A level Biology notes

As level :

Unit 1:
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
BLOOD CLOTS
Platelets are cells with no nucleus. But when platelets come in contact with the damaged vessel their
shape changes into a “spiky” shape – they stick to each other and the collagen in the wall: a platelet
plug is formed. They then release more substances that activate even more platelets to their aid.

The contact with the blood (platelets) with the collagen in the wall triggers chemical changes in the

blood:
 BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure is higher in arteries and capillaries than in veins.

Systolic blood pressure is highest and occurs when the ventricles contract (ventricular systole)
Diastolic blood pressure is at its lowest in the arteries when the ventricles relax (diastole)

Any factor which causes arteries or arterioles to constrict will lead to hypertension. These include:

 Loss of elasticity with age

 Atherosclerosis
 Adrenaline
 High salt diet.
A larger surface area means that peripheral resistance is greater thus blood pressure drops (veins)

A smaller surface area means that peripheral resistance is less thus blood pressure increases.

BLOOD VESSELS
 When muscles relax, the lumen widens thus decreasing B.P
 There is no pulse and pressure is low.
 Valves prevent backflow.
CARBOHYDRATES
 CHOLESTROL
Insoluble cholesterol combines with proteins to form soluble lipoproteins so that it can be carried in the
bloodstream.

Eating both monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats reduces the level of LDLs in the blood.

ENERGY BUDGET + DIET

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and alcohol all contain energy: used to be measured in calories; the SI
unit is the Joule.
 Average person requires 8,000-10,000 kilojoules per day.
Dietary Reference Values encourage balanced & healthy diets and indicate the amount of energy
derived from different foods.
The basal metabolic rate (BMR) varies between individuals.
 BMR is higher in males and people who are younger, heavier or more active.
The body mass index (BMI) doesn’t have an exact correlation to each individuals fat levels thus it
isn’t very accurate.
 Normal range is around 20. Less than this is underweight and over 30, obese.
Waist – to – hip ratio is a better measure of obesity b/c has a continuous positive correlation against
diseased groups.
Larger W – T – H ratio = more likely to get a heart attack

Obesity
20% of the population are obese – excess dietary fat and inactivity are likely causes.

Obesity increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, Type II diabetes, raises B.P and raises lipid
levels.

LIPIDS
Lipids contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents (ethanol).

They provide twice as much energy as carbohydrates and supply the body with essential fatty acids.
Vitamins are often found dissolved in lipids.

The most common type we eat and use as energy storage is triglycerides: made up of 3 fatty acids
joined to 1 glycerol:
PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Thermal Properties
Large amounts of energy are needed to break the hydrogen bonds. Because organisms have a high
water content, a large amount of energy only results in a small increase in body temp. This means that
water warms and cools slowly. This makes maintaining a stable body temperature easier

REDUCING RISK
A person’s risk of developing coronary heart disease can be reduced by:

DIET
 should be energy balanced
 reduced cholesterol, saturated fats and salt
 more polyunsaturated fats, including omega-3 fatty acids found in oily fish
 more fruit and vegetables containing soluble fibre and antioxidants
 include food with added sterols and stanols (saturated plant compounds which reduce cholesterol)
EXERCISE
 A person who is physically active is much more likely to survive a heart attack or stroke.
STOP SMOKING
 After stopping, the risk of CHD is almost halved after one year.
CONTROLLING BLOOD PRESSURE
 Can be achieved by changes in lifestyle and diet,
 Drugs such as antihypertensive and blockers can be used.

RISK

Probabilities
E.g. 24,000 people died in 2005. The population was 72,200,000. What is the average risk in:

 Percentage: 24,000 / 72,200,000 = 0.033%

 Fraction: 72,200,000 / 24,000 = 1 in 3008 people
These averages make the assumption that everyone has the same chance of the outcome = WRONG.
 Perception of risk
People’s behaviour is affected by the perception of risk.
They overestimate the risk of something happening if the risk is not under their control, unnatural,
unfamiliar, dreaded, unfair or very small.
There is a tendency to underestimate the risk if it has an effect in the long-term future e.g. health
risks associated with smoking.
When data is lacking to estimate the risk, the outcome is uncertain.
Correlation and cause
Two factors are positively correlated if an increase in one is accompanied by an increase in the
other
A positive correlation does not necessarily mean that the two are causally linked.
Factors that contribute to health risks include:
 heredity
 physical environment
 social environment
 lifestyle and behaviour choices

RISK FACTORS FOR CVD

The following factors increase a person’s risk of developing cardiovascular disease:

 GENETIC
 Risk is increased if your parents have CVD.
 Different chances of inheriting the defective genes; two recessive / one dominant allele = inherited
 Represented via punnett square

 DIET
 some vitamins act as antioxidants, reducing the damaging effects of free radicals
 high salt levels cause the kidneys to retain water à high internal fluid levels à increasing B.P
 AGE
 More likely as you get older.
 Aging arteries — less elastic — easily damaged — blood clot / atherosclerosis / heart attack
 GENDER
 Incidence is much higher for men than women.
 HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE
 SMOKING
 carbon monoxide is carried by haemoglobin instead of O2 à lack of O2
 nicotine stimulates adrenaline release, increasing heart rate and blood pressure
 chemicals damage endothelium triggering atherosclerosis à narrows artery à high B.P
 decreased levels of HDLs
 INACTIVITY
 most common risk factor
 reduces blood pressure = dangerous b/c cells lack oxygen
 exercise can halve the risk of developing CHD, reduce risk of Type II diabetes and raises HDL levels
 STRESS
 Adrenalin released à increased blood pressure (b/s of constricting arteries), poor diet and increased
alcohol consumption.
 ALCOHOL
 Heavy drinkers have an increased risk of CHD as alcohol raises blood pressure, contributes to obesity
and causes irregular heartbeat. It also increases levels of LDLs.
 Damages liver à liver cant remove glucose + lipids from blood
 Liver converts alcohol to ethanol which ends p in LDL à plaque deposition
 Moderate amounts of alcohol may increase HDL levels.

STUDIES
Epidemiologist – studies patterns in the occurrence of diseases
Cohort studies – follows a group of people over time to see who develops the risk and who doesn’t
Case-control studies – people with the disease are compared to people without
 Controls should be representative of the population from which the case group was drawn from
Features of a good study
 Clear aim
 Representative sample – otherwise selected bias occurs
 Consider people who are asked to do the study with people who respond (e.g. unemployed people
may agree to day-time interviews but they may be [physically unhealthier than employed people who
are working thus cannot do the interview)
 Proportion who drop out should be kept to a minimum so that the remaining are still representative of
target population
 Valid + reliable results
 Control variables or else may influence outcome
 Repeatability + reproducibility
 Same method used
 Large sample

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
 Circulatory Systems

OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM-

 In invertebrates (e.g. insects), blood isn’t held within vessels always
 It’s free to circulate the body cavities (spaces)
 Only works for insects because they’re small
 Cannot contain any pressure, blood pressure is low, blood flow is slow, not directed to particular
organs and wouldn’t meet demand of large animals

CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM-

 In vertebrates (e.g. fish & mammals), blood is never released into the body cavity
 Blood circulates through series of blood vessels- artery, vein, capillary
 Blood can be pumped under pressure, blood flows quickly, can be directed to specific organs
 More responsive to changes in demand e.g. by increasing pressure to carry more oxygen
 Dilate and constrict vessels to other organs

Single and double circulatory systems:

 In a single circulatory system, blood flows through the heart once in one circuit
 In a double circulatory system, blood flows through the heart twice in one circuit (CIS 1.6)