The results indicates that optimum
economy is achieved when typically leas than 50 % of the
surfactant flood technical potential is recovered.
screening study. Location of suitable pilot areas have been
identified. The results presented in this paper is based on
simulation of surhctant flooding in these areas, denoted as
reservoir 1,2,3 and 4, respectively.
TION M-

The simulations are conducted using the ECLIPSE black

oiI simulation model with the surfkctant option [6]. The
rnicroemulsion phase behaviour is not taken into
consideration explicitly. However, a user defined
Surfactant flooding has for several years been rrxmgnised
es ~avinaa .9 .&uni&nmf
“e... .. .. mtc=m~ialwith relationship between surfactant concentration and
y---- -- . . . . IWQ
.- pert
-. t. inrreaeexl
.. ..-. ——
interfiicisl tension maim the model suitabie for screening
oil recovery [I, z 3, 4]. The potential profitable additional
studies
recovery from surfactant flooding in the Norwegian sector
of the North Sea is estimated to between 55-87 mill Sm3
Surfsctsnt adsorption, capillary desaturation curves and low
( 346-547 mill. STE) [4]. Despite this fac~ surthctsnt
tension relative permeability cunms are input to the model.
flooding has never been applied in this area except for
The model assumes that the surfactant is entirely in the
single well teats [5]. One important reason is the uncertainty
water phase, which is an approximation to the II-
related to the economical potential [4].
microemulsion phase system.
An on-going research program RUTH (Reservoir
The ECLIPSE approach to surfactsnt flood modelling is an
Utilisation through advanced Technological Help),
oversimplification of real microemulsion phase and
sponsored by Nonvegirm authorities and several oil
property behaviour. For evaluation of system efficiency for
companies, focus on surfectant fltilng in addition to a
user defined system properties the model is, however,
number of other IOR methods. One objective of the
useful. The ECLIPSE simulations might therefore be
surfactant program is to identify the economical and
used to define the required properties of the surfactant
technical conditions necessary for successful surfactant
system.
flooding in the North Sea.

References and illustration at the end of the paper.

457
Su RFACTANT PROPERTIES For simplicity, surfactant and polymer cost is added and
referred to as $ pr. kilogram dry weight of surfactant

Three parameters that strongly influence the surfactant No polymer is injected in order to improve the mobility
flood efficiency are the cnticat capillary number, the ratio. The eventual polymer consumption is therefor related
interracial tension and the surfactant loss. to the LTPF concept 171, and the polymer expenditurea is for
that reason expected to be marginal compared to the
The critical capillary number is 104, 104, 3.010-5 and Surfactant cost.
2.5010-5 for reservoir 1,2,3 and 4, respectively.
g’~~ ~~ ‘~~~~$t~g!’
~~~ ~~ 4=3 $$kg C@ weight.The
Assuming an average North Sea water flood capillary influence of surfactant cost on economy is evaluated by
number of 10-7 implies that reduction in interracial tension assuming surfactant coats of 1.4 $Acg and 7.1 $/kg,
should be at least a factor I@ in order to exceed the respectively.
maximum critical capillary number.
The oil price strongly aftm the surfactant flood camomy.
The interracial tension is assumed to be equal for the Unfortunately the price is unpredictable and is subject to
surfactant systems applied in the four reservoirs. The base large fluctuations. In this study 20 $/bbl is used as the base
case interfaciat tension of 10-3 dynes/meter used in this value. The influence of oil price upon the economy is
study is reported in literature [7] for a LTPF system. This evaluated using 15 $/bbl and 25 $/bbl as minimum and
interracial tension represents a reduction in interracial maximum price scenarios.
tension of approximately ld, which should cover fairly
well all the four reservoirs. It is important to note that the surfactant flood is not
considered as a stand alone projec~ but is expected to be a
Tine surfac’bmt iOSS C4ill be S@i lllW
‘“’- plww
‘h””” Llayy+j,
‘-n--<””
cmwdt=ment tn an nnuninu water iniectinn
-Wrr-..-... rmmam. Further
.. . . -..e-...e .._.-. -.., ------- P--C7-------------:
adsorption, production of surfactant from swept regions it is assumed that the surfactant fload project is terminated
and injection of surfactant into zones which do not within the expected economical lifetime of the water
contribute to increased oil recovery within economical time injection program. The costs related to the surfactant flood
D-A .“AAm -f +ha lwfi Iatt-. ic a k-v ellbied in t$is is !he~f~~ pure additioti surfactant flood dedicated costs
hnes. Awsbbuull UI L’.” .“ “ .Ca..v. .. “ --j .“ ,—. . .. .. ..

study. The adsorption level is assumed to be 0.4 mg/g rock

for all rescrvoim. Though the rcaervoir rock properties For that reason the income from the syrfactant flood is
(including clay content) is different for the four reservoin, based purely on the incremental oil production from
0.4 mg/g is considered being a representative average surfactant flooding.
value.
The operating costs, which covers manpower dedicated to
There is a substantial uncertainty related to the magnitude the surfactant flood project and chemicals for produced
of all the three parameters. In order to study the impact on fhdd treatment, is assumed to be 0.21 mill $/year. Also this
oil recovery of variations in these parameters, sensitivity parameter is tested for a lower and a higher value, 0.11 and
runs have been conducted using possiiiie, or pro’@Ie, n A- —.11 *I----- —“-.-.4:
U.4L miu w yc.ar, rcspcuIvGIy.
. ...1..

lower and upper valuea.

Building of additional facilities dedicated to the surfactant
The lower and upper values for microemulsion - oil flood projec$ as reported elsewhere [9], is not considered.
interracial tension are 10-4 and 10-2 dynes/meter, It is assumed that the microemulsion can be treated by
respectively. existing process equipment, with the addition of sufficient
amount of emulsion breakers.
The adsorption values are 0.1 mg/g and 1.0 mg/g,
respectively. Different well patterns have been tested for the different
reservoim, in order to obtain the most efficient surfactant
The uncertainty in critical capillary number is assumed to flow pattern. The cost of these additional wells are not
be +/- hrdf a logarithmic unit. included as surftictant flood cost. The most important
reason is the assumption that incremental and/or
accelerated water flood oil production from these wells
w ONOMICAL PREMISES pays back the cost.

The calculation of economy takes into consideration cost
of surfactant and polymer, oil price, operational costs and
interest rate. The parameter used to quantify the economy is
the cumulative discounted net cash flow (CDNCF) [8].
The discount rate influences the North Sea surfactant flood
economy due to long response time caused by large well
spacing. The magnitude of this parameter is subject to in-
house policy, but in order to evaluate the sensitivity of
discount rate on the surfactant flood economy three

458
.
scenarios has been looked at. The base case discount rate is
assumed to be 8 Ye/year. A minimum and maximum vatue
of O and 16 %/year is used in the sensitivity study.
SIMULATION
One of the objectives of the simulations is to optimise the
surfactant flood effkiency, which is to maximise the
volume of incremental oil production pr. mass unit of
injected surfactant.
This is done first of atl by improving the well pattern. It is,
however, both for economical and technical reasons limited
how many new wells that can be introduced in the
surfactant flood area.
The well pattern sensitivity includes typicatly one or two
new wells in addition to the existing. These new wells are
introduced as injectors in some casea, and producers in
other, dependent on the existing well pattern. In some
casea, existing injectmx and producers have been side-
tracked, either vertically or horizontally. Because of large
drainage ar~ long well spacing and relatively few wells
available, speciat attention is paid to horizontal welts. Also
the concept of introducing surfactant injectom in the
drainage area between the existing water injeetrm and oil
producers has been considered.
The number of well pattern sensitivities vary from reservoir
to reservoir. The different well patterns are denoted ‘casea’
in the result figures, case O always being the present well
pattern.
In order to find the optimum amount of surfactant to inject,
several slug volumes are tested for each well pattern. Since
the surfactant concentration is kept constant (3 volume %)
for all the simulations, the amounts of surfactant injected is
proportionat to the slug volume. While the cumulative
incremental oil production is expected to increase with
increasing amount of surfactant injected up to a certain
level, it is expected that the CDNCF will reach a maximum
at a certain amount of surfactant injected and then decline.
At this point the cost of injecting more surthctant exceed
the income from the incremental oil production.
For each well pattern and slug volume, the simulation is
run until the incremental oil production approaches zero.
The recove~ at this point in time represents the technical
potentiat. The CDNCF is catcutated as a function of time
for each simulation and the incremental oil production at
the time of maximum CDNCF is atso notified.
All well patterns are, for two reasons, initially simulated
with pure water injection. First of atl in order to establish
the oil production base line, to which the surfactant flood
oil production will be compared. Secondly to identify the
optimum time to start the surfactant injection. As will be
459
the case also for a real field pilot, the water flood oil
production shoutd be on decline when the oil mobilised by
the surfactant flood is produced.
JUMULTS AND DI SCUSSION
Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4 shows the cumulative incremental oil
production at the end of surfactant flood life time as a
function of amount of surfactant injected, for reservoir 1, 2,
3 and 4, respectively. Each of the cases referred to in the
figures representa different well pattern.
It is obsemwd that the cumulative incremental oil
production increases smoothly with increasing amount of
-—-—- —-. ---,--.-—.
surfactant i nieded. _ ~~te of ....
The ..—. declines.
increase ..—,however;
_——-..
with increasingly amount of surfactant injected. The
maximum cumulative incremental oil production is defined
as the technical potential. This is in contrary to the
economical potential, which in this paper is defined as the
cumulative incremental oil production at maximum
CDNCF.
The maximum incremental oil production varies
substantially with well pattern. This is related to changes
in the water flood volumetric sweep.
Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 shows that the technical efficiency
factor [IO] for reservoir 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. With a
few exceptions, the efficiency fiictors decreases steadily
with increasingly amount of surfactant injected.
This behaviour illustrates the fact that the volumetric sweep
eftlciency at surfactant breakthrough is less, far less, than 1.
As lower permeable layers and remote part of the
reservoir are swept by surfactant, a considerable amount of
the injected surfactant is produced trough the atready
sweep zones. The amount depends on the slug volum~ but
represents typicatly 10- 30 % of the injected surfactant.
As will be discussed below, the maximum profit is achieved
at the optimum balance between cumulative increased oil
production and surfactant consumption.
The surfactant cost is linear proportional with the amount
of surfactant injected, while the income from incremental
oil recove~ is not. Therefore, at some stage, the cost will
exceed the income. Figure 9, 10, 11 and 12 shows the
cumulative discounted net cash flow as a function of
amount of surfactant injwtcd, for rc.wvoir 1, 2, 3 and 4,
rtapectively.
It is observed that the CDNCF reach a maximum at a
certain amount of surfactant injected. The point of
maximum CDNCF depend both on reservoir
heterogeneitiea and well pattern. In generat, the maximum
CDNCF is reached when 1=s than 50 % of the technical
potentiat is recovered. This percentage increases with
improved sweep effkiency, for instance by introducing
more wells.
Figure 13 shows the discounted cost pr. barrel of increased
oil production for the optimum well pattern of resewoir 1, 2
and 3, respectively. The Figure illustrate that the cost per.
barrel of oil increases significantly when more than 50 % of
the technical potentird is recovered.
Figure 14 shows the difference between the water flood
cumulative oil production for the various well patterns and
the water flood cumulative oil production from the base
case (present ) well pattern. The purpose of this Figure is to
illustrate that wells introduced in order to improve the
surfactant flood effkiency also may contribute to increased
water flood production. It is, however, also observed that
this is not always the case.
It is observed from Figure 10 that well pattern 2 and 4
gives the highest maximum CDNCD, well costs excluded.
It is observed from Figure 14 that these well patterns also
gives a substantial increased water flcmd oil production. In
case 2, an additional horizontal injector was introduced. In
case 4 both an horizontal injector and producer was
introduced.
The risk associated with these surfactant flood projects can
to a certain degree be related to the ratio of CDNCF and
the total expenditurea exposed to the projec$ the
Discounted Profitability Index (DPI). A DPI higher than 1
retlects a favorable economy PI]. DPI close to zero, but
still positive, indicates a high risk sinu only slightly
deviations from expected surfactant efilciency or reservoir
bchaviour may ruin the project. The DPI is plotted in
Figure 15 and 16, for the optimum well pattern of reservoir
1, 2 and 3. Figure 15 shows the DPI as a fimction of
cumulative incremental oil production. Figure 16 shows the
CDNCF as a function of the DPL Generally, as indicated in
Figure 15, the DPI decreasea with increasing cunmtative
incremental oil production. & illustrated in Figure 16, in
terms of risk it-may be preferable to inject an-amount of
surfactant that returns leas than the maximum CDNCF,
since the DPI in this case would be higher.
The risk, or uncertainty, associated with theac surfactant
n__A -:, _.. IS
LKJUU pmns
2. Lurmcr
C..AL-- musmmw
:1,.. ”.—. ->
III rl~um
:- e:-.. —
J I, 10 uuu L> UL
*-I * 0 --A
reservoir 1, 2 and 3, respectively. These tigurea shows the
sensitivity to CDNCF of criticat capillary number,
interracial tension and adsoqXion. The simulations are run
for a particular well pattern using the optimum amount of
surfactant, according to Figure 9, 10 and 11.
The most likely values for interracial tension, critical
capillary number and adsorption is subject to considerable
uncertainty. The relative change of the three parameters
reflects probable maximum and minimum values. The
information in Figure 17-19 is rearranged in Figure 20,
21 and 22 to illustrate the probability concept. In general
the sensitivity to changea in interfliciat tension and critical
capillary number is considerable, an introduces a significant
uncertainty.
Cost and prices are, perhaps with the exception of oil price,
easier to predict than the surfactant efficiency. Figure 23,
24,25 and 26 shows the sensitivity to CDNCF of surkfant
CQS4 oil price, operational custs and discount rate for
reacrvoir 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively.. The base oil price is
20 $/bbl and it is fmm these figures obvious that the present
oil price do not encourage the implementation of large
scale surfktant projects. The sensitivity to surfaetant cast,
on the other hand, may be an incentive to developing
cheaper surfactant system.
The results indicatea that the development of new
surfactants perhaps should be more focused on reducing
the cast pr. dry weight than reducing adsorption. Though
both Parametem affects the totrd cost surfactant cost has
proven to be a more sensitive parameter than adso@ion.
This is related to the problem discussed above. Due to poor
sweep effkiency at surfactant break-through more
suri%ctant than is nweasary to saturate the contacted
restwoir with respect to adsorption is injected.
Figure 23-26 clearly illustrates the impact of discount
rate, reflecting the large well spacing and long response
time.
By introducing a few additionat wetls in the target arq
the surthctant flood effkiency my be considerably
improved. These new wells will, in some cawa, accelerate
and / or increase the water flood oil production
substantially.
The balance between sfictant consumption and increased
oil reduction is of outmost importance, and even marginal
over-injection may ruin the economy. The maximum
cumulative discounted net cash ftow is achieved when
typically leas than 50 % of the technical potential is
recovered.
in -c
The DPI is, with some few exceptions, leas then 1 even for
the optimum casea, indicating that the surfactant flood
concept is not free of risk with respect to expected profit
even at 20 $/bbl.
The authors wishes to thank SAGA Petroleuu SHELL
and STATOIL for providing the project with detailed
reservoir and fluid information , making it possible to
460
. *

conduct a reliable evaluation of the North Sea surfactant [10] Skjmeland S.M. and Kleppe J.,”SPOR
flood potential. monograph, Recent Advancea in Improved
Oil Recovay Methods for Sandstone
Reservoir”, pp. 265-268, NPD, 1992

[11] Goodyear S.G, “Risk Evolution and

Management in IOR Projects”; Beat
[1] Hinderaker L., et. al., “IOR Resource Practicea for Improved Oil Recovery,
Potential of Norwegian North Sea London Wl, November 1993.
Sandstone Reservoirs”, JPSE, 7, 1- pp
3-14.
[2] Skj&weland S.M. and Kleppe J.,”SPOR
monograph Recent Advances in Improved
Oil Recovexy Methads for Sandstone
Reservoirs”, NPD, 1992

[3] Bu T., Skauge A. and Aanonsen S.1.,

1
“Preparation for a Chemical Flooding Pilot z
in The Oseberg Formation”, Fifth a9 I
European Symposium on Improved Oil
Recovery, Budapes4 25-27 April, 1989.

[4 Hinderaker L. et. al, “IOR Resource

Foientiai of Fionvegian North Sea
Sandstone Reservoirs”, Sixth European
Symposium on Improved Oil Recovexy, pp
957-966, Stavanger, 21-23 May, 1991.

[5 E. Gilje, R. KristianseL T. Maldal and O.

Vikane, “Well Test Verification of the
Technical Potential for Improved Oil
Recovery by Surfactant Flooding in the
Gullfaks Fieldn, Sixth European
Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery, pp
759-787, Stavanger, 21-23 MSy, 1991.
FIGURE 1. CUMUIATWE INCREAS13DOIL PRODUCI’IONAS A
[6] ECLIPSE 100 and 200 Reference Manual PUNCt’10N OF AMOUNTOF SURPACI’ANTINJB3ED, MB. 1.

[7] Kalpakci B., et al., “Method of Enhanced

Oil Recovery Using Low Tension Viscous
Waterflood, United Statea Patent nr.
4979564, December 25, 1990.

[8] Ramirex W.F., “Application of Optimal

Control Theory to Enhanced Oil
Recovery”, Elsevier, 1987.

[9] Bondor P.L.,”Dilute Surfactant Flooding

for North Sea Applications- Tedmical and
Economic Consideration”, Sixth European
Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery,
Stavanger, 21-23 May, 1991.

461
 .

1.4 1.6 T
T

o 10 al 20 ‘m 50
wNroF8uwacrAur W9xm[ulcw]

FIGURE 2. CUMULATIVE INCREASEDOIL PRODUCI’IONAS A FIGURE 4. CUMULA’IYVSINCREASEDOIL PRODUCTIONAS A

FUNCTIONOF AMOUNTOF SURFACTANTIN.JHXED, W. 2 FUNCTIONOF AMOUNTOF SURPACTANTINJECTED. W. 4.

RES~VUR 1

Q7

Q’ ‘I175 \

\
Q5

t14

Q3

(J2

al
2s
t
o~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
CUMUIATIW Ixcnmsm OL mooucllOx [w Sua ]

FIGURE 3. CUMULATIVEINCREASEDOIL PRODUCTIONAS A FIGURE 5. TECHNICALEFFICIENCY FACTOR AS A FUNCllON OF

FUN(XION OF AMOUNTOF SURFACTANT INJECTED, I/ES. 3. CUMIJIATWE INCREASEDOIL PRODUCTION,RESERVOIR 1.

462
.

R=ER~lR 2
RESERVOIR4

80.

10

t
“~ o 0.25 0.5 0,75 1 1.25 1,5
o 0.2 0,4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 CUMULATIVE INCRSASED OIL PROUCTION [ WI
SM3]

FIGURE 6. TECHNICALEFFICIENCY———__
FACTOR
__ . .._AS .A..-.FI lNr’17nN
. . . . . . .-l(_IE —------ ——-———
rltiuw! u.“IECHNICAL
EFFICIENCY FACN)R AS A FUNCTIONOF
CUMULATIVEINCREASEDOIL PRODUCI’ION,IUSERVOIR 2.
CUMULATIVEINCREASEDOIL PRODUCTION,RJ3ERVOIR 4.

RESERVOIR 1

20

—C-O

—C-,

—c#SE*

—x— CM 3

-60

0 5 10 15 20 25
AMOUNTOF 3UWACTANTlNJ~ [ MTONS]

FIGURE 7. TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY FACK)R AS A FUNCTIONOF

FIGURE 9. CUMULATIVEDISCOUNTED~ CASH FLOW
CUMULATIVEINCREASEDOIL PRODUCTION,RESERVOIR3.
(CDNCF)AS A FUNCTIONOF AMOUNTOF SURFACTANT
INJECTEO, RES. 1.
 .

R2SERVOIR 2 RwERvom 4

20 20

0 al

-m 10

z Q
=
s
E
g -lo
0
-80 -20

-lW -30

-120 -40
o 5 lo1520a 3335
AMOUNTCI=SURfAOIANT N.IECTEO [ N W ]

FIGURE 10. CUMULATIVE DISCOUNTEDNET CASH FIGURE 22. CUMULA’IIVJ3DISCOUNTED NET CASH
FLOW(CDNCF)AS A FUNCTIONOF AMOUNTOF SURFA~ANT FU)W(CDNCF) AS A FUNCTIONOF AMOUNTOF SURFACTANT
INIEcrED, REs. 2 1~, E 4.

20

-20

-40

-lW
5
t
-120

o 5 10 15 20253025 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 1 12

ANouNroPwffacTMl ~[Mm] OMLAnw u22wlmarEcaww[hw2M3]

FIGURE Il. CUMULATIVEDISCOUNTED~ CASH FIGURE 13. DISCOUNTSDCIXT PSR BARREL OF 01.1+~ERVOIR
FU)W(CDNCF) AS A FUNCTIONOF AMOUNTOF SURFAffANT
1,2 AND3.
mlEcrED. Rm. 3.
,. .

1.5
20

1
18
0.5 16

0 14

~-., ~
I
I
: -1
I

:.1.5

-2 6
❑ -oml
4
-25 ❑ R6sawal+ 2

❑ lREsmwR3 2
-3

0
-3,5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 25
Wmowcosw msuwAcTAsra[$/$]

FIGURE 14. CHANGE IN CUMIJMTIVE WATERFl_flODOIL

FIGURS 16. CUMUMTIVE DISCOuhl’nll NET CASH FLOW AS A
PRODUCTIONCOMPAREDK) CASE O,~ERVOIR 1,2 AND 3.
FUNCTIONOF DPI. RF3ERVOIR L 2 AND 3.

R8S8RWR I, CASS o

30-

25- -

20- -

z~ 15
s

~ ,0
8 — InO
-ACM
TEnam
5 — InOCRlmm.
w-W-
~ #DsmPTw
o : El

-51 I
0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 -100 -50 0 50 100
clMs.AIM —==mLoLPmmmlos[ hw3M3]
RUTWSVAMAllUN [ %]

FIGURE 15. RATIOOF CUMUIATIVS DISCOUNTEDW C42H

FIGURE 17. CUIUULA’ITVS DISCOUNTSDNEiTCA2H ~WASA
FLOW ‘IO SURFACrANT COST (DPl) FOR _VOIR 1,2 AND 3.
FUNCllON OF R2MTIvE VARIATIONIN INIERFAUAL T21WION,
CRITICALCAPILJARY NUMBER ANDADSORPTION,~. 1.

465
 .,.

I I
RESERVOIR ~ CASE O RESERVOIR 1, CASE O

1s0
140
120

100
I
m
o

-20
!
4t

-1oo -50 0 50 100

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 20
REATM? HTION [%]
~ [MU $ b L=STIWN OR EOUALTO

FIGURE 18. CUMULATIVE DISCOUNTEDNET CASH FLOW AS A FIGURE ?0. CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY ‘DISTRIBUTION OF
FUNCTIONOF RELATIVE VARIATIONIN INTERFACIALTEtWION, CUMULATIVE DISCOUNTEDNET CL4SHFLOW, RESERVOIR L
Pnlmr=,l
.’”, ,— P.mrr
Grl.r,—r ..” I l~ummm
..mmm ..-
mu
m._..—_.. -— .
AU3UIV11UN, KPS. f.

RES~VOIR 3 CASE 5
RESERVOIR z CASE 2.

s
s
:-10 --
g

-15
In—ON
I
-m 1 I i I
-1oo -50 0 Y) 100 -W 0 50 lal 150
REATWE VARIATION
CONCFIIIWM$LHTIIANOR~m

FIGURE 19. CUMULATIVE DISCOUNTEDNET CASH FIX3W AS A

FIGURR 21. CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY ‘DISTIURUTION OF
FUNCTIONOF RELATIVE VARIATIONIN TERFACIAL TENSION,
CUMU14JIVE DISCX)UNTEDNET CASH FUIW , IUN3RVOIR 2.
CRITICAL CAPILIARY NUMBER ANDADSORPTION,-.3.

466
.,,0

RBERVOIR ~ CASE 5
RESERVOIR~ CASE O

T 1
F

so
25
20
15
t
&’ 10
s
❑ Lm I-lcw.mmllm =5
E mri mmc* cwnmw
-r!

-10
-15
-20 1 \
4 b
-25 I
a) -15 -10 -5 0
CONCf[MM $J, LESS1’NANWEOU&TO
-100 -50 0 50 100
=lWE VAFMTlON

FIGUIW 22. CUMUL/lTIVl? PROIMBIU~ ‘DISTRIBWnON OF

CUMULA1’lVll DISCOLNll?ll ~ CASH FLOW, RESERVOIR 3. FIGURE 24. CUMUIXnVE DISCO~ ~ CASH F~W AS A
FUNCTIONOF RELATIVE VARIATIONIN SURFA~~ COST, OIL
PIUC~ OP~llONti CC6Xs AND DISCOLJm RATE. REX 2

,.-

FIGURE 23. CUMUbl’llVE DISCO~ ~ CASH FIL)W AS A

FUNCTJONOF RELATIVE VARIATIONIN SURFA~ANT COST. OIL FIGURE 2S. CUMIJMllvli DISCOUNT131NET CASH FLOW AS A
PRICE 0P13wl’10N& CCSIS AND DISCOUm ILM’E. REX 1. FUNCTIONOF REL4TlV13VARIATIONIN SURFA~~ ~, OIL

467
 .

-Im -9) o s lm
FEAlnEwmulKN[%]

FIGURE 26. CLJMU’IATWE DISCOUNTED~ CASH FIK)W AS A

FUNCTIONOF REIATIVE VARIATIONIN SIJRFAC1’ANTCOST, OIL
PRICE OPERATIONALCOSl?3AND D~UNT RATE. RFS. 4.

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