2.1.

1 Rod Puller

Rod puller is combination assembly of hand puller with gripper to lift up the rod. It also
comes with a stand for the rod puller to stable on ground surface. The rod puller has
comfortable of handle and has a strong grip. While the grip is capable to pull up load
maximum to one ton.

Rod puller works as an extruder tool with powerful hand puller with two grip
provided. The Rod puller is capable to replace the conventional clamp provided with
equipment in pulling out the rod from hard layer soil. The easy extrusion tool is cheap,
weight, easy to use, low maintenance and require minima number of manpower to handle.

This device will definitely revolutionized the soil testing by offering a better, faster
and economical method. It has huge potential in soil investigation conducting by contractors,
consultants, engineers, academicians and students to determine soil bearing capacity using
simple and cheap testing. It offers a help in saving time and costing for practitioners to
conduct the in-situ soil testing without spending much time on pulling out the rod.

The Rod puller can play important role in soil testing as teaching and learning equipment
especially for soil laboratory subject. Apart from that, the tool has commercially potential
which could be marketed to private companies involving in soil testing, universities,
polytechnics and technical schools.(Khairul Afinawati Hashim,Penang Invention,Innovation
and Research Design,2017)

2.2 LIFTING TOOL

A lifting operation is an operation concerned with the lifting and lowering of a load. A
load is the item or items being lifted which could include a person or people. A lifting
operation may be performed manually or using lifting equipment. Manual lifting,
holding, putting down, carrying or moving is often referred to as ‘manual handling of
loads’

Lifting operations in construction occur during transportation of material from the

storage place to the place where it is being processed, and during the processing of
materials. A load includes any material or people that are lifted or lowered by lifting
equipment.

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2.5 BOLTS AND NUT

1. Bearing type bolts

The most common type is bearing bolts in clearance holes, often referred to as
A) Black Bolts

 Ordinary, unfinished, rough, or common bolts.

 Least Expensive
 Primarily - Light structures under static load such as small trusses, purlins

b) Turned Bolts

 Similar to unfinished bolts.

 Shanks - Hexagonal Rods
 Primarily - Light structures under static load such as small trusses, purlins etc
 Expensive – Limited use – Structures with no Slippage Connection.

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 c) Ribbed Bolts

Round head similar to Rivets.

• Raised ribs parallel to the shank.

• Actual Diameter - slightly Larger than the hole

• Tightly fit into the hole.

• Popular - Economical in Material & Installation.

2. High strength friction grip bolts (HSFG)

 Uses when bearing type bolts slips under shear.
 High strength bolts (8G or 10K grade) Pre-tensioned against the plates to be
bolted together so that contact pressure developed between the plates being
joined
 Prevents relative slip when extra shear is applied
 Higher Shear Resistance

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2.4 WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or

thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining
techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to
melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of
molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base
material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld.
Welding also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted metals from being
contaminated or oxidized.

Type of welding joint

Tee joint Tee Joint
Tee welding joints are formed when two
members intersect at a 90° angle which
makes the edges come together in the center
of a plate or component. Tee Joints are
considered a type of fillet weld, and can also
be made when a pipe or tube is welded onto
a base plate. Extra care is required to ensure
effective penetration into the roof of the
weld.
Lap joint Lap Joint
Lap welding joints are used most often to
joint two pieces with differing thicknesses
together. Also considered a fillet type, the
weld can be made on one or both sides. A
Lap Joint is formed when 2 pieces are
placed in an over lapping pattern on top of
each other

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Edge joint Edge Joint
Edge welding Joints are often applied to
sheet metal parts that have flanging edges or
are placed at a location where a weld must
be made to attach to adjacent pieces. Being
a groove type weld, Edge Joints, the pieces
are set side by side and welded on the same
edge. For heavier applications filler metal is
added to melt or fuse the edge completely
and to reinforce the plate
Corner joint Corner Joint
Being one of the most popular welds in the
sheet metal industry the Corner welding
joint is used on the outer edge of the piece.
This weld is a type of joint that comes
together at right angles between two metal
parts to form an L. These are common in
the construction of boxes, box frames and
similar fabrications.
Butt joint Butt Joint
Being the universally accepted method for
attaching a pipe to itself it’s also used for
valves, flanges, fittings, and other
equipment. A butt welding joint is also
known as a square grove weld. It’s the
easiest and probably the most common weld
there is. It consists of two flat pieces that
are side by side parallel. It’s a very
affordable option.

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2.3 MATERIALS
Since metals in pure forms have limited mechanical properties (e.g strength and
hardness) they are mostly used in alloy forms. An alloy consists of at least two metals,
namely, the parent metal and the alloying element. However, many metallic alloys
contain several or many alloying elements in order to satisfy a combination of
properties. Metallic materials can be further subdivided into two groups:
1) Ferrous metals and
2) Non-ferrous metals.
Ferrous metals:
The term ferrous metals is used for all those alloys having iron as the major
constituent. Pure iron is a relatively soft material and is hardly of any commercial use
in pure state. Alloys of iron with carbon are classified according to their carbon
content: Steels with 0.02 - 2 % carbon and Cast Irons with 2-4 % carbon.
Ferrous metals account for about three quarters of the metal tonnage used throughout
the world. Steels can be further sub-divided into a number of categories. The term
carbon steel is used for those steels in which essentially just carbon and iron are
present. The term alloy steel is used where other elements are included. Typical
alloying elements include manganese, aluminium, copper, nickel, chromium, cobalt
and so on. Stainless steels are one form of alloy steels, which have high percentages
of chromium and nickel in its chemical composition for their high resistance to
corrosion. Due to their good strength, and relatively low cost, steels are widely used
in many different applications including construction, transport, general engineering
and consumer products.
Cast Irons as the name implies have been developed for casting process and the terms
refer to a family of alloys including gray cast iron, ductile iron, white and malleable
iron.

Non-Ferrous alloys:
These are all the known metals other than irons. These include alloys of aluminium,
copper, magnesium, zinc, titanium and nickel. They provide a wide range of favorable
properties including good strength, light weight, resistance to corrosion, and ease of
fabrication. Application of these alloys range from basic consumer goods to
mechanically demanding aerospace components and structures.
Aluminium is the most important of the non-ferrous alloys and ranks second to steel
in worldwide quantity used. It is increasingly used in both automotive and aerospace
industry for its low density, good strength and excellent corrosion resistance as well
as its ease of manufacture. Both nickel and titanium alloys are extensively used in jet
engines and gas turbines because of their advantageous high mechanical properties
and excellent corrosion resistance characteristics particularly at high operating
temperatures.

12
2.3.1 Types of Materials

STEELS.

Steel is a ferrous alloy that usually contains less than 1,7 percent of carbon. Other elements
may also be present. Steel can be classified as plain carbon steel, alloy steel and high-alloy
steel. This section discusses plain carbon steels and alloy steels in detail.

PLAIN CARBON STEEL

1. Mild Steel or low-carbon steel

Low-carbon steel contains a maximum of 0.25 percent carbon. It is easily
machined,formed, and welded. However, normal heat treatment cannot harden the
steel significantly. Low-carbon steels are used for construction applications. They are
often forged or rolled to form angle,channel, plate, bar or rod stock. Low-carbon
steels are produced in large quantity and are usually inexpensive.

2. Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content between 0.25 percent and 0.65 percent.
The hardness and strength of these steels can be improved by heat treatment.
Medium-carbon steels are the most versatile of all plain carbon steels and used for a
wide range of applications. For example, many automobile parts are made from
medium-carbon steels. These parts include crankshafts, planet pinion shafts, and tie
rod ends, among others.

12
3. High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel contains between 0.60 and 1.0 percent carbon. High-carbon
steel is always hardened, but it also brittle. This steel is often used as cutting tools
such as lawn mower blades. High-carbon steels are most costly to make and have
poor formability and weldability.

ALLOY STEEL
Alloy steels are heat-treatable steels that contain between 1 percent alloying
elements. Alloying elements are added to plain-carbon steels for many purpose. For
example to improve mechanical properties, to improve resistance to corrosion and
elevated-temperature oxidation. Alloy steel have a higher abrasion resistance and
better fatigue behaviour than plain carbon steels.

HIGH ALLOY STEEL

High-alloy steel are defined as steels having an alloy content of 10 percent or higher.
There are two major families of materials in this group, stainless steels and tool steels.

12
Stainless steels
Stainless steel was developed to improved corrosion resistance by adding elements
such as chromium and nickel. A typical cutting tool steels resist softening caused by
heat. Their high alloy content slows diffusion and coarsening of the hardening
carbide. Stainless steel are selected as industrial materials mainly because of their
excellent corrosion resistance.

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2.2.1 TYPES OF LIFTING TOOLS

1. Conventional Clamp

2. Ratcheting Puller

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 3. Probe Extractor

2.3 MATERIALS
Since metals in pure forms have limited mechanical properties (e.g strength and
hardness) they are mostly used in alloy forms. An alloy consists of at least two metals,
namely, the parent metal and the alloying element. However, many metallic alloys
contain several or many alloying elements in order to satisfy a combination of
properties. Metallic materials can be further subdivided into two groups:
1) Ferrous metals and
2) Non-ferrous metals.
Ferrous metals:
The term ferrous metals is used for all those alloys having iron as the major
constituent. Pure iron is a relatively soft material and is hardly of any commercial use
in pure state. Alloys of iron with carbon are classified according to their carbon
content: Steels with 0.02 - 2 % carbon and Cast Irons with 2-4 % carbon.
Ferrous metals account for about three quarters of the metal tonnage used throughout
the world. Steels can be further sub-divided into a number of categories. The term
carbon steel is used for those steels in which essentially just carbon and iron are
present. The term alloy steel is used where other elements are included. Typical
alloying elements include manganese, aluminium, copper, nickel, chromium, cobalt
and so on. Stainless steels are one form of alloy steels, which have high percentages
of chromium and nickel in its chemical composition for their high resistance to
corrosion. Due to their good strength, and relatively low cost, steels are widely used
in many different applications including construction, transport, general engineering
and consumer products.

12
 Cast Irons as the name implies have been developed for casting process and the terms
refer to a family of alloys including gray cast iron, ductile iron, white and malleable
iron.

Non-Ferrous alloys:
These are all the known metals other than irons. These include alloys of aluminium,
copper, magnesium, zinc, titanium and nickel. They provide a wide range of favorable
properties including good strength, light weight, resistance to corrosion, and ease of
fabrication. Application of these alloys range from basic consumer goods to
mechanically demanding aerospace components and structures.
Aluminium is the most important of the non-ferrous alloys and ranks second to steel
in worldwide quantity used. It is increasingly used in both automotive and aerospace
industry for its low density, good strength and excellent corrosion resistance as well
as its ease of manufacture. Both nickel and titanium alloys are extensively used in jet
engines and gas turbines because of their advantageous high mechanical properties
and excellent corrosion resistance characteristics particularly at high operating
temperatures.

2.3.1 Types of Materials

STEELS.

Steel is a ferrous alloy that usually contains less than 1,7 percent of carbon. Other elements
may also be present. Steel can be classified as plain carbon steel, alloy steel and high-alloy
steel. This section discusses plain carbon steels and alloy steels in detail.

PLAIN CARBON STEEL

1. Mild Steel or low-carbon steel

Low-carbon steel contains a maximum of 0.25 percent carbon. It is easily
machined,formed, and welded. However, normal heat treatment cannot harden the
steel significantly. Low-carbon steels are used for construction applications. They are
often forged or rolled to form angle,channel, plate, bar or rod stock. Low-carbon
steels are produced in large quantity and are usually inexpensive.

12
2. Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content between 0.25 percent and 0.65 percent.
The hardness and strength of these steels can be improved by heat treatment.
Medium-carbon steels are the most versatile of all plain carbon steels and used for a
wide range of applications. For example, many automobile parts are made from
medium-carbon steels. These parts include crankshafts, planet pinion shafts, and tie
rod ends, among others.

3. High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel contains between 0.60 and 1.0 percent carbon. High-carbon steel is
always hardened, but it also brittle. This steel is often used as cutting tools such as
lawn mower blades. High-carbon steels are most costly to make and have poor
formability and weldability.

ALLOY STEEL
Alloy steels are heat-treatable steels that contain between 1 percent alloying
elements. Alloying elements are added to plain-carbon steels for many purpose. For
example to improve mechanical properties, to improve resistance to corrosion and

12
elevated-temperature oxidation. Alloy steel have a higher abrasion resistance and
better fatigue behaviour than plain carbon steels.

HIGH ALLOY STEEL

High-alloy steel are defined as steels having an alloy content of 10 percent or higher.
There are two major families of materials in this group, stainless steels and tool steels.

STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless steel was developed to improved corrosion resistance by adding elements
such as chromium and nickel. A typical cutting tool steels resist softening caused by
heat. Their high alloy content slows diffusion and coarsening of the hardening
carbide. Stainless steel are selected as industrial materials mainly because of their
excellent corrosion resistance.

12
 REFERENCE
https://www.boltdepot.com/fastener-information/materials-and-grades/materials.aspx

BS EN 1993-1-4:2006+A1:2015 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. General rules.

Supplementary rules for stainless steels, BSI

BS EN 10025-2:2004 Hot rolled products of structural steels. Technical delivery conditions

for non-alloy structural steels, BSI.

NA to BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel

structures General rules and rules for buildings, BSI

BS EN 10210-1:2006 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
steels. Technical delivery requirements, BSI.

BS EN 10088-1:2014 Stainless steels. List of stainless steels, BSI

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