Bilingual education

and other strategies for education for Latinx

individuals

Kaitlin Bonfiglio
Secondary MAC
University of Michigan
2016

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Introduction
The issue I hope to shed light on is that of the invaluable resource of Latinx (Note: I will use
Latinx​ to refer to ​Latina/o or Latin@​) individuals, a population that currently make up 53% of the student
population of California public schools (according to the ​California Deparment of Education​). In light of
the varied and complex sociopolitical landscape of education, these students are currently underserved
when compared to ethnic majority students. According to Nuñez-Janes and Cruz (2013), the instruction of
Latinx children has been “​characterized by insensitivity, indifference, detachment, and unimaginative
teaching” (2). Additionally, many Latinx individuals speak Spanish, English, Spanglish, Chicano English,
or any combination of these linguistic variants. These linguistic variants are largely ignored and devalued
in the realm of education and academia. Thus, the problem is not only a cultural deficit within education,
but also a linguistic deficit. I have examined various sources that discuss various types of bilingual
education to infer what kinds of linguistic strategies teachers can use in their instruction of Latinx
students. I have also examined other culturally sensitive and responsive strategies of teaching Latinx
students, with the ultimate goal of compiling a set of conclusions and concrete strategies for creating a
more inclusive, rich education for Latinx individuals.

Review of Research
A review of research describes the problem in thorough detail, with all the inherent complexities
of language and culture. But researchers find that there are concrete strategies we can implement, that
involve both community-based and linguistic specializations, to address the serious deficits in the
education of Latinx individuals. One such strategy is the praxis of digital storytelling. The research of
Mariela Nuñez-Janes and Erica Re Cruz (2013) deals with deficits in high school- and college-level
education of Latinx students, noting that “the knowledge that [Latinx children] have accumulated from
their families and communities” (1) is excluded in the standard classroom. In this way, Latinx students are
not only assumed to fail in the classroom, but they begin to believe it themselves - in other words, their
self-esteem is negatively affected by such expectations. Citing storytelling as a way to ​“authorize students
to lay claim to their own histories, their own voice, and to use primary sources in authoritative ways” (7),
authors (2013) aim to look into this instructional activity as a form of constructing knowledge in the
classroom. Importantly, “young Latinos/as also increasingly rely on media and technology to
communicate ideas and experiences relevant to their generation” (2), and for that reason, ​digital
storytelling - that is, storytelling using digital media and technology - take the findings of past research to
a new level. Authors (2013) conducted qualitative research - in the form of field notes, observations,

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interview responses, and video-tape recordings - on two participants at a three-day digital storytelling
workshop at the University of North Texas. While the sample size was two, initially the research was
supposed to be a case study of four people, but only two completed the intensive workshop. These two
left with a final product, which blended a mix of technologies such as Adobe Premiere, Photoshop, and
digital audio recording technology. Authors (2013) found that the workshop facilitated “open dialogue”
(5) as per Freire’s critical pedagogy, and the use of dialogue allowed participants to learn about each other
while also realizing that they had a story worth sharing (5). Additionally, authors (2013) noted that this
praxis was a positive tool for community-building through its emphasis on interactions (5) and a source of
pride and self-esteem for participants (6). Workshop participants learned about themselves, about
technology, and about sharing experiences (7). Essentially, by having a digital medium through which to
tell their stories, participants felt that their experiences were validated. This community-building and
empowerment is vital to future classrooms of Latinx students, because their personal experiences and
funds of knowledge have historically been excluded. Thus, digital storytelling may be a powerful tool in
the instruction of Latinx individuals.
Further research suggests that not only should Latinx students’ voices be heard, but that mentors
and multiethnic coursework can help these students feel more comfortable about their position in
education (and higher education). Research done by Alyssa Cavazos (2015) examined the population of
Latinx individuals in higher education, or academia. She conducted an open-ended qualitative interview,
“focused on participants’ experiences” (15), with 10 individuals: five established academics, and five new
graduate students. All individuals were bilingual or “possessed some knowledge of the Spanish language,
Spanglish, Tex-Mex, Chicano English, and/or any other variations” (15). Cavazos (2015) conducted the
interviews either in-person, in Texas, or via Skype. After transcribing the interviews, they were coded for
themes, which included: early language background, community identity, mentors and multiethnic
coursework in academia, negotiating identities, and language difference in academic writing (15). For the
purposes of this study, Cavazos (2015) chose to focus on the coded category of mentors and multiethnic
coursework in upper-level academia. Cavazos (2015) found that in several cases, “without mentors’ belief
in Latina/o students’ potential, [participants] might not have continued with their education and achieved
academic success” (16). Problems stemmed from lack of representation and lack of cultural and linguistic
diversity in academia. For example, one participant was told “she would have received an A if Spanish
had not been her first language” (17). Having Latinx mentors in academia help counter “resistance toward
language and ethnic difference” (19). Mentors validate their mentees’ use of Spanish and other linguistic
variants. They also set a standard for mentees, believing that they can strive to meet the goals of their
mentor. Similarly, having coursework in which languages other than English are privileged made an

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impact on the studied sample. Noting already a difference in linguistic variance between the way that
Latinx individuals write and the way that they speak, seeing language that was more familiar to them
helped empower them, “responding to [these] texts with a sense of authority and confidence” (20).
Cavazos (2015) also found that “in addition to establishing a sense of identification for new Latina/o
academics, multicultural coursework ignited critical thinking and academic writing abilities” (20), which
helped these Latinx individuals set higher, more rigorous standards for themselves within academia.
While this research (2015) is focused on Latinx students of higher education, we can infer that including
Latinx mentors and multicultural, Spanish-language coursework - all of which represent cultural and
linguistic diversity - are two effective strategies for supporting Latinx individuals in all realms of
education.
Other research examines worthwhile strategies in high-school education of bilingual Latinx
students. Lasisi Ajayi (2015) did a multiple case study of two 10th grade ELA teachers (both
Mexican-American) in Los Angeles, focusing specifically on strategies for vocabulary-building in
Mexican-American students. The case study lasted around 18 weeks, where six of those weeks were spent
observing two classrooms, both of which had majority English language learners (ELLs). Classroom
observations were recorded on video, and subsequently both teachers and students filled out
questionnaires regarding vocabulary consciousness. Researchers (2015) used the constant comparative
method - comparing data at all levels of analysis - and developed coded themes that came out of the
study, which include: direct, explicit instruction (subcategories: word analysis, cognate use, explicit
scaffolding, online word-search strategies, and visual image strategies) and strategies supported by
technology. Researchers (2015) found that specific strategies capitalizing on students’ already-established
funds of knowledge were most effective in developing a stronger vocabulary, in both English and
Spanish. For example, cognate use could create “opportunities for Mexican-American bilingual students
to use their existing linguistic knowledge of Spanish to decipher meanings of new words in English”
(472). Rather than have these Latinx students develop their two languages in different contexts, cognate
use allowed them to see the alignments and develop both English and Spanish vocabularies. This special
kind of technique seems to only be appropriate with Latin-based languages such as English and Spanish -
it would be inappropriate for ELLs whose primary language was Mandarin, for example. Additionally,
researchers (2015) found that semantic mapping through various technological tools was effective in
building off prior knowledge. For example, a tool used in one classroom called The Inspiration “allowed
students to create graphic organizers and visual displays to highlight word relationships” (480). These
technologies empowered Latinx students to think, brainstorm ideas, and structure their thinking in a safe,
risk-taking environment. It is important that these students feel safe and comfortable while building their

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vocabularies because, according to Ajayi (2015), “if students do not understand key words in a particular
subject, they are more likely not to understand what they read” (482). This can be detrimental to subjects
even beyond literature - such as mathematics and earth science. Thus, the use of cognates, semantic
mapping, and educational technology help build on Latinx students’ funds of knowledge and construct
more knowledge in a safe manner, allowing these students to deepen their understanding of all subjects
and improve both Spanish and English vocabularies.
The question of teaching strategies at a high-school level calls into question the effectiveness of
teachers in giving a high-quality education to Latinx students and English language learners (ELLs).
Lasisi Ajayi conducted another study (2011) regarding the impact of sociocultural identities of ESL
teachers on these teachers’ pedagogies: “eg. how they view curriculum, what they do, their goals, how
they assess, what they think of their students” (655). Ajayi (2011) recognizes a contentious debate
between proponents of English-assimilation ESL and advocates of bilingual education. He outlines four
different ESL programs - structured English immersion, mainstream, basic bilingual, and dual language -
all of which enjoy varied levels of support from teachers (660). In doing research, Ajayi (2015) used a
sample of 57 LA-based teachers and collected data through a questionnaire (biographical information), a
face-to-face interview (recorded on videotape and transcribed), and a self-written perspective. Data were
triangulated, coded, and developed into four categories: Influence of ethnic and cultural identity on
instructional practice, influence of social backgrounds on teaching, using life experiences to mediate
instruction, and education program as a mediating factor in teacher identity. Of the 57 participants, 43
were multilingual, 41 were women, most (31) held a Master’s degree in education, and there were 22
white teachers, 17 Latinx teachers, and 12 Black teachers. Ajayi (2015) found that there was a significant
difference in the responses of the white participants and the nonwhite participants. Ethnic minority
teachers tend[ed] to relate “ESL learning to family and community values, and raising hopes of brighter
futures” (670). They tended to see ESL learning as “not merely issues of cognition… but also of
psychocultural factors such as access to students’ own language for learning, [and] supportive family and
community culture” (672). These teachers were more likely to integrate Latinx students’ funds of
knowledge, build new community knowledge, and use students’ native languages in the classroom to
develop a deeper understanding. These strategies would represent a more dual-language type of ESL
programme. On the other hand, white teachers seem[ed] to have an uncritical, one-dimensional view of
English language learning and success - one that emphasizes a materialistic, capitalist agenda” (674). For
example, several white participants commented that “English is the business language of the world and a
gatekeeper to higher education” (669), thereby calling for an English-assimilation type of ESL
programme. In all, the findings of Ajayi (2011) suggest “a need to re-conceptualize ESL teacher

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preparation programs… for example, community-based cross-cultural immersion programs can provide
white preservice teachers a space to actually live in communities where their students come from,
communities that are typically different from [their] own” (675). Teachers of all sociocultural
backgrounds must validate and re-center the linguistic and cultural funds of knowledge that Latinx
students bring into the classroom. These research findings and conclusions (2015) place responsibility on
the teacher herself, emphasizing the importance of integration, activating prior knowledge, and navigation
of sociocultural and political identities in the classroom.
Regarding the different types of ESL/bilingual programs and their effectiveness in the education
of Latinx students, research (2002) shows that the strategies implemented by nonwhite teachers reflect a
more effective language acquisition and literacy program in general, the dual-language program. A
large-scale, five-year study done by Thomas and Collier (2002) examines language minority students and
their long-term academic success given the type of bilingual program (out of eight different kinds) in
which they were placed. The study (2002) used both quantitative and qualitative data and was
implemented in four major areas of the United States: northeast, south-central, northwest, and southeast
(2). It is important to note that “language minority” does not imply that these students are Latinx, but
native Spanish-speakers constituted 75% of the sample (3), which totaled 210,054 in student records
collected. The study (2002) used attendance measures, standardized test scores, surveys, and case studies
over a five-year period as data. To control for extraneous variables such as socioeconomic status (SES)
and location, authors (2002) implemented hierarchical linear regression and repeated-measures ANOVA.
In the native Spanish-speaking (ie. L1 = Spanish, L2 = English) group, for example, hierarchical linear
regression analysis shows that in the groups studied, SES was statistically significant with an R​2​ at 11.7%,
but years in a dual-language bilingual program was even more statistically significant with an R​2​ at 15.1%
(44). From this, authors (2002) derived that a strong dual language program can “reverse” the negative
effects of SES more than a well-implemented ESL Content program by raising reading achievement to a
greater degree” (45). Additionally, “bilingually schooled students outperform comparable monolingually
schooled students in academic achievement in all subjects, after 4-7 years of dual language schooling”
(46). This suggests that dual-language bilingual programs increase literacies of both primary and
secondary languages, which is significantly correlated with achievement in all academic subjects. These
data (2002) support previous research in that integration of both languages is vital for increasing not only
English literacy, but Spanish literacy, for Latinx students.

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Conclusion(s)
There are many facets outlined here in the improvement of education for Latinx students,
including a dual-language bilingual program from childhood, certain vocabulary consciousness strategies,
mentorship and multiethnic coursework, and digital storytelling. Additionally, research calls for an
improvement in teacher education programs to create more culturally conscious and responsive educators,
especially in ESL. While these are concrete strategies, it may be difficult to implement in teacher
education programs as well as school development programs in areas where Latinx students are not the
majority. There may be political roadblocks that center the English language and devalue all other
linguistic variants. Additionally, the research I have reviewed focuses on many different age samples of
Latinx students, from K-12 to post-secondary education, which makes for a less standardized reform
strategy. However, despite these challenges moving ahead, it is crucial that we acknowledge cultural and
linguistic diversity at all levels of education. I hope the Yates Foundation seriously considers this
proposal, as Latinx individuals are a huge part of the United States’s population, and the deficits in
educational strategies aimed at this population can be fixed, replaced, and transformed moving forward.

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References

Cavazos, A. G. (2016). Latinas/os succeeding in academia: the effect of mentors and multiethnic
coursework. Journal of Latinos and Education, 15(1), 12-25.

Nuñez-Janes, Mariela & Cruz, Alicia R. (2013). Latino/a students and the power of digital storytelling.
Radical Pedagogy, 10(2), 1-9.
http://www.radicalpedagogy.org/radicalpedagogy8/Latino_a_Students_and_the_P
ower_of_Digital_Storytelling.html

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