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-
REPRINT No.7 AUGUST 1978
r,
IN BUILDING HEATING
ENERGY CALCULATIONS
L
HAM I LTON , N.Z., FEBRUARY 1978 J
BUILDING RESEARCH
ASSM. OF N.Z.
29 SEPi978
LIBRARY
BOX 9375, WGIOM.
N Z I E CONFERENCE HAMILTON 1978
ABSTRACT
A s t u d y , of which t h i s p a p e r i s a p a r t , h a s been u n d e r t a k e n
t o p r o v i d e a d a t a base, and t e c h n i q u e , f o r s i m p l y e s t i m a t i n g
d e s i g n - s e n s i t i v e h e a t i n g e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s of b u i l d i n g s .
I n t h i s p a p e r , window h e a t g a i n s and l o s s e s a l o n e are i n v e s t -
i g a t e d by s t u d y i n g o v e r a f i v e y e a r p e r i o d , t h e dependence of
two v a r i a b l e s :
on t h e y e a r l y , s e a s o n a l and h o u r l y w e a t h e r p a t t e r n , and
window o r i e n t a t i o n . The p r i n c i p a l f i n d i n g s are a s f o l l o w s :
1) A d a t a b a s e p e r m i t t i n g s u p e r i o r b u i l d i n g e n e r g y
u s e e s t i m a t e s t o be made, u s i n g t h e h e a t ' l o s s
f a c t o r method, is. p r a c t i c a l and w i l l soon be
available.
M. BASSETT
B U I L D I N G RESEARCH A S S O C I A T I O N OF NEW ZEALAND
COMPONENTS DIVISION
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
The d e g r e e d a y method f o r e s t i m a t i n g w i n t e r h e a t i n g r e q u i r e -
m e n t s does n o t s e p a r a t e l y r e s o l v e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f windows
b u t t h i s c a n be i n d e p e n d e n t l y a c h i e v e d from a knowledge
o f two v a r i a b l e s :
1) Window s o l a r h e a t g a i n = s w/m2
2) Conducted h e a t l o s s = Q w/m2
The f i r s t o f t h e s e i n c l u d e s t h e t o t a l s o l a r e n e r g y g a i n
t h r o u g h a s h e e t of c l e a r g l a s s from d i r e c t and d i f f u s e
s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h a g r o u n d r e f l e c t e d compon-
e n t of u s u a l l y 0.2. Where a window i s t i n t e d o r s h a d e d
i n t e r n a l l y t h e s o l a r g a i n i s simply a product of t h e
shading c o e f f i c i e n t and S . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f geo-
m e t r i c a l e x t e r n a l s h a d e s d e p e n d s on t h e s u n ' s p o s i t i o n ,
and s i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n r u l e s e x i s t f o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e
common t y p e s , e . g . h o r i z o n t a l o v e r h a n g .
w h e r e T = window s o l - a i r t e m p e r a t u r e
R = t o t a l window t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e = 0 . 2 1
m
- .k
W
20 = Indoor temperature chosen f o r t h e
study
a n l i k e d e g r e e day f i g u r e s , t h e Q t e r m can e a s i l y be
corrected t o a d i f f e r e n t indoor temperature T' v i a the
re l a t i o n :
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e v a l u e o f R c a n b e c h a n g e d t o model t h e
e f f e c t o f d o u b l e g l a z i n g or c u r t a i n s o n t h e c o n d u c t e d h e a t
loss via the relation:
The s o l a r h e a t g a i n c h a n g e s i n a f u n d a m e n t a l way w i t h
window o r i e n t a t i o n , s e a s o n a n d t i m e o f d a y . A y e a r t o
y e a r random w e a t h e r e f f e c t i s a l s o e x p e c t e d a n d w e h o p e ,
and i n d e e d f i n d , t h a t t h e v a r i a b i l i t y t h i s c a u s e s i s
s m a l l compared w i t h t h e more f u n d a m e n t a l e f f e c t s .
Having o n l y f i v e y e a r s o f d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s s t u d y
p l a c e s some r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e c o n f i d e n c e w i t h w h i c h we
t a l k a b o u t y e a r t o y e a r v a r i a t i o n , and t h e c o n f i d e n c e
l i m i t s d e r i v e d from t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d
a s approximate. F u r t h e r c o n c l u s i o n s from an a n a l y s i s
of v a r i a n c e s t u d y a r e enumerated as f o l l o w s :
1) A u s e f u l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n c a n be made by r e d u c i n g t h e
m o n t h l y d a t a i n t o t h r e e s e a s o n s d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s :
~ o s oft t h e monthly v a r i a t i o n i s a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h i s
move and w e p r e s e n t i n ~ i g .1 t h e s e a s o n mean v a l u e of
t h e window s o l a r g a i n , p l o t t e d a g a i n s t o r i e n t a t i o n . The
9 5 % c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t on t h e s e means a c c o u n t s f o r t h e
observed y e a r t o year v a r i a t i o n .
-SEP.SONAL AVERAGE SOLAR HEAT GAINS
FOR CLEAR GLASS WINDOWS IN WELLINGTON
UNITS WIm2
SUMMER \ FIG 1
A s w i t h t h e window s o l a r g a i n , t h e c o n d u c t e d h e a t l o s s
p o t e n t i a l l y d e p e n d s on t h e s e a s o n , t i m e o f d a y , window
o r i e n t a t i o n and y e a r t o y e a r w e a t h e r v a r i a b i l i t y . As
w i t h s o l a r g a i n , a n a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e h a s , been under-'
t a k e n t o g i v e some n u m e r i c a l v a l u e t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
each i n t e r a c t i o n . The c o n c l u s i o n s are as f o l l o w s :
1) A s w i t h s o l a r g a i n , most o f t h e month t o month v a r i a b i l i t y
c a n b e a c c o u n t e d f o r as a s e a s o n a l e f f e c t .
2) The y e a r t o y e a r v a r i a t i o n o f t h e m o n t h l y p a t t e r n i s
n o t s y s t e m a t i c and i s used t o p r o v i d e 95% c o n f i d e n c e
l i m i t s o n t h e s e a s o n means. T h e s e s e a s o n means a r e
as f o l l o w s :
Season Mean Window H e a t L o s s
Summer 22
Spring,/Autumn 35 ) -
+ 2 w/m2
Winter 51
3) The s t r o n g h o u r v a r i a t i o n i s m o s t l y a r e s u l t o r t h e day-
n i g h t c y c l e i n a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a l t h o u g h wind and
longwave r a d i a t i o n e f f e c t s a r e i n c l u d e d . These s e a s o n a l
hourly averages a r e presented i n Fig. 2 f o r general
interest.
S E A S O N A L E R A G E HEAT LOSS
THROUGH SINGLE GLASS WFL I INGTON,
-
WINDOWL
I
UNITS WIm2 INDOOR BASE TEMPERATURE 20 OC
2 L 6
8 1 0 1 2 I 4 1 6 l e $ $ u
TIME OF DAY h ~~ -
1) T h e a v e r a g e h e a t b a l a n c e f o r n o r t h f a c i n g windows
d u r i n g t h e summer i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from t h e c l e a r
day. v a l u e . I n w i n t e r , t h e average changes l i t t l e
from t h e summer a v e r a g e , y e t t h e c l e a r day v a l u e
i s much l a r g e r . These d i f f e r e n c e s a r i s e b e c a u s e
t h e a v e r a g e summer g a i n i s l a r g e l y from d i f f u s e
r a d i a t i o n , where i n t h e w i n t e r , . d i r e c t r a d i a t i o n
i s a major c o n t r i b u t o r .
2) F o r e a s t and w e s t f a c i n g windows t h e s e a s o n a l
c o n t r a s t f o r average d a t a i s similar t o t h a t displayed
by c l e a r day h e a t b a l a n c e v a l u e s .
A m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d e g r e e day method h a s
b e e n d e v e l o p e d by G . P . Mitalas 1976 f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e
w i n t e r h e a t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t of b u i l d i n g s i n Canada. C a l l e d
t h e " N e t Annual Heat Loss F a c t o r " method, i t s e p a r a t e s
t h e t o t a l b u i l d i n g h e a t ' l o s s i n t o f o u r components:
1) window h e a t l o s s
2) opaque w a l l a n d c e i l i n g h e a t l o s s
3) a i r i n f i l t r a t i o n - v e n t i l a t i o n heat loss
4) below ground h e a t l o s s .
HOUR PROFILES OF SEASONAL WlNIJOW HEAT BALANCE
FOR WELL1 NGTON
FIG 3
AVERAGE
DATA
WINTER
I I I I I I I I I I'
TIME h
Each c o n t r i b u t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y a s t h e p r o d u c t
o f t h e module area and a , t a b u l a t e d h e a t l o s s f a c t o r .
Unlike t h e t r a d i t i o n a l degree-day answer, t h i s p r o d u c t of
f o u r h e a t l o s s terms i s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e b u i l d i n g s h a p e ,
and i s h e n c e u s e f u l a s a d e s i g n a i d .
I n t h e C a n a d i a n climate t h e , w i n d o w h e a t l o s s f a c t o r s
c o r r e l a t e q u i t e w e l l w i t h t h e number o f degree d a y s f o r
t h e v a r i o u s l o c a l i t i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e l o c a l i t i e s have
d i f f e r e n t l a t i t u d e s and d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f climate. F o r
t h i s r e a s o n t h e d e g r e e day f i g u r e i s used t o c h a r a c t e r i s e
t h e c l i m a t e i n F i g . 4 , on which w e h a v e added c o m p a r a b l e
d a t a f o r Wellington.
WINDOW HEAT LOSS FACTORS FOR
CANADA AND WELLINGTON N.Z.
N
'OO
I M t R = 0.16 m2 KIW
SHADING COEFF=I.O
SINGLE GLAZING
2 3 L 5 6 7
L I I 1 1
CANADA
:WELLINGTON
I t c o u l d be t h a t l a t i t u d e c o r r e l a t e s more a c c u r a t e l y w i t h
New Z e a l a n d h e a t l o s s f a c t o r s s i n c e t h e v a r i a t i o n i n
s o l a r e n e r g y from n o r t h t o s o u t h w i l l p r o b a b l y d o m i n a t e
o v e r t h e change i n a v e r a g e ambient t e m p e r a t u r e and h e a t
loss. F o r t h e moment a l l t h a t c a n be o b s e r v e d i s t h e
. c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e h e a t l o s s . f a c t o r f o r windows
n o t exposed t o d i r e c t s u n l i g h t , and t h e degree-day v a l u e .
The Canadian n o r t h and W e l l i n g t o n s o u t h h e a t l o s s f a c t o r s
depend l i n e a r l y on t h e d e g r e e day v a l u e a s e x p e c t e d ,
s i n c e t h e s o l a r g a i n component i s s m a l l compared w i t h
t h e conducted h e a t l o s s . Similar e x t r a p o l a t i o n does
n o t h o l d good f o r t h e o t h e r window o r i e n t a t i o n s s i n c e t h e
h i g h e r l a t i t u d e of N e w Zealand means t h a t s o l a r g a i n s
a r e much h i g h e r t h a n f o r Canada.
5 .. CONCLUSIONS
T h i s s t u d y of one N e w Zealand l o c a t i o n , r e a c h e s con-
c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of a d a t a b a s e f o r
e s t i m a t i n g t h e e f f e c t o f windows on t h e h e a t i n g r e q u i r e -
ments of b u i l d i n g s . I t f o l l o w s upon t h e h e e l s o f a
p r e v i o u s s t u d y which t e s t e d and p r o v i d e d s u p p o r t f o r t h e
a l g o r i t h m s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e s o l a r h e a t g a i n s from t h e
a v a i l a b l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . An a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e
o f f i v e y e a r s computed d a t a was u s e d t o t e s t t h e
v a l i d i t y of s e v e r a l u s e f u l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s which r e d u c e
t h e b u l k of d a t a , and s i m p l i f y t h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n j o b
f o r o t h e r N e w Zealand c e n t r e s . The i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s
are as f o l l o w s :
2. Expanding t h i s d a t a b a s e t o o t h e r N . Z . centres
w i l l be s i m p l i f i e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g :
The s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n of window h e a t
t r a n s f e r c a n be a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d w i t h
three seasons.
The o r i e n t a t i o n dependence o f c o n d u c t e d
heat loss is insignificant.
The p a t t e r n of s o l a r h e a t g a i n w i t h
o r i e n t a t i o n v a r i e s l i t t l e within each
s e a s o n , compared t o t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e
of t h e s o l a r g a i n .
APPENDIX
The b u i l d i n g c l i m a t e d a t a i n t h i s p a p e r was g e n e r a t e d by
t h e dynamic h e a t t r a n s f e r program SUSTEP u s i n g h o u r l y
c l i m a t e d a t a NOV 1969 - OCT 1 9 7 4 c o l l e c t e d and made a v a i l -
a b l e by t h e M e t e o r o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e .
The c a l c u l a t e d d a t a w a s g e n e r a t e d by s p e c i f y i n g a b u i l d i n g
c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i n g l e window and w a l l f a c i n g a s p e c i f i e d
direction, together with a f l a t roof. The i n d o o r a i r s p a c e
w a s t h e r m o s t a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d t o 2 0 ' ~ and t h e e n e r g y
r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g p l a n t i n t e r p r e t e d
a s t h e window e n e r g y b a l a n c e . W a l l and r o o f modules were
s p e c i f i e d w i t h a l a r g e t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e and z e r o c a p a c i -
t a n c e t o a v o i d i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e i n d o o r e n e r g y demand.
C l e a r s i n g l e g l a z e d windows were s p e c i f i e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w -
i n g o p t i c a l and t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s :
Solar transmittance
Solar absorptance
Solar r e f l e c t a n c e
Indoor f i l m r e s i s t a n c e
Outdoor f i l m r e s i s t a n c e
Thermal c a p a c i t a n c e
Thermal r e s i s t a n c e
Long .wave e m i t t a n c e
Shading c o e f f i c i e n t
The f c l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s a r e u s e f u l f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e
method u s e d to c a l c u l a t e window h e a t losses and g a i n s from
meteorological observations:
The method u s e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g l o w t e m p e r a t u r e r a d i a t i o n
i s b a s e d on " S u r f a c e T e m p e r a t u r e s and Heat F l u x e s f o r F l a t
Roofs" by ~ A b l u n d , Mitalas and S t e p h e n s o n , B u i l d . S c i , - .2t
29-36 ( 1 9 6 7 ) .
T h e method u s e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r a d i a t i o n on s u r f a c e s
w i t h h o r i z o n t a l s u n b r e a k s i s b a s e d on " S o l a r R a d i a t i o n
i n c i d e n t on b u i l d i n g s u r f a c e s and s o l a r h e a t g a i n s t h r o u g h
windows" by B a l l a n t y n e and S p e n c e r , P r o c . Symp. on
Environmental P h y s i c s as a p p l i e d t o B u i l d i n g s i n t h e
T r o p i c s , Vol. 11, C B R I , Roorkee, I n d i a ( 1 9 6 9 ) .
B a s s e t t , M. The w i n t e r t i m e h e a t b a l a n c e o f New
Z e a l a n d windows. B u i l d i n g Research A s s o c i a t i o n of
N e w Z e a l a n d r e p o r t R. 2 1 , R e p r i n t e d f r o m N Z I E
C o n f e r e n c e , Dunedin, F e b r u a r y 1976 P a p e r N o . 29.