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Social Class and Identity. A Review of Current Literature and Proposal For a Social Class

Identity Development Model.

William Crandall

Western Carolina University

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Introduction

There are no established theories, yet, that examine the developmental stages one

experiences when identifying with social class. However, some theorists have created tools

which assist in understanding how development can occur which offer insight into the

inequitable systems in place which can form the lens individuals view their own identity in their

social class. For this assignment, I will be discussing social class group membership and identity

development. It is first important to note the differences between social class and socioeconomic

status as these two are sometimes used interchangeably. One's socioeconomic status is a

combination of an individual's work status as well as the individual's economic position based on

income, education, and occupational prestige (American Psychological Association).

Socioeconomic status can be a contributing factor to which social class someone may identify

with, but they are still two different concepts. Social class, however, "consists of a large group of

people who share a similar economic and/or social position in society based on their income,

wealth, property, ownership, job status, education, skills, or power in the economic and political

sphere in relation to those who have more than those who have less” (Yeskel, 2008, p.3).

In this assignment, I will talk about Bourdieu's theory of social reproduction and Yosso's

community cultural wealth model and their contributions to the field. Through critical

examination of both these theories, it is apparent there is a lack of information on how an

individual learns about their social class, how they come to terms with membership in this social

class, and how they inevitably identify with their social class. To some, group membership can

be an integral part of their identity and how they want the world to see them. One’s social class is

a group membership that most are born into. They do not have the option or luxury to choose

witch social class they belong to so they must grow into their role in that social class through
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acceptance and exploration on how their class relates to other. This paper will critically examine

existing theory of social reproduction, social capitol, social identity theory of group membership,

and research on how college student perceive their social class as a contributor to college

success. Finally, I will propose a model for social class identity development.

Pierre Bourdieu (2002) introduced his theory of social reproduction to explain the

inequalities facing lower socioeconomic students. According to Bourdieu, education creates and

perpetuates an upper social class hierarchy, which benefits those on top and disenfranchised

those at the bottom. Social reproduction suggests that the education system helps only those in

the upper social class and that it maintains and reproduces inequalities for working classes.

Bourdieu explained social reproduction with concepts including fields, habitus, and capital. A

field is used by Bourdieu to define the spheres of life used by social class groups. These fields or

spheres help individuals to gain a tactical advantage in different realms of society such as

politics, education, economics, media, etc. Habitus is how an individual in the group makes

meaning of the social norms that exist in the group. Habitus is also harmonious with a lifestyle of

a social class which can shape an individual's worldview and possibly identity in the group. They

help individuals understand the rules which govern the group. Bourdieu described capital in three

different categories. The categories are economic, cultural, and social capital. These forms of

capital play off each other, because they are used by individuals to acquire status, wealth and

power, alternatively, in competition over resources. Economic capital is arguably the most

influential of these forms of capital. Economic capital can be translated into financial wealth

accumulated and can be a driving force behind one's cultural and social capital earned.

Where Bourdieu explained how the upper-class use wealth, power and education to

reproduce their social status, Yosso (2005) created the cultural community wealth model
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(CCWM) in order to show how low-income and working-class college students manage to

succeed in college despite being less affluent when entering college. Her theory explained six

different forms of capital that contribute to their success; aspirational, linguistic, familial, social,

navigational, and resistant capitol. These forms of capital complement each other in that they

challenge the class-based inequalities rooted in the higher education system. They also dissolve

the narrative because a student is not financially well off or lacks formal knowledge of college,

they are automatically disadvantaged. Yosso also criticizes Bourdieu's theory calling it out for,

"exposing white, middle-class culture as the standard, and therefore all of the forms and

expressions of 'culture' are judged in comparison to this 'norm'" (Yosso, 2005, p. 76).

What both of these theories lack is an explanation of how students come to develop an

identity when associating with a social class. Students are often aware of their belonging to a

social class before entering college. However, this does not always mean that knowledge of this

membership equates to an understanding of identity in the group. Data and research are lacking

in order to construct a model explain the stages if identity development in social class.

Class and Upbringing on Future Goals and Aspirations

Social class identity development and its effects on college students is a topic that garners

little attention in psychology and higher education student development alike. While extensive

research is available to explain the relations to belonging to social groups and identities that

come with those groups, particularly research on race, sex, and gender, little work has been done

to make meaning of the connection between social class and student development.

Their upbringing influences individuals view of the world and the process of which they

make meaning. The social class they were brought up can affect the lens which they view the

world (Ostrove & Cole, 2003). It may not be an exaggeration to propose that one's social class
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directly affects their identity formation because of the limitations they face, and possibilities

provided to them through their social class.

We know from Erikson (1968) that one major component to identity construction in the

early stages of adulthood involves a choice of occupation. However, one's choice of career can

be limited to resources such as access to education, connections in the desired job field,

opportunities for employment in their chosen field, and even the picking of a major study in

college (Ma, 2009). Identity achievement, therefore, necessitates choices individuals must make

that influence commitment to an identity. Although identity achievement involves choice, power,

and privilege, social class are what dictates the decisions that one can make (Côté, 1996). A class

can “shape, constrain, and mediate the development and expression of knowledge, beliefs,

attitudes, motives, traits, and symptoms” (Stewart & Ostrove, 1993, p. 476).

Identity Theory on Group Membership

Social class identity development can be formed by looking at it through the lens of

social identity theory. First proposed in the1970's, in its purest form, social identity theory

suggests that one's identity can be derived from membership in a social group (Tajfel & Turner,

1979,1986). Individuals can feel a sense of belonging to their group and can experience

increased self-esteem due to their group identity. They may also carry with them a knowledge of

bias or stereotypes about members who are not in their group affiliation. This bias is an in-group

versus out-group, or "them versus us" mindset. Tajfel and Turner (2004) postulated there are

three cognitive processes which individuals use in evaluating others as “us” or “them.” These

stages take place in order.

The first is the categorization. "Social categorizations are conceived here as cognitive

tools that segment, classify, and order the social environment, and thus enable the individual to
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undertake many forms of social action" (p. 283). We categorize objects to understand them and

identify them. In a very similar way, we categorize people (including ourselves) to understand

the social environment. Social categories we use may include black, white, Christian, Muslim,

etc. If we can assign people to a group, then it helps us make meaning about the person in

comparison.

The second stage, social identification, is the adoption of identity in the group we have

categorized ourselves as belonging in. In social terms, group membership provides individuals

with identification as group members and a way to view themselves. Individuals develop a self-

image derived from membership in a categorized social group. There can be an emotional

significance to identification with a group, and self-esteem will become tied up with group

membership.

The final stage is the social comparison. Once we have categorized ourselves as part of a

group and have identified with that group, we then tend to compare that group with other groups.

If our self-esteem is to be maintained, our group needs to compare favorably with other groups.

This is critical to understanding prejudice because once two groups identify themselves as rivals,

they are forced to compete for the members to maintain their self-esteem. Competition and

hostility between groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources.

Proposal for Social Class Identity Development Model

Aries and Seider (2007) explored the influence of social class on identity formation in an

interview study of 15 lower-income students and 15 affluent students from a highly selective

liberal arts school and 15 lower-income students from a state college. Students ranked

occupational goals as first in importance to identity and social class as second. While the

professional goal is more important to one's identity, some respondents claimed that social class
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affected occupational choices. The affluent students regarded social class as significantly more

important to their identity than did the lower income students, were more aware of structural

factors contributing to their success and had higher occupational aspirations. Social class was an

area of exploration for half the students, with higher levels of exploration shown by the lower

income private school students than by the state college students. Lower-income students

developed an ideology that rationalized their social class position. This research showed that

students do not automatically have lower self-esteem based on social class membership.

I am proposing a social identity development model to help explain how individuals learn

what social class they belong to, how they navigate their identity in that class, and also how

identity can change based on mobility to another social class group. The first stage in the model

is when an individual initially comes to find out which social class their family aligns with

because they will be automatically members of that social class because of their family. Their

parents initially help them make meaning of what is expected or not expected as members of the

social class. The second stage of this model will be exploration. As an individual begins to

explore what it means to be a member of that group in relation to other social classes, they will

begin to develop a sense of advantages, disadvantages, privileges, and stereotypes that are

associated with membership in the social class. During this stage, individuals will begin to

develop coping mechanisms to deal with comments on stereotyping from outside groups.

Members in this stage also begin to develop strategies to be successful in life as a member of that

social class. The last stage is a commitment to identity in social class. The individual is fully

aware and accepted in their social class identity. The stages in the model happen in order.

However, an individual can also move to another class due to mobility. Mobility can happen

when a member of a social classes is placed into a situation or culture that is represented by a
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social class above or below the social class they are familiar or comfortable with. An individual

can move to another social class if they experience economic prosperity or economic tragedy.

Someone may lose their job causing them to lose economic wealth which may cause someone to

move to a lower social class, in this case their identity in a new social class will begin back at

stage one. I have provided a model to visually show how these stages progress.

There is limited literature explaining the connection between social class group

membership and identity development within that group. If students can become aware of their

social class and how it has shaped their identity, they may be better prepared to interact with

members of different class groups as well as be more prepared for education and occupation after

graduation.
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References

American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/topics/socioecon-

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Aries, E., & Seider, M. (2007). The role of social class in the formation of identity: A study of

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157. doi:10.3200/SOCP.147.2.137-157

Bourdieu, P. (2002). The forms of capitol. In N, Woolsey Biggart. (Ed.), Readings in economic

sociology (pp. 280-291). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Côté, J. (1996). Identity: A multidimensional analysis. In G. R. Adams, R. Montemaayor, & J. P.

Gullotta (Eds.), Psychosocial development during adolescence: Progress in develop-

mental contextualism (pp. 130–180). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

Ma, Y. (2009). Family Socioeconomic Status, Parental Involvement, and College Major

Choices—Gender, Race/Ethnic, and Nativity Patterns. Sociological Perspectives, 52(2),

211–234. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2009.52.2.211.

Ostrove, J. M., & Cole, E. R. (2003). Privileging class: Toward a critical psychology of social

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