Electronic Warfare(EE610)

UNIT-IV

Dr.K.Krishna Naik
Assistant Professor

Department of Electronics Engineering

Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DU), Pune
Electronic Protection Electronic Warfare

 Electronic protection (EP) comprises those

ES EA EP
actions taken to protect personnel,
facilities, and equipment from any effects
of friendly or adversary employment of EW Passive Active
that degrade, neutralize, or destroy
(friendly) combat capability. Identical Encryption
Equipment
Modulation
 In other words, EP is concerned with Type
Shielding
minimizing the effect of both friendly EA Error-Protection
and an adversary's EA and ES. Emission Coding
Control
 While EP is traditionally most concerned Directional
Burst
Transmissions
with protecting communications Antennas
Narrowband
equipment, it is applicable to the Frequency Excision
Management
protection of all systems.
Diversity
Alternate
 EP is usually divided into passive EP and Means Free-Channel
active EP, as shown in Figure. Search
Siting Appropriate Use
of Retransmission
 Systems
 Is a part of electronic warfare which includes a variety of
practices which attempt to reduce or eliminate the effect
of electronic countermeasures (ECM) on electronic sensors
aboard vehicles, ships and aircraft and weapons such as missiles.
 ECCM is also known as electronic protective
measures(EPM). In practice, EPM often means resistance
to jamming.
 The ECCM, That weapon and communication systems can deploy
to operate in hostile environment.
 The systems are:
 Search Radar
 Tracking Radar
 Electro Optical Systems
 Communication Systems
OBJECTIVES and TAXONOMY OF ECCM TECHNIQUES
 The primary objective of ECCM techniques when applied to a
radar system is to allow the accomplishment of the radar
intended mission while countering the effects of the enemy's
ECM.
 In greater detail, the benefits of using ECCM techniques may be
summarized as follows:
 (1) prevention of radar saturation,
 (2) enhancement of the signal-to-jamming ratio,
 (3) discrimination of directional interference,
 (4) rejection of false targets,
 (5) maintenance of target tracks,
 (6) counteraction of ESM, and
 (7) radar system survivability.
 OBJECTIVES and TAXONOMY OF ECCM
TECHNIQUES
 There are two broad classes of ECCM:
 1) Electronic techniques
 2) Operational doctrines
 Specific electronic techniques take place in the main radar
subsystems, namely, the antenna, transmitter, receiver, and
signal processor.
 Suitable blending of these ECCM techniques can be implemented
in the surveillance and tracking radars.
 The ensuing description is limited to the major ECCM
techniques; “the reader/lerner should be aware that an
alphabetically listed collection of 150 ECCM techniques and
an encyclopedia of ECCM tactics and techniques can be
found in the literature”.
 Electronic ECCM Types
 The ECCM types can be divided into four subgroups:
 those in the transmitter,
 those in the antenna,
 those in the receiver-signal processor, and
 those in the "system."
 This division is in accord with the usual breakdown of a radar.
 Some ECCM techniques, e.g., monopluse, have effects in more
than one part of a radar;
 Other ECCM techniques, e.g., radar frequency, could be
considered as part of several different electronic ECCM
subgroups.
 Groupings used herein are those selected by the author for
various reasons. No particular significance should be attached.
 ECCM in the Transmitter
 One brute-force approach to defeating noise jamming is to increase the radar's
transmitter power.
 This technique, when coupled with "spotlighting" the radar antenna on the
target, results in an increase of the radar's detection range. Spotlighting or
burnthrough modes might be effective, but a price must be paid.
 As the radar dwells in a particular direction, it is not looking elsewhere, where
it is supposed to look.
 In addition, the burnthrough mode is not effective against chaff, decoys,
repeaters, spoofers, and so on.
 More effective is the use of complex, variable, and dissimilar transmitted signals
which place a maximum burden on ESM and ECM. Different ways of operation
refer to the change of the transmitted frequency in frequency-agility or
frequency-diversity modes or to the use of wide instantaneous bandwidth.
 Frequency agility usually refers to the radar's ability to change the transmitter
frequency on a pulse-to-pulse or batch-to-batch basis.
 The batch-to-batch approach allows doppler processing, which is not
compatible with frequency agility on a pulse-to-pulse basis.
 ECCM in the Transmitter
 This subgroup may be further subdivided into those concerning the radar
frequency, power, waveform, and pulse repetition (actually part of the waveform).
 ECCMs in the transmitter are listed in Table.
 ANTENNA-RELATED ECCM
 Since the antenna represents the transducer between the radar and the
environment, it is the first line of defense against jamming.
 The directivity of the antenna in the transmission and reception phases
allows space discrimination to be used as an ECCM strategy.
 Techniques for space discrimination include antenna coverage and scan
control, reduction of main-beam width, low sidelobes, sidelobe blanking,
sidelobe cancelers, and adaptive array systems.
 Some of these techniques are useful during transmission, while others
operate in the reception phase.
 Additionally, some are active against main-beam jammers, and others
provide benefits against sidelobe jammers.
 Blanking or turning off the receiver while the radar is scanning
across the azimuth sector containing the jammer or reducing the
scan sector covered are means to prevent the radar from looking
at the jammer.
 ANTENNA-RELATED ECCM
 Certain deception jammers depend on anticipation of the beam scan or
on knowledge or measurement of the antenna scan rate.
 Random electronic scanning effectively prevents these deception
jammers from synchronizing to the antenna scan rate, thus defeating this
type of jammer.
 A high-gain antenna can be employed to spotlight a target and burn
through the jammers.
 An antenna having multiple beams can also be used to allow deletion of
the beam containing the jammer and still maintain detection capabilities
with the remaining beams.
 Increased angular resolution of jammers in the main beam can be
reached by resorting to spectral analysis algorithms, commonly referred
to as super resolution techniques. Although they add complexity, cost,
and possibly weight to the antenna, reduction of main-beam width and
control of coverage and scan are valuable and worthwhile ECCM
features of all radars.
 ECCM in the Antenna
 This subgroup also may be further subdivided into those concerning main-lobe
pattern characteristics, sidelobe characteristics, and angular measurement
techniques. ECCMs in the antenna are listed in Table.
 ECCMs in the Receiver-Signal Processor
 Jamming signals that survive the antenna ECCM expedients can, if large enough,
saturate the radar processing chain.
 Saturation results in the virtual elimination of information about targets. Wide
dynamic range (i.e., log and lin-log) receivers are normally used to avoid
saturation.
 Other special processing circuits can be used in the radar to avoid saturation,
i.e., fast-time-constant (FTC) devices, automatic gain control (AGC), and
constant-false-alarm rate (CFAR).
 However, they cannot be said to be ECCM techniques. For example, FTC allows
the detection of signals that are greater than clutter by preventing the clutter
from saturating the display. FTC does not provide subclutter visibility.
 AGC keeps the radar receiver operating within its dynamic range, preventing
system overload and providing proper normalization so as to furnish signals of
standardized amplitude to radar range, velocity, and angle processing-tracking
circuits.
 CFAR is a technique made necessary because of the limitations of the computer
in automatic systems.
 ECCMs in the Receiver-Signal Processor
 This subgroup is the most numerous of all the subgroups; in fact, it is larger
than all the other subgroups combined.
 This popularity arises from several factors.
 1. It is generally easier and cheaper to make changes to a fielded radar in the
receiver than in the antenna or the transmitter. A receiver ECCM may be a
handful of transistors while raising radar peak power output may be very
costly.
 2. Receiver ECCMs are passive, i.e., their presence is not disclosed to an
enemy.
 3. Recent advances in signal processing, especially use of digital techniques, have
permitted great improvements in radar receivers.
 4. Receiver ECCMs are generally more versatile. 5. Receiver ECCMs are more
amenable to operator adjustment for maximum effectiveness than those in the
antenna or transmitter.
 6. There are many varieties of some ECCMs, e.g., MTI, CFAR, and Dicke-Fix.
 Receiver ECCMs also may be further subdivided into predetection,
detection, postdetection, PRF considerations, and displays.
 ECCM in the System
 ECCM in the system includes both radar data manipulation and analysis and the
use of target data from other sources. These are listed in Table.
 The first subgroup was made possible by recent advances in digital
technology. The second subgroup is outside the radar, but data from
those sources may greatly add to the usefulness of a radar in an EW
environment.
 Operational and Other ECCMs
 Most of these are not in the direct cognizance of the radar
engineer.
 He should be familiar with them and be able to make provisions
for their use.
 However, this group may be further subdivided into operator,
operating methods, radar deployment, ESM, and "other."
 These are listed in Table .
 The most important operational ECCM is the operator himself.
 Proper training is mandatory.
 There is a limit to automatic circuitry.
 There is no substitute for a well-trained operator.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures
Induced Counter Counter
Measures
 Sensitivity Time Control(STC)
 Fast Time Constant(FTC)
 Staggered/ Random Pulse Repetition
Frequency
 Moving Target Indicator(MTI)
 Capabilities of Pulse Compression
 CFAR Receivers
 Frequency Agility
 Frequency Agility compatible MTI
 Digital Receiver
Dedicated Counter Counter
Measures
 The DICKE-FIX Receiver
 The Back-Bias Receiver
 The Jammer Strobe
 Sidelobe Blanking
 The Sidelobe Cancellers
 Automatic Frequency Selection
 Multibeam Antenna
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

 Used to realise a radar receiver

Induced Counter Counter
whose sensitivity or gain varies with
Measures
range.
 Sensitivity Time Control(STC)
 Used to limit the dynamic range of
the radar signals sent to the
processors. Power of received signal
varies as 1/R4
 Large white spots will appear on PPI
 Used to keep not only the target
signal, but also the signal consisting
of target pulse cutter, with in the
dynamic range, so the MTI follows
can adequately increase target
visibility with respect to clutter.
 Is a No cost ECCM device.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

 Is differentiating circuit matched to

Induced Counter Counter
the length of the radar pulse
Measures
 It chops all signals whose duration is
 Fast Time Constant(FTC)
longer than when there are big
banks of clutter or intentional, long
duration jamming signals only the
front will pass.
 Although the signal is chopped in
order not to disturb the PPI, in the
presence of a strong interference
signal, the sensitivity of the receiver
is reduced almost to the level of
interfering signal.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter  Is either fixed or changed by the

Measures operator when the change in the
radar range is required.
 Staggered/ Random Pulse Repetition
Frequency  A single PRF is inadequate, many
PRFs are required in order to give
MTI filter to desired characteristics.
 A radar can resort to staggered
PRF-Several PRFs in a definite
sequence.
 In simpler radar with no MTI,
random PRF is used merely to
decorrelate the second time around
echoes.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures
Induced Counter Counter
Measures
 Moving Target Indicator(MTI)
 Did not start its career as ECCM.
 Is to attenuate echoes from ground, sea
and rain.
 Used as power full ECCM circuit when
the search radar is jammed by Chaff.
 Chaff launched in space will float in the
air.
 It will therefore rain driven by the wind
and will be cancelled to an extent
determined by the characteristics by MTI
itself.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter  Pulse compression gives a search

Measures radar a high clutter cancellation
capability and high range
 Capabilities of Pulse Compression
discrimination that allow the radar
detector to output reliable, computer
manageable data.
 Computerized data management
ensures that the detection system
has a short reaction time, which is
indispensible present day threats
flying at very high speed and
extremely low altitude.
 There are two ECCM capabilities of
pulse compression:
 Reduced interceptibility and
susceptibility of coded wave forms.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter  A Search radar, Air defence radar or a

Measures point defence radar must have a
receiver equipped with a device that
 CFAR Receivers
keeps the probability of false alarm at
a study rate less than 1X10-6 .
 Generally , a receiver having this
characterises will be referred as
CFAR.
 Widely used CFAR device is auto-
gate, which generates an adaptive
threshold by averaging the signals
around each range bin, in order to fix
the probability of false alarm at the
desired value by adjustment of single
parameter.(Alpha).
Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter Measures -CFAR Receivers

 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures
Induced Counter Counter
Measures
 Frequency Agility- Shifting of
carrier frequency on pulse to
pulse or burst to burst basis.
 This techniques is used
 in the absence of ECCM to improve the
normal performance of the radar.
 In the presence of ECM as a powerful
ECCM.
 Offers enormous advantages over
fixed frequency:
 Increase in range, other parameters
being equal, upto 35%
 Clutter reduction in radar not
equipped with MTI
 Angular glint reduction in tracking radar
 Lobing reduction or elimination in
search radars
 Nodding reduction in tracking radar
 Reduction of effectiveness of jammers.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures
Induced Counter Counter
Measures
 Frequency Agility compatible MTI
To perform good clutter cancellation, the
transmit-receive equipment must have
high phase stability and clutter must not
fluctuate excessively from pulse to pulse.
When frequency agility is used, clutter is
decorrelated, which prevents its
cancellation by the MTI.
On the other hand frequency agility yields
enormous advantages in dealing with
targets and jammers.
 performance can undergo noticeable
Compatibility
Once a pulse has been transmitted, the
bipolar video signals are digitised and
memorised over the whole range of axis.
In the next PRI the frequency is shifted, and
all returns are memorised, this is repeated
for many PRIs with care being taken to
maintain coherence for each frequency
used.
Then MTI filtering, simple, double, and so
on. Is performed on all returns at the same
frequency.
With this method, although the MTI
degradations, frequency agility can be used
and all the advantageous mentioned will
accrue.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter  For instance, the radar could

Measures discriminate modulations that surely
 Digital Receiver belong to the target from that
belonging to the jammers.
 It is important to mention the
DRX as a powerful ECCM.  DRX can be used both in Search and
tracking radars.
 By allowing enough instantaneous
bandwidth, the DRX can provide
a real-time spectrum analysis
around the target frequency.
 In this way the radar can easily
implement the logics to decide
which are best signals to be
considered as targets and to be
tracked among ones appearing at
the DRX outputs.
Search Radar Counter Counter Measures
The gain in the signal to jamming ratio
S/J is equal to the ratio of the two
receiver bandwiths
Dedicated Counter Counter
Measures
 The DICKE-FIX Receiver: Is to act
as an ECCM against high intensity
wideband jamming. Consists of two
parts.
 In the First, a filter of broad bandwidth
Bw is followed by a hard limiter.
 The second part is a matched filter of
narrow bandwidth Bi.
 The first section is designed to amplify
all wideband signals without starting to
oscillate and to limit them within a
present value.
 In the second part, amplification is
completed after narrowing the
bandwidth to a value matched to the
pulse.
Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter

Measures
 The Back-Bias Receiver: is an ECCM
device against narrow band CW or
Spot Jamming.
 Has a circut for detection of CW
signals or signals whose peak-to
peak amplitude is quasi-constant for
a given period of time, and is able to
suppress these signals, leaving only
pulse signals.
 Is extremely against CW like signals
appearing within its band, such as
spot noise generated by frequency
modulated CW with a relatively
narrow bandwidth.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter

Measures
 The Jammer Strobe
 Used to give search radar the
direction from which spot jamming
is arriving.
 The most widely used requires an
auxiliary omnidirectional antenna to
make the comparison between
signals received by the main channel
and those by the auxiliary channel.
 The direction to the jammer is the
direction for which the jamming
This type of circuit can be used to signal outputs from the main
realise another ECCM device, called
channel(A) is greater than that of
side lobe blanking.
the auxiliary channel(B).
Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter

Measures
 Sidelobe Blanking: Whenever the
signal in B becomes higher than the
signal in A, the output is blanked,
because it must come from a side
lobe and not from the main lobe.
 Sidelobe blanking can be used for
pulse signals, and therefore against
deception jamming and also against
noise jammers.
 Since the sensitivity is reduced by
the jamming to noise ratio J/N, it is
necessary ijn the latter case to be
sure that the predicted jamming will
not be such as to cause too great a
loss of sensitivity.
Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter

Measures
 The Sidelobe Cancellers( Null
Steering): this technique places a
null in the sidelobe structure in the
direction of the jammer.
 In this way the effectiveness of
standoff jamming, which creates
corridors in the radar air defence
network is reduced.
 The signal to be canceled is
extracted at the point A of the radar
receiver.
 In case of noise jamming it will be a
quasi CW signal.
 Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures

 Automatic Frequency Selection
 The sophisticated radars, Which are capable of changing transmission
frequency relatively quickly, can be equipped with a special device called
automatic frequency selection(AFS) that allows automatic selection of a
frequency not being jammed.
 There are two fundamental types of this ECCM.
 1. based upon the analysis of the spectrum that a radar can use, performed in
a special PRI during which the radar pulse is not transmitted.
 Upon completion of the analysis, it is possible to decide whether to
maintain the same transmission frequency or to change to another where
jamming is absent.
 2. based upon the analysis of both the signal to jamming ratio, which must be
suitable for the functions that the radar has to perform, and the jamming to
noise ratio, which must be at a minimum.
Search Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter

Measures
 Multibeam Antenna
 The possibility of using more than
one beam to cover the elevation
plane is a powerful ECCM for a
search radar.
 When there is only one beam in
elevation, the presence of a jammer
reduces radar capability at all
elevations.
 However, if the radar has more than
one beam, its capability is reduced
only for the beam that is jammed,
while the performance at all other
elevations is unaffected.
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures
Induced Counter Counter
Measures
 Sensitivity Time Control(STC)
 Fast Time Constant(FTC)
 Random Pulse Repetition Frequency
 Moving Target Indicator(MTI)
 Capabilities of Pulse Compression
 CFAR Receivers
 Frequency Agility
 Frequency Agility compatible MTI
Dedicated Counter Counter
Measures
 The DICKE-FIX Receiver
 The Back-Bias Receiver
 The Jammer Strobe
 Sidelobe Blanking
 The Sidelobe Cancellers
 Automatic Frequency Selection
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures
Induced Counter Counter
Measures
 Preselective Filters
 Low Sidelobes
 Intermediate Frequency
Filters
 Fast Automatic Gain
Control
 Logarithmic Receivers
Dedicated Counter Counter
Measures
 Jamming Detector
 Anti Range gate Pull Off
 Guard Gates
 Double Tracking
 Track on Jam
 Random Conical Scan
 Conical Scan on Receive
only(COSRO) and Lobe Scan on
Receive only(LORO)
 Mono Pulse
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter

Measures
 Preselective Filters
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter

Measures
 Low Sidelobes
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter

Measures
 Intermediate Frequency Filters
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter

Measures
 Fast Automatic Gain
Control
 A. Cut-off frequency is higher
than conical scan frequency .
 The amplitude modulation due to
the scanning is derived directly
from the AGC voltage by suitable
filtering.
 B. AGC voltage can compensate
all fluctuations of the signal with
the exception of those at the
conical scan frequency, by means
notch filter placed on this
frequency.
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Induced Counter Counter

Measures
 Logarithmic Receivers
 To avoid the damaging effects of
modulated jamming, receivers with
logarithmic characteristics are often
employed.
 Where the signals are very small,
the receiver often behaves linearly;
it is then known as a lin-log
receiver.
 The effect of compression on
amplitude modulation is generally
too strong for a scanning radar,
logarithmic receivers are normally
employed in monopulse radars.
Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures

 Jamming Detector :
 Jamming detectors can use gates during the radar dead times,
or use gates open around the target.
 The jammer present signal is exploited by updating the range
tracking system from the velocity memory and by deriving
data for angular tracking from jamming signal itself.
 The most sophisticated radars are able to detect the presence
of a look through period.
 Or the radar waits for the period in which the jammer is off
to update its tracking parameters correctly.
 This device/ techniques is sometimes also referred as look-
through ECCM.
Track Radar Counter Counter Measures
Dedicated Counter Counter Measures: Anti Range gate Pull Off/
Anti range gate stealing
Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures : Guard Gates

 Is an ECCM that entails presetting
sensors around the gate in which
tracking is performed so that as soon
as the presence of an additional echo is
detected the tracking system switches
to memory for a short time and then
reacquires the old target.
 Accordingly, when a deception jammer
tries to lure the tracking gate to a false
target, as soon as the true echo and the
deceptive echo separate, the true echo
will enter the guard gate, thus blocking
the tracking gate.
 When the sensors indicate that the
deceptive echo has gone, the gates will
again position themselves correctly.
Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter

Measures
 Double Tracking
 The target produces an echo that
being characterized in both range
and velocity.
Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures

 Track on Jam:
 It is often desirable not to lose angular tracking of the target
even when a noise jammer denies range information.
 In many cases precise range information is not of paramount
importance.
 Therefore, when noise jamming is very strong, the sensor
detecting the presence of a jammer can update the range
tracking loop from the velocity memory, While for angular
tracking the radar receiver can extract the required information
from the jamming signal itself.
 This is track on jam.
Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures

 Random Conical Scan
 This ECCM is exploited by conical scan radars to counter amplitude
modulation in jamming signals that otherwise could cause large angular
errors and even lead to break lock.
 Al so effectively counters ECM systems of the inverse gain type when they
are based on conical scan frequency measurement.
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures

 Conical Scan on Receive only(COSRO) and Lobe Scan on Receive
only(LORO):
 Have been realised entirely for ECCM motives.
 During transmission the beam of a COSRO radar antenna is generated by a
feed centered on the boresight, while during reception an offset and rotating
feed is used, which is capable of modulating the signal appropriately for angular
tracking.
 A LORO, usually transmits the sum beam but scans the separate beams on
reception.
 Track Radar Counter Counter Measures

Dedicated Counter Counter Measures

 Mono Pulse:
 Most effective ECCM technique against angular deception and jamming is
monopulse.
 Only ECM techniques that can be successful against the monopulse technique
are:
 Chaff and platform maneuvers, if the radar is not equipped with an MTI
 Cooperative jamming
 Terrain bounce
 Cross polarization
 Cross-eye
 Decoys
 Illuminated chaff
Infrared Counter-Counter Measures
 Consists of flares, Modulated sources and now
DIRCM(Directional Infrared Counter Measures)
 Flares are characterised by spectra different from those
of the protected platforms, ECCM systems can resort to
spectral analysis of the received signals to distinguish
them from signals of interest.
 Modulated sources can be employed since these seekers
do not need to recognise an amplitude modulation to
determine angular errors.
 DIRCM are notable to damage the seeker sensor, a strong
IR sensor desensitivity can be used.
Communication Counter Countermeasures
 The following ECCM or masking methods of
Communication CCM.
 Frequency hopping
 Burst transmission
 Null steering
 Direct sequence
 Uniformity of message format
 Encryption
END OF UNIT-IV