Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy for Sustainable Development

Design and performance assessment of a rice husk fueled stove for

household cooking in a typical sub-Saharan setting
Simone Pietro Parmigiani a,⁎, Francesco Vitali b, Adriano Maria Lezzi a, Mentore Vaccari b
a
University of Brescia, DIMI, Via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy
b
CeTAmb LAB, DICATAM, University of Brescia, via Branze 43, 25123 Brescia, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study presents the design and development of a rice-husk-fuelled cookstove to improve poor people's ener-
Received 8 August 2012 gy access in developing countries. The availability of rice husk, an agricultural by-product currently without any
Revised 21 November 2013 use, neither value, on many markets, has suggested recovering this biomass for household-cooking purposes.
Accepted 4 January 2014
õAccording to typical rural socio-technical constraints, a prototype of rice husk burner has been designed.
Available online 2 August 2014
After testing various configurations, a crude-earth structure with a metal-net fuel reactor, placed inside the
Keywords:
combustion chamber, resulted to be the most promising lay-out. A chimney induces the air flows, necessary
Appropriate combustion technology for operation, in the combustion chamber, while eliminating harmful smokes from the living environment. The
Rice husk chimney also prevents the use of electrical fans, which may not result appropriately for many rural contexts.
Improved cookstove Performance results are presented, together with emission data and a safety assessment. Results from Water
Energy access Boiling Tests (average thermal efficiency 18%) and Controlled Cooking Tests (specific consumption 4.2 MJ per
Biomass gasification kg of cooked food) show how this technology could represent a viable alternative to three-stone fires and
other rudimentary cooking systems, allowing the recovery of energy from a waste biomass. Evidences from
the safety assessment and the indoor CO monitoring demonstrate the absence of hazards in the domestic use
of the stove. The study is completed by an economic analysis that accounts for the local feasibility and affordabil-
ity of this specific solution in a given context.
© 2014 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction natural resources and the exposure of users to health-affecting smoke,

2.7 billion people worldwide, 40% of the Earth's total population,
rely on solid fuels (mainly wood, charcoal and dung) to fulfill their
cooking needs and a large part of those people use this resource with
three-stone fires or other inefficient traditional stoves. This problem is
worsening quite rapidly, due to many simultaneous causes. Population
growth is the first one, but also the economic recession and the rising
cost of modern liquid fuels are bringing many households back to
using biomass as a ‘cheaper’ alternative (IEA, 2010). Biomass is a bizarre
renewable energy source. It can actually be used in a renewable manner
and a quite ‘clean’1 combustion can be achieved, but definitely it is not a
renewable or a ‘clean’ source if deforestation problems arise and smoke
from incomplete combustion stagnates in living environments, so tech-
nology and specific-research, in particular, can play a significant role in
enabling these practices. Biomass and solid fuels are the only affordable
and accessible energy resources for the poorest households and this will
probably be true for a few more decades (IEA, 2009). This results in a
very low usage efficiency of the fuel, increasing the stress on the local
⁎ Corresponding author.
1
The terms ‘clean’ and ‘cleaner’ are used in a broad sense, mainly considering the user's
perspective, rather than absolute emissions.
emitted because of poor combustion of biomass fuels.
Indoor smoke, from cooking with biomass, is associated with many
diseases (Bruce et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2004; Viegi, 2004). It is estimat-
ed that household air pollution from solid fuels accounted for nearly
3.5 million deaths in 2010 (Lim et al., 2012), which is more than the
deaths from malaria (1.2 million), tuberculosis (1.2 million), HIV/AIDS
(1.5 million) and also diarrheal diseases (1.5 million) according to the
recent study on the Global Burden of Disease (Lozano et al., 2012).
These last diseases are strongly addressed by specific programs, and in
the future the relevant number of related deaths are likely to be re-
duced, while the victims caused by the exposure to indoor smoke are
increasing (as shown by the comparison between WHO data for 2004
and 2008). According to WHO projections this figure is supposed to
increase even more, by 2030 over 4000 people are expected to die pre-
maturely each day from household air pollution (HAP) (IEA, 2011). In
particular, considering data reported by Lim et al. (2012), in Eastern,
Central and Western sub-Saharan Africa household air pollution from
solid fuels is the second risk factor in 2010, while diseases attributable
to unimproved sanitation or unimproved water source (which are
intuitively considered typical risk factors in such regions) are ranked
significantly lower (between the 8th and the 12th positions). Women
and young children are the most affected, as they are exposed to high

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2014.01.003
0973-0826/© 2014 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
16 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24

levels of indoor cooking smoke, in the form of CO and small particulates only by environmental and technological factors (such as achieving a
PM2.5, sometimes even 20 times higher than the maximum levels rec- ‘cleaner’ and more efficient operation) but mainly by technical con-
ommended by the World Health Organization (Engel et al., 1998; WHO, straints (skills, materials and locally available resources) and by socio-
2005). The first step to be taken should be to introduce ventilation and economical ones (local cooking practices, economical convenience).
to improve the kitchen layout (Armendáriz-Arnez et al., 2008; Smith The development of low-technology, but high-efficiency models has
et al., 2010). Only a quarter of households relying on biomass for been implemented according to the poorest socio-economic conditions,
cooking uses a chimney or a smoke hood (World Bank, 2011). with minimal investment capacity due to very low level of income and
The research presented in this paper was inspired by the activities very basic skills and available tools for local manufacturing.
of the authors within an International Development Cooperation pro-
ject (ENV/2006/114-747) implemented by the Italian NGO ACRA and The stove configuration
funded by the EU in the Valley of Logone River at the border between
Chad and Cameroon. In this context household energy supply is a critical The mud-brick stove, named ‘mlc — my little cookstove’ (Fig. 1) is
issue (Vaccari et al., 2012) and the study presented in this paper is equipped with a chimney to guarantee the withdrawal of smoke from the
addressed to similar contexts. cooking environment, but also to provide the necessary draft for operation.
An internal metal-net reactor holds the biomass in the combustion
Early stages chamber. Such a lay-out allows a mix of combustion/gasification of the bio-
mass, appropriate for cooking tasks. ‘Water Boiling Test’ runs have been
Constraint assessment conducted to assess the energetic performances of this model. Efficiency,
fuel consumption, boiling time and combustion rates have been calculated
In the developing world, most agricultural residues that are burnt as on a prototype built in the laboratory of the University of Brescia. Critical
fuel are used with some pre-treatment, like chopping or compacting analysis of the results obtained during the development stage, has led to
(Mazzù, 2010), besides drying. Compared to wood-fuels, crop residues the design of different lay-outs to improve the efficiency of the stove.
typically have lower density and lower heating values (Vassilev et al., Technical and economic issues have been addressed in the develop-
2010). Most conventional ‘stoves’ are designed to burn firewood or ment of the model; building materials have been chosen in order to
charcoal. The direct use of unprocessed biomass waste for cooking in guarantee a cost as low as possible, using items that are typically avail-
wood-fuel stoves may have some drawbacks such as limited reliability able in developing countries. The task of burning rice husk for cooking
due to seasonal availability, issues in transport and storage due to its purposes is not so simple with the above mentioned constraints. Heat
bulkiness, short burning time, air pollution when burned in open fires generation from rice husk cannot be achieved efficiently with a simple
or improved traditional stoves, but agricultural residues may also repre- combustion. If electricity is not available, this prevents the possibility
sent a convenient energy alternative because of certain positive fea- of using fans or blowers, while some draft is fundamental for operation.
tures. These are: free-of-cost availability to some poor rural and peri- This is provided by the pressure difference given by the chimney when
urban families; energy recovery from the crop residues. In addition, the pot is properly sealed in its position. A simple design tool was used
clean combustion in appropriate now-available technologies, like to size the small prototype. The tool was structured in order to give pre-
micro-gasifiers (Roth, 2011), makes their use feasible, convenient and liminary indications of the size of a prototype capable to boil 3 kg of
safe, close to the best performing gas stoves (Smith, 2011). water, according to the testing protocol, defined in Testing protocol.
Rice husks or other agricultural biomass residues are often burned in
open-air by the farmers to clear the lands or just to dispose them. This is
a common practice that generates uncontrolled dangerous emissions,
while wasting a potential energy resource. A number of published
studies in other contexts assessed the environmental impact in terms
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions related to the common practice of
open burning of rice husk heaps or fields (Bhattacharya et al., 2000;
Mai Thao et al., 2012; Pathak and Wassmann, 2007). Therefore, just
stopping open burning alone would have a large climate change mitiga-
tion potential.
Few published studies have dealt with rice husk burning for cooking
purposes. A Life Cycle Cost Analysis by Mai Thao et al. (2012) indicates
the household cooking sector as the preferable destination for the
recovered energy from rice husk in a Vietnamese province, reporting
the thermal efficiency (12%) of the cooking technology adopted but
without describing the stove model. Processed rice husk used in mix
with other biomass for the production of briquettes has been experi-
enced in several studies, assessing mainly the technical–mechanical
features of the product (Chin and Siddiqui, 2000; Felfli et al., 2011) or
evaluating the environmental (Mai Thao et al., 2012) or health impacts
on the users (Hasan et al., 2009; Kim Oanh et al., 2005), without
reporting the relevant cooking performances. Some promising technol-
ogies have been developed at laboratory scale and disseminated in
specific contexts with different success degree. Due to a number of
technical and socio-economic context-specific constraints, available
rice husk burner models, such as the Turbo Mayon cookstove (REAP,
2012) or the Belonio gasifier (Belonio, 2011), are not always considered
suitable. The first model is not equipped with a chimney and the second
one requires electricity for operation, but electricity supply is often not
reliable in urban areas and almost always missing in the rural ones. Fig. 1. The latest version of ‘mlc — my little cookstove’ with the filled metal net reactor and
The choices made in designing the new prototype are justified not the pot.
 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24 17

The net energy input (ΔEnet) needed was calculated according to the of the necessary construction techniques. In this manner the users can
formula suggested by the WBT protocol (Bailis et al., 2007), as the be enabled to easily maintain their new technology and, if the wears
sum of the heat required to bring the water to the boiling point and due to the daily use are repairable by the end-users, also durability
the heat needed for the phase change of the evaporated fraction (see issues are implicitly targeted. Therefore, mud-bricks have been chosen
Table 1 for variable definitions and values): to build the stove structure.
Commercial mud-bricks from the private company ‘Matteo Brioni
ΔEnet ¼ mw cw ðT eb −T env Þ þ mev Δhw : Srl’ (Gonzaga, MN, Italy) have been used. These mud-bricks are not
extruded, they are obtained from simple casting and the result is quite
In the preliminary design the total energy input (ΔEtot) was calculated porous, its density being regulated by gravity during the drying phase.
assuming a desired thermal efficiency for the stove. The efficiency values Thanks to the abundant quantity of mixed vegetal fibers, the density
we considered were in the range 15–20%, lower than best performing im- of these bricks is only 800 kg/m3 and their thermal conductivity is
proved wood cookstoves, but quite optimistic considering the not easy 0.18 W/mK (Brioni, 2010).
task to burn rice husk. We believe that effective fuel use can already Construction of the structure is made by wetting the bricks and ar-
be obtained working on realistic efficiency ranges, such as the chosen ranging them in the desired positions, binding them with some mortar
one, more than setting unachievable ideal efficiencies for the proposed obtained with the same mix of the mud-bricks. The finished structure
technology. then has to dry for a time ranging from 4 to 5 days (in hot-dry weather)
to 2–3 weeks (in cold-humid conditions). In the mlc prototypes some
ΔEnet slight cracks opened, especially in the wedges, during drying, but
ΔEtot ¼ :
η those are easily repairable before the first start-up. A mud-brick stove
is easily repairable and this should compensate for a faster wear with
The mass of the needed fuel mrh and the capacity of the batch reactor respect to a metal stove. The needed techniques are often known to
have been calculated for Lower Heating Value (LHV) of the rice husk the local cultures and can be easily learned by users otherwise.
equal to 12,540 kJ/kg (Paré, 2011). The amount of fuel mass is the one The structure lies on four bricks and the wall of the combustion
needed to take 3 kg of water from ambient temperature to boil along chamber is built upon them, leaving four lateral entrances for the air.
with an amount of 0.6 kg of evaporated water. All other values used in The top of the stove is made just by carefully closing the main structure
the calculations are reported in Table 1. with some mortar around the pot and leaving the whole to dry with the
pot in it. The stove works only with the pot size used in these proce-
ΔEtot mrh dures. The use of smaller pots is not applicable, unless some kind of
mrh ¼ ; V¼ :
LHV ρ adapter is developed to ensure a tight fitting. As a positive consequence
of this limitation, flames cannot get in contact with the pot handles.
The geometric size of the batch reactor has been calculated consider- Outer dimensions of the stove's structure are reported in Table 2.
ing the bulk density of rice husk. Needed fuel ranged between 0.8 and Commercial metal-flues have been used as chimneys for these pro-
1.2 kg. Considering the bulk density of rice husk the needed volume totypes, because of their convenience for laboratory testing. Those
can be calculated. The fixed height of the cylindrical reactor is equal to kind of pipes may not easily be available in many contexts, but, once
24 cm, due to construction constraints, the section diameter ranged the desired drafting characteristics are defined, the smoke-stack's struc-
18–23 cm. In Table 1, the values assumed in the preliminary design of ture could also be made with mud-bricks or with ceramic mountable
the mlc rice husk stove are reported. ducts, reproducing mostly the same effect of the metal-flues used for
the prototypes, but using locally available materials.
Materials and methods To arrange the internal distribution of the biomass, of the heat and of
the air flows, a reactor made of metal net has been built to hold the fuel
Stove design (materials, dimension, construction) (Fig. 1), the diameter being slightly smaller than the combustion cham-
ber, therefore leaving a gap between the external part of the basket and
Crude earth is a traditional material that has been used for ages in the interior wall of the crude-earth structure. A central duct is also fixed
many developing countries. The possible mixtures are many and differ- to the basket. The flow, induced by the chimney, is therefore divided in
ent characteristics can be obtained by varying the quality of the ingredi- two components, one flowing through the central duct, while the
ents along with their proportions. Also the mud-brick production second one flows through the outer gap and in the rice husk. Inside
techniques greatly influence the final result. Many past projects have the central duct a small amount of coal (or wood) has to be placed to
failed in believing that crude earth would act as insulation (Practical provide the start-up heat, while the rice husk is kept in the outer portion
Action, 2010); there was a basic misunderstanding of the difference of the basket. This solution greatly helps both loading of fuel and remov-
between insulation and mass. A higher density and a higher thickness al of ashes, besides allowing removal of all fuel at any time. The metal-
(and henceforth mass) lead to a higher thermal capacity, not a higher net used to build the basket is quite similar to the one found in Chad
insulation. Nevertheless, a basic requirement for this design is the by the authors (Vitali, 2012) and has hence been preferred. A closer
local availability of most of the materials, as well as the access to most mesh for the central duct is obtained by rolling up the net three times,
resulting in a triple layer, to prevent rice husk from falling in the central
Table 1 duct.
Parameters considered in the sizing tool and value assumed in the preliminary design.
Another improvement was attained by means of a thin metal plate
Parameter Unit Description Value to serve as gas concentrator. It has been placed on top of the metal
Tenv °C Ambient temperature 10–30 basket, while a 15 cm wide hole at the center allows the concentration
Teb °C Local boiling temperature 100 of the flow rising from the central duct. The external diameter is as
mw kg Mass of water to be boiled 3 wide as the basket (23 cm diameter). This metal plate better divides
mev kg Mass of water to be evaporated 0.6
the draft-induced air flow in the two components, one flowing directly
cw kJ/kg K Water specific heat 4.19
Δhw kJ/kg Specific enthalpy of vaporization at 1 atm 2,257 through the central duct, while the other fraction is forced to flow
η % Thermal efficiency of the stove to be designed 15–20 through the rice husk and then in the lateral gap between the basket
LHVrh kJ/kg Lower Heating Value of rice husk 12,540 and the crude-earth structure, as visible in Fig. 2.
ρ kg/m3 Bulk density of rice husk 70–110 According to calculation outputs and indications from the experi-
mrh kg Mass of rice husk 0.8–1.2
mental runs, various prototypes have been designed and tested. The
18 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24

Table 2
Geometrical features of the stove model.

Mlc — Geometrical features

Outer dimensions Internal configuration

• Mean external diameter: 40 cm • A 5 cm diameter central metal-net duct;

• Mean internal diameter:
• Stove height:
• Chimney height:
• Chimney internal diameter:
30 cm • A 23 cm diameter and a 24 cm height metal-net fuel reactor;
45 cm • A 23 cm diameter upper gas-concentrator plate, with a 15 cm diameter central hole;
175 cm • The top opening has been sized to fit a 7 L pot with a diameter of 24 cm; the pot is surrounded by a layer
8 cm (2 cm thick, 5 cm high) made of the same crude-earth mixture. This layer has the further function of
protecting the pot from the cooling effect of the wind (in the case of outdoor cooking).

internal configuration of the last version has the geometrical features
reported in Table 2.
Testing protocol
Research & Development methodology (R&D) of a new stove model
has been structured according to three main objectives, which can be
set in a hierarchic order.
• A reliable functioning: working with a fuel like rice husk, which is dif-
ficult to burn especially in a natural draft system, the stove functioning
had to be monitored continuously. Temperature of the flame, of the
water and of the outlet flue and CO and O2 levels in the outlet flue
were controlled in order to understand the operation of the stove
and the special sequence of gasification/combustion processes inside
the combustion chamber.
• A good efficiency in fulfilling a determined task: the Water Boiling
Test (WBT) was chosen as the most appropriate protocol to consider
as reference in this R&D phase. This laboratory-based test is designed
to explore the most basic aspects of stove performance in a controlled
environment. Some modifications had to be done to the procedure in
order to fit the requirements of the batch-fed system to be tested.
• A neutral contribution to HAP: the prototype was equipped with
a chimney in order to provide the natural draft required for the
quasi-gasification processes and also to withdraw the smoke from
the cooking environment.
• A safe use: safety of the prototype was assessed through an interna-
tional procedure recently adopted as official by the international
stove research community (ISO, 2012; PCIA, 2011).
Once a reliable operation has been achieved working on different
system lay-outs (Parmigiani, 2012), the functioning has been optimized
in order to increase the thermal efficiency. HAP levels have been moni-
tored in some of the last tests.
The equipment used in the prototype testing is listed in Table 3,
according to its specific task.
Water Boiling Test (WBT) procedure
To assess the energetic performances of the prototypes the
Water Boiling Test (WBT) (Bailis et al., 2007) approach has been
followed, but the prescribed procedures have not been completely
fulfilled. This is due to the operation mode of the developed cook-
stove prototypes, which are batch fed, while the WBT is defined
for stoves where the fuel is accessible and can then be added or re-
moved. In these rice husk burners the fuel is charged before ignition
and once the system is lit up, it is intended to run until the fuel ends.
The modified testing protocol consists in a single phase procedure
instead of the three required phases. The test starts when the pot
is set in place and ends when all the fuel is consumed. The boiling
time refers to the moment when water temperature reaches the
local boiling temperature. All other outputs are calculated on the
total testing time.
Efficiency, η, is calculated in the cooking perspective of heat trans-
ferred to the water in the pot, hence it is not a combustion efficiency,
since the energy transferred to the stove structure is considered as a
loss.
cw  mw  ðT eb −T env Þ þ mev  Δhw
η¼ :
mc  LHV c þ mrh  LHV rh

Fig. 2. Temperature profile of a typical run of mlc.

 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24 19

Table 3
Equipment used for the stove testing.

Task Parameters Description Equipment

Continuous operation Temperature, pollutant concentrations in flue Continuous logging of temperature • k-type thermocouples
monitoring (flame, batched fuel, flue) and flue • Tecnocontrol BST100 combustion analyser
emissions (CO, O2, NOx) • Testo 350MXL gas analyser
• National Instruments DAQ module
WBT Time, fuel weight, water temperature Pre and post measurements of metrics • Chronometer
required for the calculation of the • Portable digital scale (the used one has a 0.02 kg precision)
WBT outputs • At least one thermocouple to measure the water temperature.
HAP assessment CO indoor concentrations Continuous logging of HAP in a closed room • CO monitor Gasman
at a standard distance from the stove
Safety Superficial temperatures, geometric features Summarized safety evaluation procedures • Tecnocontrol Thermo camera
according to Johnson (2005)

The first term at the numerator accounts for the energy for heating
the water to boiling temperature, where cw is the water's specific heat,
4.19 kJ/(kg · K), mw is the mass of the water in kg and (Teb − Tenv) is
the difference between the boiling temperature and the initial temper-
ature in K. The second term accounts for the energy needed for the
phase change of the evaporated part, mev, is the mass of evaporated
water in kg and hw is the specific enthalpy of vaporization at atmo-
spheric pressure, 2,257 kJ/kg.
At the denominator the total primary energy introduced in the stove
with the biomass and the start up fuel is considered. mrh is the mass of
rice husk, mc is the mass of charcoal, both in kg, while LHVrh and LHVc
are the respective lower heating values, 12,540 kJ/kg and 24,700 kJ/kg
(Harker et al., 1982).
Other performance data, besides the boiling time, are obtained upon
calculations averaged over the duration of the single run.
The mean power is calculated as:
mc  LHV c þ mrh  LHV rh
Power ¼
TDs
where TDs is the total duration of the run in seconds.
The specific consumption is calculated as:
mrh
specific consumption ¼ : model (1 kg). Food was considered ready once no more water could
mw
The burning rate is calculated as:
which might loosen a little bit during use. Smoke happened to escape
in few occasions because of the insufficient draft provided by the early
prototypes, while with higher draft pressure values, this did not happen,
yielding to much better conditions, as the ones obtained with the latest
version of the stove.
Controlled Cooking Test (CCT)
The Controlled Cooking Test measures the fuel consumption of a
stove for a specific standardized cooking task, typical for a certain con-
text. The CCT can be done either in a laboratory-environment or in the
kitchen of a real user while the real user operates the stove and the
tester observes and records all the influential parameters. The duration
of the CCT is determined by the chosen typical cooking task. As well as
being closer to day-to-day life, it allows the stove properties to be
measured in a reproducible way by minimizing the influence of other
factors.
In this work Controlled Cooking Test (CCT) was performed following
the local traditional preparation of rice observed by the authors in a spe-
cific field experience, the Logone Valley at the border between Chad and
Cameroon. Such a recipe, or very similar ones, is typical in many other
Sub-Saharan contexts. 750 g of rice were cooked in 2.5 kg of boiling
water using a typical fuel charge of rice husk for the designed stove
be observed and the grains could be smashed by simply turning the
meal with a spoon.

mrh Safety assessment

burning rate ¼
TDmin
where TDmin is the total duration of the run in minutes.
Temperature profile
Temperatures were recorded in all the runs using “type k” thermo-
couples with an external Inconel® sheath. The data were recorded in
three points (water, flame and flue) with a data acquisition system
from National Instruments, controlled by a Labview program.
Chimney emissions and draft
The data recorded for emission, 1 m above the combustion chamber
outlet, include flue temperature and concentration values for CO and O2,
while only in few runs NO and NOx data were recorded. The values for
these pollutants were quite low, hence these additional measurements
were not performed further. Sulfur is almost not present in rice husk
(IRRI, 2009), hence SOx have not been measured.
Indoor air pollution
Indoor air pollution measurements were also carried out to investi-
gate the concentration of CO in the cooking environment. Most of the
smokes are evacuated outside by the chimney, but some may escape
from possible cracks in the stove structure, or from the pot sealing,
Safety evaluation procedures (Johnson, 2005) provide a well-
defined and tested method for reducing risk of injury from household
stoves in developing countries. The protocol consists in 10 simple tests
to be performed on the stove model according to detailed procedures.
A rating is given for each test from poor (=1) to best (=4). Overall rat-
ing (Safety Rate, SR) is calculated according to a weight system properly
defined.
Results
Understanding of the operation of the stove has been achieved
through the interpretation of temperature profiles (Fig. 3) and visual
observations, varying parameters and configurations in many runs.
The split flow, induced by the chimney's draft, is supposed to work in
a dual mode in the two different phases (Fig. 2).
During the first phase, just after start-up, heat is released in the
central duct by the charcoal. In the warmer climate of Chad a stove
prototype, built by the authors, was successfully ignited with few
wood-sticks and dry leaves, but in colder/humid climate more powerful
starter such as charcoal is suggestible. Immediately after ignition, flame
temperature rises to high values (600–700 °C). This gradually heats up
the adjacent rice husk, starting the gasification process. Gases from this
20 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24

boiled in identical pots without lids. Average values obtained show the
good performances of the stove. Total duration of the test varies accord-
ing to operations done during the run. In particular in the third run a
special attention was given to the regulation of the draft using the
butterfly valve. That resulted in a longer duration (70 min) and a
lower mean firepower, without influencing the other parameters.
Average thermal efficiency resulted 18% which is a value lower
than the one of many improved stoves (ranging 20–30% according
to a report by PCIA, 2012), but acceptable considering the evolution
stage of the prototype and the difficulties in using rice husk as a
fuel. Generally, values obtained can be compared to the ones report-
ed in literature for the Mayon Turbo stove (Aprovecho Research
Center, 2005).

Fig. 3. Conceptual dual stage operation of the natural draft mlc stove. Emission results

rice husk are released in the central duct and they burn just under the
pot together with the charcoal, while the other external flow dries all
the other rice husk, drafting through it. When the initial charcoal is
almost finished, the flame temperature slightly decreases. This is the
only part of the run (typically few minutes) during which some white
smoke is observed sorting from the top of the chimney. Overall, this
first phase lasts about 20 min.
In the second phase, the charcoal and the adjacent rice husk are
exhausted, but the remaining rice husk in the fuel reactor has reached
the optimal working gasification conditions and the flame temperature
shows a second peak, reaching high values again. At this point all the
draft through the husk is producing burnable-gas and the air flow
through the central duct now serves as secondary air to provide all
those gases with enough oxygen for combustion. When this phase
starts, the stove begins emitting a slight ‘sparkling’ noise because flue
temperatures rise and hence the draft. In this phase a too fast and waste-
ful burning of the fuel may occur. The regulation of the draft, by closing
half a butterfly valve at the base of the chimney, permits slowing down
the air flow, allowing more time for a more complete combustion of the
gases, reducing the instant firepower, but extending the run duration.
Usually, smoke turns transparent. In correspondence with the increase
of temperature, oxygen level in the flue decreases, passing from 18%
to a value of 12–13%. At the same time, an increase in the concentration
of CO gas, up to 1% (1,000 ppm), was observed in the flue. Nevertheless,
measured emission values have resulted slightly higher compared to
the ones of more modern technologies available in developed markets
(where emission limits and minimum combustion performances are
tight, see for instance Carvalho et al., 2011).
WBT results
WBT results are shown in Table 4 for three representative runs per-
formed with the same configuration. In all tests 3 kg of water have been
Besides permitting a better understanding of the various phases of
operation, the emissions data have been measured in the chimney to
evaluate the impact on environment of the proposed solution. Data for
CO level has also been acquired, at 1.5 m height and at 1 m distance
from the stove, to confirm that the induced draft eliminates most of
the indoor air pollution related to the use of the stove. Emission levels
from biomass combustion devices are often not regulated in most of
the contexts where this solution could be implemented, but, neverthe-
less, the issue is highly important, especially with regard to the number
of possible users. Where limits on emissions are set, they are frequently
related to the used fuel, however references for such small systems,
powered with rice husk, are not available. Hence, values for CO emissions
from the stove have been calculated and compared to the European
limits set by norm UNI EN 303-5 (UNI EN, 2004) for heating and cooking
systems under 50 kW powered with solid fuels, i.e. coal, wood and
derived products. This norm sets as upper limit (in the worst class) for
CO concentration 25,000 mg/Nm3 (at 10% O2), which is complied with.
For this calculation the data from the analyzer have been averaged on
the whole duration of the run and this value has then been proportional-
ly rescaled with reference to a 10% O2 content, as required by the norm
UNI EN 303-5. The results of this procedure are shown in Table 5. An ex-
ample showing real-time variation of CO and O2 concentrations in the
flue gas is reported in Fig. 4.
Furthermore, indoor air pollution has been evaluated measuring
CO concentration in the living environment. Values have been ac-
quired continuously for the duration of the three runs held on
28-12-2011, also between the runs, hence, collecting the measure-
ment even when the stove gets opened. Results show that the
values of concentration are always way lower than the limits set
by the indoor air quality guidelines issued by WHO (2005) which
are 100 ppm and 30 ppm, respectively and averaged of 15 min and
60 min. Fig. 5 shows that in every single reading limits are largely
complied with.

Table 4
Outputs of the WBTs with the final configuration.

Run ID 1 2 3 Average Standard deviation

Water Kg 3.02 2.98 3.00 3.00 0.02

ΔT °C 73 78 74 75 2
Water evaporated Kg 0.70 0.64 0.70 0.68 0.02
Rice husk Kg 1.00 0.94 1.04 0.99 0.04
Coal Kg 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.00
Efficiencya % 18 19 18 18 0
Boiling time Min 27 27 28 27 0
Specific consumption G/kg 331 315 347 331 13
KJ/kg 4,152 3,956 4,347 4,152 656
Burning rate G/min 21 18 15 18 2
Total duration Min 48 53 70 57 9
Mean power KW 4.8 4.1 3.4 4.1 0.6
a
Calculated considering an LHV of 12,540 kJ/kg for rice husk and 24,700 kJ/kg for charcoal.
 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24
Table 5
Averaged values for CO in the flue gases. The values are referred to a 10% O2 content.
Date Run CO mg/Nm3
28/12/11 1 16,500
28/12/11 2 14,237
28/12/11 3 11,136
CCT results
The total preparation time was 45 min (boiling time after 15 min,
using a lid). The final weight of cooked food was 3.0 kg, resulting in a
specific consumption equal to 0.33 kg of fuel required for each kg of
food cooked (or 4.2 MJ/kg according to previously reported LHV for
rice husk). The execution of this test, even if not in real conditions on
site, allows deducing that the stove proposed can perform a typical
local cooking task, preparing an amount of cooked food suitable for
the needs of a small family. Table 6 reports the results of a number of
CCT performed by different authors in different contexts. With regard
to the mlc stove, the value of the consumed energy is comparable
with other improved stoves and significantly lower than the one of tra-
ditional stoves, reported in literature (Bailis et al., 2007; Berrueta et al.,
2008; USAID, 2008, 2010) or performed by authors in the local area
(Vaccari et al., 2012; Vitali, 2012).
Safety assessment
Safety rating resulted 87.5 (=“good”) for mlc rice husk stove (Table 7),
which is significantly higher in comparison with a number of other
traditional stove models, such as the three stone fire (SR = 44),
and similar to other chimney equipped improved stoves, such as the
Ecofogon (SR = 84), or the Patsari (SR = 83) (Johnson, 2005). In
order to investigate in a deeper way the distribution of temperatures
on the surfaces of the stove, in the surroundings and in particular on
the chimney exterior walls, some IR images have been taken during
the testing phase along with thermocouple measurements. Surface
temperatures have been the weakest tests in the safety evaluation.
External surface temperatures have been acquired with a k-type contact
thermocouple at three different heights of the crude-earth structure
and two different heights of the metal chimney. Maximum temperatures
are reached for the chimney during the high power phase (150 °C at the
bottom and 100 °C at the top). In comparison with metal stoves, the mlc
stove materials are slower in heating, therefore maximum temperatures
on the stove structure are reached at the end of the combustion process.
Highest values were recorded 45 min after ignition (75 °C at the top and
62 °C at the bottom of the structure).
Economic evaluation
In order to assess the economic feasibility of the proposed model and
the economic sustainability of the use of rice husk as an alternative fuel
Fig. 4. Flue CO concentration values acquired during one of the runs (#2) held on 28-12-
2011.
21
Fig. 5. Indoor CO concentration values acquired during the runs held on 28-12-2011.
at household level, a basic model was elaborated considering the main
factors impacting the cooking energy expenditure per household,
assuming different fuel mixes. The objective of this evaluation was to
point out the trade-off threshold that makes feasible the purchase and
adoption of the proposed rice husk stove in a given context in compar-
ison with the use of traditional solid fuel (wood and charcoal) stoves.
Some input data, regarding the availability of rice husk and the costs
of materials for the manufacturing of the stove, were collected in the
Logone Valley, at the border between Chad and Cameroon, a typical
Sub-Saharan setting.
Local rice husk availability was preliminarily verified through the
analysis of available data both at regional and local scales. International
or continental agricultural databases (FAOSTAT, 2006; WARDA, 2008)
show the importance of rice production in Chad and Cameroon. Some
studies demonstrate that the intervention areas play a key role in rice
production at national level. The northern region of Cameroon is re-
sponsible for 85% of the national rice husk production (Goufo, 2008), es-
timated equal to 53,000 t/y. A report by FAO (2002) indicates that some
40% of the national Chadian rice harvested land is in the regions along
the Logone river side. In the study area rice production is the main agricul-
tural activity. During the harvesting time, husk (mechanically separated
from the seed) is abundantly available and without any utilization. Usu-
ally it is simply heaped at the corner of the roads, in the fields or near
the community mill and burnt for disposal. Data provided by the local
department of the Chadian Ministry for Agricultural Activities indicate
that in 2010 in the intervention area, 9553 t of rice were produced
(79% in the dry season and 21% in the rainy season). Around 20% of
the paddy weight is husk (Chungsangunsit et al., 2009), thus results in
a by-production of husk of 1911 t. 3613 people were identified as
farmers, resulting in an average availability per producer per year of
2.64 t of rice and 0.53 t of husk (1.45 kg/day).
The feasibility, availability and adaptability of materials in realization
of the stove and their relevant costs have been investigated on site.
Stove design has been kept as simple as possible also to reduce costs.
The total cost of the last version has been estimated around 6700 CFA
francs (10.5€). The most expensive item is the metal chimney, which
had to be made manually during the mission on site. Actually, in the
calculations a conservative production cost of 10,000 CFA francs for
the stove has been assumed (higher than the observed price of 6700
CFA francs), even if the cost is likely to be lower in case of real produc-
tion on small scale.
The model for estimating the cooking energy expenditure cost is
inspired from other published methods (Habib et al., 2004). The
model allows estimating the cooking energy expenditure for a
household using a variety of fuels in different shares. This tool has
been used to preliminarily evaluate the financial sustainability of
the usage of different fuels, and the relevant cookstove technologies,
to cover the daily cooking energy needs. This has been calculated
considering, for each used fuel, the cost of the proper stove, spread
on its lifespan, and the fuel cost, according to the share of required
energy, covered by that fuel.
The fuel cost has been estimated by multiplying the unit cost of the
fuel i for the total quantity of fuel needed. Fuel quantity was calculated
considering the LHV of the specific fuel i and the share of needed energy
covered by that fuel. The specific thermal efficiency given by that
22 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24

Table 6
Specific fuel and energy consumption values for different categories of stoves in comparison with the ones of the mlc stove (±SD).

Stove name Type Fuel Specific consumption Source

[kg/kg] [MJ/kg]

3stone fire Traditional Wood 1.49 (±0.40) 29.9 (±8.08) Berrueta et al., 2008
3stone fire Traditional Wooda 0.43 (±0.05) 8.6 (±0.93) Vaccari et al., 2012
3stone fire Traditional Wooda 0.70 (n.a.) 13.8 (n.a.) USAID, 2008
Open fire Traditional Wooda 0.30 (±0.07) 5.8 (n.a.) USAID, 2010
Traditional stoves Traditional Wood 1.67 (±0.54) 25.6 (n.a.) Bailis et al., 2007
U-type Traditional Wood 1.85 (±0.41) 36.9 (±8.13) Berrueta et al., 2008
Ganoum Traditional Charcoalb 0.23 (±0.02)b 5.7 (±0.47) Vitali, 2012
Average 1.07 (±0.69) 18.0 (±12.65)
Ceramic stove Effectivec Wooda 0.33 (±0.02) 6.5 (0.32) Vaccari et al., 2012
Mudstove1 Effective Wooda 0.71 (n.a.) 14.0 (n.a.) USAID, 2008
Mudstove2 Effective Wooda 0.37 (n.a.) 7.3 (n.a.) USAID, 2008
Patsari, clay comal Effective Wood 0.84 (±0.16) 16.7 (±3.18) Berrueta et al., 2008
Patsari, metal comal Effective Wood 0.64 (±0.07) 12.9 (±1.32) Berrueta et al., 2008
Patsari-1 Effective Wood 0.64 (±0.07) 9.8 (n.a.) Bailis et al., 2007
Patsari-2 Effective Wood 0.91 (±0.16) 13.9 (n.a.) Bailis et al., 2007
Six bricks Effective Wooda 0.74 (n.a.) 14.5 (n.a.) USAID, 2008
Average 0.65 (±0.21) 12.0 (±3.66)
Centrafricain stove Improved Wooda 0.28 (±0.06) 5.6 (±1.16) Vaccari et al., 2012
Envirofit Improved Wooda 0.14 (±0.03) 2.8 (n.a.) USAID, 2010
Philips Improved Wooda 0.16 (±0.04) 3.1 (n.a.) USAID, 2010
Save80 Improved Wooda 0.11 (±0.04) 2.2 (n.a.) USAID, 2010
StoveTec Improved Wooda 0.14 (±0.04) 2.7 (n.a.) USAID, 2010
Vesto Improved Wooda 0.20 (±0.04) 4.0 (n.a.) USAID, 2010
Kenya Ceramic Jiiko Improved Charcoalb 0.16 (±0.01)b 4.0 (±0.21) Vitali, 2012
Average 0.17 (±0.06) 3.5 (±1.13)
Mlc Rice husk 0.33 (±0.03) 4.2 (±0.38)

n.a. not available.

a
The average wood LHV (19.7 MJ/kg) suggested in the WBT database was used. If available, the specific LHV given by the authors was used.
b
The average charcoal LHV (24.7 MJ/kg) was used. Charcoal stoves were considered in the calculation of the average value of specific energy consumption, but not in the fuel consumption.
c
According to the definition given by World Bank (2011).

combination of fuel i and cookstove j allows calculating the total gross fire as the only cooking system (fwood = 100%). Lower heating values
energy need. were taken by Harker et al. (1982) as suggested in the protocol of
The model proposed can be summed up in the following equation. WBT. The baseline thermal efficiency of three-stone fire, as the ratio be-
Parameters used for the calculations are listed in Table 8. tween energy used and energy consumed, was assumed 15%, according
The yearly cooking energy expenditure was calculated according to to KPT performed on site by the authors (Vitali, 2012). The calculated
the following equation: wood consumption was therefore estimated as equal to 6.1 kg per
household per day. Wood cost was 35 CFA francs/kg. For the calculation
!
X C Sj ET  f i of the costs related to the use of the mlc rice husk stove a capital cost of
þ  C fi : 10,000 CFA francs and a conservative value of thermal efficiency equal
i; j
LSj ηij  LHV i
to 15% were assumed. Rice husk cost was considered null, according
to current status in the local context. According to the model proposed,
A baseline scenario has been calculated assuming the use of wood as the threshold for the economic trade-off of the stove is the use of rice
the only energy source. In the other scenarios, the share of cooking en- husk to cover 15–20% of the household energy needs.
ergy covered by rice husk is complementary to woodfuel with respect to This model has also been used in order to investigate possible evolu-
the total. tions of the local energy context. A first focus was given to the cost of the
A number of considerations were done after applying the model pro-
posed and modifying the value of variable parameters. As a baseline, the Table 8
current cooking practice was considered, which is the use of three stone Parameters used in the economic model.

Parameter Unit Type Description

Table 7
ET kJ/y HH Observed Total primary energy required for
Summarized safety scores for mlc.
cooking purposes by an average
Test Valuea × weight = score household (HH) (9 people). An
average value of 18,000 kJ/d was
1 Sharp edges and points 3 × 1.5 = 4.5 assumed according to KPT
2 Cookstove tipping 4 × 3 = 12 performed on site
3 Containment of fuel 4 × 2.5 = 10 LHVi kJ/kg Fixed Low heating value for the fuel i
4 Obstructions near cooking surface 3 × 2=6 fi % Variable Share of cooking energy needs
5 Surface temperature 2 × 2=4 covered by fuel i
6 Heat transmission to surroundings 4 × 2.5 = 10 ηij % Variable Transfer efficiency of the stove j
7 Temperature of operational construction 4 × 2=8 using the fuel i
8 Chimney shielding 2 × 2.5 = 5 Cfi CFA francs/kg Variable Cost of the fuel i
9 Flames surrounding cookpot 4 × 3 = 12 CSj CFA francs/unit Variable Capital cost of the stove j. Stove
10 Flames exiting fuel chamber, canister, or pipes 4 × 4 = 16 capital cost is included in the calculation
Totalb = 87.5 of the cooking energy expenditure
a
Individual rating: Poor = 1; Fair = 2; Good = 3; Best = 4. only when the relevant fi N 0
b
Overall rating: 25 b Poor b 75; 76 b Fair b 83; 84 b Good b 92; 93 b Best b 100. LSj years Variable Lifespan of the stove j
 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24
Fig. 6. Convenience of using rice husk according to different hypothetic costs of such a
biomass.
rice husk. Currently such a biomass is an agricultural residue and does
not have any value. Farmers are used to burn it just to dispose it. Thus,
it is easy to have it for free, but the rice husk is likely to assume a certain
value on the local market if such a stove was to be disseminated outside
the rice-farming community. Fig. 6 shows how the convenience in using
rice husk as alternative domestic fuel with the technology proposed is
economically sustainable until rice husk price sets at 10–15 CFA
francs/kg. The trade-off threshold is about 20 CFA francs/kg. A price of
30 CFA francs/kg, that is similar to wood, would be absolutely not con-
venient, as it would increase the household total energy expenditure.
All the scenarios elaborated show how the rice husk stove adoption
would reduce significantly the household fuel expenditure, within the
local availability of such a biomass. This result is even more important
considering the increasing wood fuel price observed on site, which
may negatively affect the advantages of using improved wood stoves.
A deeper discussion of the model proposed was recently published by
the authors (Vitali et al., 2013).
Table 9 reports a SWOT analysis, drawn up to assess the internal and
external factors that could affect the introduction of the proposed stove
in the local context considered.
The stove uses rice husk, a widely available biomass that is often
seen as a waste. Thus, the recovery of such a resource as fuel can be
welcomed positively. The fuel supply does not compete with resources
necessary for food production being a waste by-product of rice produc-
tion and often does not have another use. Negative impact on the local
biodiversity and sustainable management are not expected, rice husk
being a crop is already widespread in many contexts. Currently such a
Table 9
SWOT analysis of the mlc rice husk stove designed.
Helpful
to achieve a successful and appropriate
dissemination on site
Strengths
Internal Origin • Reliable and user-independent operation
• Thermal efficiency comparable to other
effective ICS
• Use of non-traditionally exploitable alternative
resource as fuel
• Smoke withdrawal by the chimney
• Affordability
• Easy and cheap maintenance
Opportunities
External Origin • mlc may increase the access of local population
to a wider energy technology portfolio
• contrasts high increasing costs of wood and
other fuels
• wood is becoming everyday less accessible
• recovers waste biomass
• currently rice husk has no cost
23
biomass has no cost, but it needs to be highlighted that wherever
there is sufficient firewood or charcoal accessible (available and afford-
able), people will not be interested in using biomass waste as a fuel. The
use of solid fuels is strongly rooted in the daily cooking habits: charcoal
and wood are more functional and energy-dense than rice husk. How-
ever, access to firewood is becoming expensive, unreliable or difficult,
thus, the provision of a wider energy technology portfolio may protect
low-income populations from price shocks or fuel shortages.
Rice husk is not a valuable fuel due to its LHV, and its low bulk den-
sity makes it difficult to transport and to store. Nevertheless the good
energy performances achieved by the proposed stove model allow
rice husk producers to profitably exploit such a poor fuel. The batch-
fed solution avoids frequent refueling which is likely to happen in
continuously-fed stoves. This results in less drudgery and inconve-
niences for the user, due also to the reliable and user-independent oper-
ation of the stove. Firepower regulation has to be studied in order to
allow a longer duration of the fuel and to better meet the user's needs
during different cooking tasks. According to observations done in the
local markets, the stove can be produced locally, without importing
materials from abroad, resulting in a low production cost. Spare parts
for the components that are likely to incur in early deterioration (such
as the metal-net, used for the internal duct, which is exposed to high
temperatures in each run) are locally available and cheap. The stove is
equipped with a chimney that withdraws the smoke from the cooking
position. This is a benefit for the user's health, but the chimney must
be installed properly, to prevent accidents, and users must be trained
for proper cleaning and maintenance, which often is not already embed-
ded in local knowledge and habits.
Conclusions
The technology research presented in this paper is focused to help
energy access at household level, recovering agricultural waste as fuel;
the proposed solution has reached both its technical and socio-
economic goals. The low-tech model is reproducible with minimal
investment capacity and very basic skills, so it is appropriate also
for households with very low income level. The aimed efficiency, in the
range 15–20%, has been reached. This value is lower than best performing
improved wood cookstoves, but burning rice husk for cooking purposes is
not so simple with so strict limitations on construction materials and total
costs. Most importantly, a reliable operational functioning has been
reached, giving a neutral contribution to HAP, thanks to the natural
draft provided by the chimney. Satisfactory results also arise from the
safety assessment. The cookstove is capable of cooking 750 g of crude
Harmful To be investigated
to achieve a successful and appropriate
dissemination on site
Weaknesses
• Not continuous feeding; batch loading limits • Adaptability to different kinds of local cooking
duration preparations
• Chimney maintenance required • Material resistance to daily use
• Heat exposed metal parts may incur in early de- • Firepower regulation
terioration, because of availability of low quality • Optimization of draft and air intakes
materials • Manufacturing process (crude-earth mixture
compositions, casting for standard replication)
Threatens
• rice husk is difficult to transport and to store • rice husk local availability has to be investigated
due to its low bulk density before dissemination
• rice husk has LHV • support from governmental household energy
• wood is still affordable (up to now) strategy
• use of solid fuels is strongly rooted in the daily
cooking habits
24 S.P. Parmigiani et al. / Energy for Sustainable Development 23 (2014) 15–24
rice in 2.5 kg of water using a typical fuel charge (1 kg) of rice husk,
resulting in 3.0 kg of hot meal. This solution, whose appropriateness
level has been widely discussed, can significantly contribute to the house-
hold energy basket, as assessed by the authors' economic feasibility study
in a typical Sub-Saharan setting, as a case study.
Authors' contributions
Simone Parmigiani and Francesco Vitali designed the technology, the
experimental set up, performed the tests, elaborated data and wrote the
paper under the supervision of Adriano Maria Lezzi and Mentore Vaccari,
who are their PhD thesis' supervisors. Francesco Vitali gathered context
specific data in the Logone Valley and built the first prototypes on site.
Acknowledgments
This research was developed within the PhD course in “Appropriate
Methods and Technologies for International Development Co-operation”
of the University of Brescia, supported by the Alberto Archetti Fund, and
the PhD course in “Technologies and energy systems for the mechanical
industry”. The research is part of a project that has been among the
winners of the ‘Rotary Enfasi Award 2009’ and has been substantially
funded by Rotary International — Districts 2030, 2040, 2050, 2070,
2080, 2090, 2100, 2110, 2120. We wish to thank Sandro Bani and
‘ANFUS’ (Associazione Nazionale FUmisti e Spazzacamini) for the help
in the emission testing set-up for the cook-stoves and drafting sugges-
tions and IPC Golgi and Prof. Salvatore Inturri for the support in their
school laboratories. The authors wish to thank the Italian and the local
staff of ACRA NGO for the support in the field activities in Chad and
Cameroun. Images of the stove in this paper are by Valerio Villa.
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