Site Selection

1. Topographical Survey
 Determine position of natural and man-made features
 Features drawn to scale on plan or map
 Determine ground elevations (contours, cross-sections and profiles)
 Vast majority done by aerial survey
 Rectangular technique:
 Right angle offsets for location detail
 Polar technique use stadia or electronic techniques
 Elevation for profiles and cross section

2. Soil Testing for Foundation Design

FIELD EXPLORATION AND LABORATORY TESTING

2.1 BORINGS
Three 26.5-foot deep test borings at the site using a Central Mine Equipment Company (CME)
55 drill rig and hollow-stem augers. Figure 2 shows the approximate locations of the borings,
designated BV-1, -2 and -3; the latitudes and longitudes of the borings are indicated on the
borings logs. The borings were advanced following ASTM D 1452, “Standard Practice for Soil
Exploration and Sampling by Auger Borings”. Soil samples and blow count data were obtained
for each boring. The samples were taken with Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 2-inch split
barrel sampler and a 3-inch diameter thin-wall tube sampler. Appendix A presents additional
details concerning the boring program, the boring logs, and a key to the boring logs.

2.2 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TESTING

Electrical resistivity testing along two perpendicular traverses (ER-1 and ER-2) in the vicinity of
boring BV-2 on December 17 and 18, 2009. Figure 2 shows the approximate location of boring
BV-2. The tests were performed with a SuperSting R1/IP, DC-Memory Earth Resistivity Meter
manufactured by Advanced Geosciences, Inc. following ASTM G 57, “Standard Test Method for
Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the Wenner Four-Electrode Method” and IEEE 81,
“IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface Potentials of
a Ground System”. The four electrodes were placed in a straight line along the traverse with
equal spacing between them, and driven into the soil. The electrode spacing’s on both
traverses were: 3, 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30 and 60 feet. A summary of the test results is
presented in the following table. Appendix B presents the electrical resistivity test data

Fig. 2
 2.3 LABORATORY TESTING
Laboratory testing was performed on selected samples. The tests consisted of in situ water
content; liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index; and particle-size distribution.

3. Building Structural Stability

The scope of the full structural investigation includes the following:
(a) Obtaining information relating to the design, construction, maintenance and history of the
building;
(b) Assessing the structural adequacy of the building by checking the structural plans and
calculations and reconstructing the structural plans if they are not available;
c) Carrying out tests on the materials used and structural elements of the building;
(d) Carrying out load test on parts of the building if necessary;
(e) Recommending appropriate safety precautionary and remedial measures to restore the
structural stability and integrity of the building structure.

Prior to the commencement of visual inspection, the structural engineer is to obtain a set of
the building’s structural layout plans from the building owner. The availability of the structural
layout plan will help the structural engineer to:
(a) Understand the structural system and layout of the building;
(b) Identify critical areas for inspection;
(c) Identify the allowable imposed loads, in order to assess the usage and possibility of
overloading; and
(d) Verify if unauthorized addition or alteration works that affect the structure of the building
have been carried out.

Site Preparation and Civil works:-

1. Site leveling and slope stabilization

Surveying and mapping the field involves setting a uniform grid system on the field and
establishing the field topography. This need not be a complicated procedure. One corner of the
field can be chosen as a starting point and the first stake can be located one-half grid spacing
from either boundary. Then a row of stakes can be measured and set using a transit or level
and tape. The instrument is set up over the first stake and sighted along a line parallel to the
boundary. Usually this is accomplished by going to the opposite edge and locating a stake one-
half grid spacing from the edge. Then, using the instrument for alignment, the first row of
stakes is measured into place. With the instrument located over the same stake and aligned
along the first row, the next step is to turn the alignment 90° by either measuring a right
triangle or by using the instrument angle indicators if available. The new alignment is used to
locate another stake row along the other field axis. Each of the remaining stakes can be placed
visually by sighting against the two stakes at the field edges. The grid spacing can be set at
convenient lengths so long as it is square and consistent (this is not technically required but it
 simplifies the calculations). In the US, the typical grid spacing is 100 feet by 100 feet (30.5 m by
30.5 m). However this would be too large in many countries with small fields. It is suggested
that the surveyor use a multiple of 10 m as spacing and select one that divides the field into at
least 5 percent subareas.
Slope stabilization is useful in instances where local authorities design steep slopes to maximize
land use. If the frictional and strength characteristics of the soil cannot provide the stability
needed then slope stabilization methods are required. Issues of Slope Stability can exist on
much steep clay, natural or artificially formed embankments. The stability of these
embankments can be improved by installing specially designed geosynthetic materials.
In recent times we have seen a great increase in the demand for slope remediation, rock fall
protection and landslide mitigation, which appears to be driven by the ongoing adverse
weather conditions. However this may also be influenced by a now more educated and aware
public towards safety and the risks/dangers of the natural environment in today’s society.
There is also an ever increasing level of safety requires by local authorities in the building/
construction industry.

2. Site Drainage
It cannot be under stated the importance of how well site drainage works especially during
heavy rain, as a level of performance is required under the Building Code of Australia. The
objectives of damp and weatherproofing a structure is to safeguard the occupants from illness
or injury and protect the building from damage caused by surface water and external moisture
entering a building, as well as the accumulation of internal moisture in a building. There are a
number of issues to consider:
Discharge of storm water
The legal discharge point from a building site is generally determined by local government
authority. This will generally be determined by the location of the site e.g. in the city it may be
the curb or inter-allotment drainage system, whereas in a rural environment it may be a rubble
pit or in rare instances an overland flow
What should the drainage system accommodate?
The objective is to:
(a) Safeguard occupants from illness or injury and protect the building from damage caused by:
(i) surface water
(ii) External moisture entering a building
(iii) The accumulation of internal moisture in a building
(iv) The discharge of swimming pool waste water; and to
(b) Protect other property from damage caused by:
(i) Redirected surface water; and
(ii) The discharge of swimming pool waste water
3. Perimeter fencing and caution signage
The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) in Rule 110A1 describes the type of enclosure
necessary to surround an electric supply substation. “Rooms and spaces in which electric
supply conductors or equipment are installed shall be so arranged with fences, screens,
partitions, or walls to form an enclosure as to limit the likelihood of entrance by
unauthorized persons or interference by them with equipment inside.” The rule also
requires posting of a safety sign at each entrance and one on each side of fenced
enclosures. A “NOTE” informs readers that American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
standards Z-535.1, .2, .3, .4, and .5 contain information regarding safety signs. You will recall
that a “NOTE” used in a rule indicates material provided for information or illustrative
purposes only. “NOTES” are not mandatory and are not considered to be part of the code
requirements. The standards the NESC is referring to are the 1998 editions of the American
National Standards for Safety Signs, Labels, and Tags.
Clear Visibility Distance
The significant factor that limits sign spacing is what I call clear visibility distance. Clear
visibility distance is the distance at which a person approaching a substation has an
unobstructed view of the entire fence he is approaching. If a 50-foot wide strip outside the
fence is regularly mowed and kept clear of brush and trees, the clear visibility distance is
fifty feet. If that clear area outside area outside the fence is only ten feet wide, the clear
visibility distance is 10 feet.
Maximum Sign Spacing
 4. Access Road
Roads are primary mean of transportation. Just recently we have been asked to provide designs
and costs to build access and service roads for a number of new Solar Farm projects. This
upsurge in confidence in Solar Farm installations is being driven by falling technology costs and
the establishment a more predictable feed-in tariff system.
Our new soil stabilization technology was unfortunately not available in the UK during the boom
period of a couple of years ago, when installations were being rushed through to take advantage
of the generous introductory tariffs.
During this time many miles of access roads were quickly constructed from quarried stone,
trucked to site in heavy dump trucks. Regrettably many of these roads have now failed and
those that remain need constant repair.
It is not sustainable to continue quarrying virgin stone and trucking it around the UK to build
roads which unless they are carefully designed and executed will start to fail after the first
shower of rain.
Just over a year ago we introduced a new technology to the UK, which enables permanent roads
to be built just from the existing farm soils, any farm soils.
These access and service roads and the platforms or pads for the invertor’s and other essential
plant to stand on, can be very quickly built without the need to truck in thousands of tons of
sacrificial stone.

5. Foundation design approach and standards

This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design, construction and testing of piled
footings for civil engineering and building structures on land or immediate inshore locations. It
does not extend to offshore (deep water) construction. NOTES:
 AS 5100 series should be considered for the design of footings for road bridges.
 Where the strength or serviceability of an existing structure is to be evaluated, the
general principles of this Standard should be applied. The actual properties of the
materials in the structure should be used.
 The durability requirements are appropriate for structures with design life within ±20%
of the target design life.

NORMATIVE REFERENCES: - The normative documents referenced in this Standard are the following:

 NOTE: Documents referenced for informative purposes are listed in the

Bibliography.
 AS 1012 Methods of testing concrete (all Parts)
 1163 Structural steel hollow sections
 1170 Structural design actions
 1170.4 Part 4: Earthquake actions in Australia 1289 Methods of testing soils for
engineering purposes
  1289.6.3.1 Part 6.3.1: Soil strength and consolidation tests—Determination of
the penetration resistance of a soil—Standard penetration test (SPT)
 1289.6.5.1 Part 6.5.1: Soil strength and consolidation tests—Determination of
the static cone penetration resistance of a soil—Field test using a mechanical
and electrical cone or friction-cone penetrometer
 1379 Specification and supply of concrete
 1450 Steel tubes for mechanical purposes
 1554 Structural steel welding
 1554.1 Part 1: Welding of steel structures
 1579 Arc-welded steel pipes and fittings for water and waste-water
 1604 Specification for preservative treatment
 1604.1 Part 1: Sawn and round timber
 1720 Timber structures
 1720.1 Part 1: Design methods
 1726 Geotechnical site investigations

6. Wind load Calculation

Wind load is one of the most important considerations in the design of any structure. There are
national and international standards to help us predict wind responses and design structures
with less risk, including the Australian/New Zealand Standards AS/NZS 1170.2:2011 and
International Standard ISO 4354.