Ubc 2008 Spring Zhang Yong

A DSP BASED VARIABLE-SPEED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE
FOR A REVOLVING STAGE
by
YONG ZHANG
B. A. Sc., Huazhong University of Science and Technology, WH, China, 1992
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Electrical and Computer Engineering)
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
December 2007
© Yong Zhang, 2007

Abstract
Variable speed drive technology has advanced dramatically in the last 10 years
with the advent of new power devices. In this study, a three phase induction motor drive
using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) at the inverter power stage is introduced
to implement speed and position control for the revolving stage in the Frederic Wood
Theatre
This thesis presents a solution to control a 3-phase induction motor using the Texas
Instruments (TI™) Digital Signal Processor (DSP) TMS320F2407A. The use of this DSP
yields enhanced operations, fewer system components, lower system cost and increased
efficiency. The control algorithm is based on the constant volts-per-hertz principle
because the exact speed control is not needed. Reflective object sensors which are
mounted on concrete frame are used to detect accurate edge position of revolving stage.
The sinusoidal voltage waveforms are generated by the DSP using the space vector
modulation technique.
In order to satisfy some operating conditions for safe and agreeable operation, a
look-up table, which is used to give command voltage and speed signals in software, is
applied to limit the maximum speed and acceleration of the revolving stage. Meanwhile,
a boost voltage signal is added at the low frequency areas to make the motor produce
maximum output torque when starting.
A test prototype is then built to validate the performance. Several tests are
implemented into the IGBT drive to explore the reason for unacceptable oscillations in
IGBT’s gate control signals. Improvement methods in hardware layout are suggested for
the final design.
ii
Table of Contents
Abstract ...........................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents .............................................................................................iii
List of Tables ....................................................................................................vi
List of Figures .................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... X
Chapter 1 Introduction .....................................................................................1
1.1 Overview of the Current System......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Advantages of an Induction Motor in Variable Speed Application ..................................... 2
1.3 Thesis Motivation and Objective ........................................................................................ 3
Chapter 2 Principles of Stage Mechanic System and V/Hz Control .............4

2.1 Elementary Principles of Mechanics................................................................................... 4
2.2 Safe Riding Conditions ....................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Induction Machines............................................................................................................. 8
2.3.1 Torque production ................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Equivalent circuit .................................................................................................... 9
2.3.3 Variable-voltage operation .................................................................................... 12
2.3.4 Variable-speed operation ....................................................................................... 13
2.3.5 Constant Volts/Hz operation.................................................................................. 13
2.4 Open Loop Volts/Hz Control with Voltage-Fed Inverter................................................... 15
Chapter 3 Hardware Implementation ............................................................17

3.1 Introduction of System...................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Three-Phase Rectifiers ...................................................................................................... 18
3.2.1 Thermistor ............................................................................................................. 18
3.2.2 The DC bus bulk capacitor.................................................................................... 19
3.3 Three-Phase Bridge Inverter ............................................................................................. 20
iii
3.3.1 The basic IGBT drive principle............................................................................. 21
3.3.2 Maintaining dv/dt noise immunity ........................................................................ 22
3.3.3 The applied IGBT drive ........................................................................................ 24
3.3.4 DC-DC converters................................................................................................. 25
3.3.5 Drive’s input resistors............................................................................................ 26
3.3.6 Gate resistors......................................................................................................... 26
3.3.6.1 Turn-on resistors............................................................................................. 26
3.3.6.2 Turn-off resistors ............................................................................................ 29
3.3.6.3 Minimal switching loss constraint.................................................................. 31
3.4 Energy Dissipation Subsystem.......................................................................................... 33
3.5 Over Current Protection .................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 4 Software Implementation .............................................................39

4.1 Approaches of SV_PWM Signals:.................................................................................... 39
4.2 Implementation-Open-Loop Speed Control for 3-Phase AC Induction Motor ................. 41
4.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 41
4.2.2 Initialization module description........................................................................... 43
4.2.3 Interrupt module description ................................................................................. 43
4.2.4 Generation of sine and cosine ............................................................................... 44
4.2.5 Space vector pulse width modulation.................................................................... 45
4.2.5.1 Expression of the 3 phase voltages (phase to neutral).................................... 46
4.2.5.2 Application to the static power bridge ........................................................... 47
4.2.5.3 Expression of the stator voltages in the (α, β) frame ..................................... 48
4.2.5.4 Projection of the stator reference voltage Vs ................................................. 50
4.2.5.5 Space vector algorithm................................................................................... 53
4.3 Voltage Per Hertz Algorithm ............................................................................................. 56
4.4 Frequency Command Module........................................................................................... 58
4.5 Deadtime Setting............................................................................................................... 59
4.6 Look-Up Tables................................................................................................................. 59
iv
4.7 Execution Time ................................................................................................................. 60
Chapter 5 Experimental Results....................................................................62

5.1 Noise Studies of Gate Signals ........................................................................................... 62
5.2 Analysis of the Running Revolve...................................................................................... 63
5.3 Gate Resistor Studies with Different Drives ..................................................................... 67
5.3.1 Gate signal with flyback transformer as power supplies....................................... 69
5.3.2 Gate signals with battery as power supplies.......................................................... 71
5.3.3 IGBT’s gate signal with commercial drives .......................................................... 72
5.3.4 Improved drive circuits and corresponding gate signals ....................................... 74
5.4 Collector-Emitter Surge Voltage ....................................................................................... 75
5.5 Deadtime Analysis ............................................................................................................ 77
Chapter 6 Conclusion and Future Work .......................................................80

6.1 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 80
6.2 Future Work ...................................................................................................................... 81
References.........................................................................................................82
Appendix A: Estimation of Moment of Inertia of the Stage ........................83
Appendix B: Induction Motor Parameter Estimation .....................................84
Appendix C: Clarke and Park Transformation................................................87
v
List of Tables
Table3.1 Features of the IGBT gate drive ............................................................................................. 25
Table3.2 Turn-on gate resistor sizing by tsw constraint........................................................................ 28
Table3.3 Turn-on gate resistor sizing by dVout/dt constraint................................................................ 29
Table3.4 Turn-off gate resistor sizing.................................................................................................... 30
Table3.5 Gate voltage spike induced by high dv/dt .............................................................................. 32
Table3.6 Component list for the IGBT gate drive................................................................................. 32
Table 4.1 Power bridge output voltages (VAO, VBO, VCO)................................................................ 48
Table 4.2 Power bridge output voltages (VAN, VBN, VCN)................................................................ 49
Table 4.3 Stator voltages ....................................................................................................................... 50
Table 4.4 Relationship between sector and P ........................................................................................ 53
Table 4.5 Assigning the right duty cycle to the right motor phase ........................................................ 54
Table 4.6 State Sequence....................................................................................................................... 55
Table 4.7 Look-up tables used in the program ...................................................................................... 60
Table 5. 1 Features of the BG2B universal gate drive........................................................................... 74
Table a.1 Calculation of the moment of inertia of the stage.................................................................. 83
Table b.1 Nameplate data of the induction machine ............................................................................. 84
vi
List of Figures
Figure 2. 1 Rotating object and its block diagram representation........................................................... 5
Figure 2. 2 Force analyses for variable speed revolution........................................................................ 6
Figure 2. 3 Angular acceleration versus angular speed........................................................................... 7
Figure 2. 4 Per phase equivalent circuit of induction motor ................................................................... 9
Figure 2. 5 Approximate Per phase equivalent circuit of induction motor ........................................... 10
Figure 2. 6 Torque-speed curves at variable frequency ........................................................................ 12
Figure 2. 7 Torque-speed curves with variable stator voltage............................................................... 13
Figure 2. 8 Torque-speed curves with constant voltage/frequency ratio............................................... 14
Figure 2. 9 Torque-speed curves with low-speed voltage boost, constant voltage/frequency ratio ...... 15
Figure 2. 10 Open loop volts/Hz speed control with voltage-fed inverter ............................................ 16
Figure 3. 1 Revolve system of the stage................................................................................................ 17
Figure 3. 2 Three-phase rectifiers ......................................................................................................... 18
Figure 3. 3 DC bus voltage curve.......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 3. 4 One leg of a three phase inverter ........................................................................................ 21
Figure 3. 5 Basic IGBT drive circuit..................................................................................................... 22
Figure 3. 6 Gate signal oscillation countermeasure .............................................................................. 23
Figure 3. 7 Noise shielding of opto-couplers ........................................................................................ 23
Figure 3. 8 Additional dv/dt immunity of negative bias turn-off voltage ............................................. 24
Figure 3. 9 IGBT turn-on sequence....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3. 10 RGon sizing ...................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3. 11 Current paths when Low Side is off and High Side turns on............................................ 30
Figure 3. 12 Separate gate current paths for turning-on and turning-off............................................... 31
Figure 3. 13 IGBT gate drive schematic ............................................................................................... 33
Figure 3. 14 Current paths for (a) Operation mode of motoring (b) Operation mode of generating..... 34
Figure 3. 15 Application speed, torque and power profiles .................................................................. 36
Figure 3. 16 over current censoring circuit ........................................................................................... 37
vii
Figure 3. 17 Current scaling for short circuit protection....................................................................... 38
Figure 4. 1 Program flow chart ............................................................................................................. 42
Figure 4. 2 Software flowchart and timing ........................................................................................... 44
Figure 4. 3 Sin, Cos calculation using the sine look-up table ............................................................... 45
Figure 4. 4 Phase equilibrate system..................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4. 5 Power bridge....................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4. 6 Stator voltages .................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4. 7 Projection of the reference voltage vector .......................................................................... 51
Figure 4. 8 Sector 1 PWM patterns and duty cycles ............................................................................. 55
Figure 4. 9 Voltage versus frequency ................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4. 10 Speed waveform of accurate position control................................................................... 58
Figure 4. 11 Command frequency censoring hardware ........................................................................ 58
Figure 4. 12 Command frequency scale translation .............................................................................. 59
Figure 4. 13 Execution time of V/Hz control routine............................................................................ 60
Figure 5. 1 Gate signal, low side with different DC bus link voltage ................................................... 62
Figure 5. 2 Phase and line voltage reference waveforms with SVP...................................................... 63
Figure 5. 3 The tested stage with 1500kg unbalanced loads ................................................................. 64
Figure 5. 4 Motor current curves under different running conditions................................................... 65
Figure 5. 5 Gate signals......................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 5. 6 Basic gate charge waveforms ............................................................................................. 68
Figure 5. 7 The practical realization of the prototype ........................................................................... 69
Figure 5. 8 The schematic diagram of the flyback transformer ............................................................ 70
Figure 5. 9 Gate signal with flyback transformer as power source of the drive.................................... 71
Figure 5. 10 A group of batteries as power supply for IGBT drives..................................................... 71
Figure 5. 11 Gate signal with batteries as power source of the drive.................................................... 72
Figure 5. 12 The commercial drive ....................................................................................................... 72
Figure 5. 13 The gate signals with commercial drives.......................................................................... 73
Figure 5. 14 DSP embedded in PCB board with commercial drives .................................................... 74
viii
Figure 5. 15 The gate signal curve with improved hardware layout ..................................................... 75
Figure 5. 16 Gate and Collector-emitter voltage curves ....................................................................... 76
Figure 5. 17 The layout of capacitors be mounted on bus bar .............................................................. 77
Figure 5. 18 The Collector-Emitter voltage curve with the new layout................................................ 77
Figure 5. 19 Current waveforms with different command frequency, deadtime=2μs .......................... 78
Figure 5. 20 Current waveforms with different command frequency, deadtime=1.4μs ....................... 79
Figure 1 Stator current in the stationary reference frame and its relationship with a,b,and c stationary
reference frame ....................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 2 Stator current in the d,q rotating reference frame and its relationship with, stationary
reference frame ....................................................................................................................... 89
ix
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. William G. Dunford,

for his support, advice and guidance throughout the course of my research.
Numerous interactions with my colleges Weidong Xiao, Kenneth Wicks, Yan LI
and Amir Rassuily have as well inspired me throughout my graduate study. In particular,
I would like to express my thanks to Qiang Han who shared with me his experience and
optimism in software and hardware setup.
Thanks are extended to Mr. Jay Henrickson, the technical manager of the theatre,
for providing necessary facilities and assistance throughout this process.
Finally, I am expressing my sincerest gratitude to my parents and my wife for their
love and support during my studies.
x
Chapter 1 Introduction
1. Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Overview of the Current System
The Frederic Wood Theatre is located at the north end of The University of British
Columbia (UBC). The original construction was built in 1963 and designed by
Thompson, Berwick and Pratt. The building exterior is textured concrete with relief to the
concrete walls coming from the landscape and the glazed entrance. This building is
named after Frederic Wood, Founder of the UBC Players’ Club, as a tribute to his major
contribution to the development of theatre in British Columbia.
During the past 50 years, numerous shows, conferences and other actions have
been held at the theatre. Nowadays, it is still busy to be a platform to operate various
theatre programs, which make it possible to interact among students, scholars and guest
artists. As the heart of a theatre, the stage serves as a space for actors. As is necessary in a
drama, sceneries are required to be changed according to the mood, and rotary stage can
serve a performance to the need of scenery change. There is a round revolver, with
27-feet diameter, in the Frederic Wood Theatre. This revolver is driven by a 3-hp Direct
Current (DC) motor via a steel cable coupled the motor and the stage. The old control
panel has three speed control option buttons and one bi-direction rotated knob to supply a
coarse control approach. Position alignments in the scenery change are based on the
operator’s experience. However, because the scenery setting differs from time to time,
and so does the number of actors, this operation becomes complex and uncertain even to
a veteran operator. Consequently, an automatic stage drive and control system is
desirable.
1
1.2 Advantages of an Induction Motor in Variable Speed
Application
Judged in terms of fitness for purpose coupled with simplicity, the induction motor
must rank alongside the screw thread as one of mankind’s best inversions [1]. The
induction motor (IM) has dominated a number of fixed-speed applications because of its
reliability and low maintenance operation compared to DC motors. But, speed control had
been one of the obvious shortcomings which impeded IM applications in some industrial
fields, such as hydraulics. On the contrary, controlling the speed of a brushed DC motor
is simple. The higher the armature voltage, the faster the rotation. This relationship is
linear to the motor's maximum speed. In addition, most industrial DC motors will operate
reliably over a speed range of about 20:1 -- down to about 5-7% of base speed. This is
much better performance than comparable AC motors.
However, in the last two decades, with the evolution of power semiconductor
devices and power electronic converters, the IM is also well established in the
controlled-speed arena. High performance Digital Signal Processor (DSP)’s introduction
makes complicated control algorithms, such as flux vector control, available, which
means that Alternating Current (AC) motors can be applied to accurate motor speed
control as DC motor. Meanwhile, an AC induction motor, compared with a DC motor, is
relatively inexpensive, since the windings consist of metal bars which are cast into steel
laminations that make up the remainder of the rotor and the stator windings can easily be
inserted in slots in stator laminations. An induction motor, at least the cage variety, has no
brushes, no moving parts other than the rotor, and virtually no maintenance. As a result,
AC motors are progressively replacing DC machines in variable-speed applications.
2
1.3 Thesis Motivation and Objective
The objective of this thesis is to clarify the practical approaches needed to set up a
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)-based variable-speed drive to realize accurate speed and
position control. The specific objectives include:
To find safe operation areas for the stage
To build a three phase rectifier
To develop a variable-speed drive
To generate a DSP program with the assembly language
To test the prototype to determine characteristics related to above theoretical
analysis
The thesis is organized into six chapters. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction of the
current stage system and outlines the objectives of this thesis. In Chapter 2, some basic
principles of mechanics and IM variable-speed control are reviewed and a safe operation
area for the stage is proposed. Chapter 3 is focused on hardware setup for a variable-
speed IM drive. Chapter 4 will be dealing with software implementation. Some design
illustration concerning software is presented. Selective experimental results are included
in Chapter 5. The last chapter concludes the design and the implementation and proposes
some work needed to be done in the future.
3
Chapter 2 Principles of the Stage Mechanic System and V/Hz Control
2. Chapter 2
Principles of Stage Mechanic System and
V/Hz Control
2.1 Elementary Principles of Mechanics
In the stage and its drive system, both mechanical and electromagnetic energies
exist and there is the exchange between the two types of energies. Since the whole system
involves mechanical and electrical engineering, it is necessary to recall some basic
concepts and laws related to mechanics. The most general equation to describe rotational
motion is:
dω
TM − TL = J (2-1)
dt
L N .m) the load torque, ω ( rad / s ) is the

where TM（N .m) is the electrical torque and T（
angular speed, J（kg .m 2 ) is the overall moment of inertia of the rotating mass about the
axis of rotation. As speed is the derivative of the shaft position θ , we have
dω d 2θ
TM − TL = J =J 2 (2-2)
dt dt
d ω d 2θ
where α = = 2 (2-3)
dt dt
(rad / s 2 ) is the angular acceleration.
The rotational system can be considered as a second-order differential equation,

with the input as the driving torque and the load torque and the output as speed and
position [2]. The following diagram, Figure 2. 1 describes such a mechanical system with
a lumped mass.
4
ω TM − TL
Figure 2. 1 Rotating object and its block diagram representation
2.2 Safe Riding Conditions
Before proceeding to the system design, we have to find a way to decide what the
maximum angular speed ωmax and maximum angular acceleration α max should be since
they associate with the safety for actors on-board. We can divide the safety problem into
two levels, mechanically safe and physiologically safe. For mechanical safety, the
maximum angular speed ωmax and maximum angular acceleration α max should be
within the range such that motors and the stage can stand. In addition, slippage in the
cable coupled gear box and the stage should be taken into account while the maximum
angular acceleration α max is chosen. For physiological safety, ωmax and α max should
be within the range that those on-board can stand and have no dizziness or fear caused by
the motion of the stage.
Rotating along the shaft is a typical movement for the stage. The angular speed of
the stage can be changed in the acceleration/deceleration period. So does the angular
acceleration/deceleration. Therefore the motion of the stage is a varying-speed
varying-acceleration revolution. If an object is rotating with a varying speed, its
acceleration can be divided into two components, a radial/centripetal acceleration that
changes the direction of the angular speed, and a tangential acceleration that changes the
magnitude of the angular speed. Figure 2. 2 [3]shows the forces and accelerations applied
to a person standing on a stage.
5
ωL ,α L
FC , α C
Ff ,α f
FT ,α T
Figure 2. 2 Force analyses for variable speed revolution
Assume the stage is rotating at an angular speed ωL and an angular
acceleration α L . F f and α f represent the force applied to the person and the actual
acceleration for the person respectively. F f (the same to α f ) can be divided into two
components, Fc in the normal direction and Ft in the tangential direction. Recall
FC = maC = mωL2 r (2-4)
FT = maT = mα L r (2-5)
with m being the mass of the person and r being the rotational radius of the person.
From (2.4) and (2.5) we have
Ff = FC2 + FT2 = mr ωL4 + α L2 (2-6)
F f , subscripted with f referring to friction, is actually a friction acting as the force to
keep the person moving with the stage simultaneously. The maximum of the friction is
given by
Ff ,max = μ s mg (2-7)
where μ s is the coefficient of static friction between the stage and person’s shoes and
6
g is the acceleration due to gravity. For safety reasons, the inequality
Ff ,max ≥ Ff (2-8)
must be satisfied to prevent slip from happening. Substitute (2.6) and (2.7) into (2.8) and
eliminate m results in
μ s g ≥ r ωL4 + α L2 (2-9)
μs g
or ωL4 + α L2 ≤ (2-10)
r
the most serious case, in terms of r, happens when people stand at the edge of the stage,
thus μ s g / r reaches its minimum μ s g / R with R (13.5fts) the radius of the stage.
Under this condition, Figure 2. 3 [3]shows the relationship of maximum angular

acceleration versus speed with different friction coefficients. Safe operation states are
those points bordered by the curves and the y axis.
μs =0.5
μs =0.4
1
μs =0.3
μs =0.2
0.5
μs =0.1
α L (rad/s )
2
-0.5
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

ωL (rad/s)
Figure 2. 3 Safe angular acceleration versus angular speed, radius is R

From the figure it can be concluded that in low to medium speed area,
acceleration/deceleration can be chosen in a relative big area under safe operation
7
condition. However, as speed increases, allowable acceleration/deceleration decreases

dramatically. In the following practical design, it is desirable to maintain the operation
area of the stage in the middle left area shown in Figure 2. 3. According experience from
the old system, the comfortable speed ωmax is limited at 1.42 rpm (0.1495 rad / s ) and
α max should be less than 0.05 (rad / s 2 )
2.3 Induction Machines
Among all types of ac machines, the induction machine, particularly the cage type,
is most commonly used in industry. These machines are very economical, rugged, and
reliable, and are available in the ranges of fractional horse power (FHP) to
multi-megawatt capacity [4]. In the following two sections, the principle of torque
production is introduced and per phase equivalent circuits are used to figure out the
expression of relationship between IM’s torque and speed.
2.3.1 Torque production
If a IM’s rotor is initially stationary, its conductor will be subjected to a sweeping

magnetic field, produced by stator’s current, inducing current in the short-circuit rotor
with same frequency. The interaction of air gap flux and rotor Magnetomotive force
(mmf) produces torque. At synchronous speed, the rotor can not have any induced
currents and; therefore, torque can not be produced. At any other speed, there will be a
difference between the rotating field (synchronous) speed and the shaft speed, which is
called slip speed. The slip speed will induce current and torque in the rotor. The rotor will
move in the same diction as that of the rotating magnetic field to reduce the induced
current. We define slip as:
N e − N r ωe − ωr ωsl
s= = = (2-11)
Ne ωe ωe
where ωe = stator supply frequency （r / s ) , ωr = rotor electrical speed（r / s ) , and
8
ωsl = slip frequency（r / s ) . The rotor mechanical speed is ωm = (2 / P )ωr (r / s ) , where
P = number of poles of the machine. The rotor current is induced at slip frequency.
Since the rotor is moving at speed ωr and it current wave is moving at speed ωsl
relative to the rotor, the rotor mmf wave moves at the same speed as that of the air gap
flux wave the torque expression [4] can be derived as
⎛P⎞
Te = π ⎜ ⎟ lrB p Fp sin δ (2-12)
⎝2⎠
where P = number of poles, l = axial length of the machine, r = machine radius,
BP = peak value of air gap flux density, FP = peak value of rotor mmf , and δ is
defined as the torque angle
2.3.2 Equivalent circuit
A simple per phase equivalent circuit model of an induction motor is a very

important tool for analysis and performance prediction under steady-state conditions.
Figure 2. 4 shows the development of a per phase transformer-like equivalent circuit.
Figure 2. 4 Per phase equivalent circuit of induction motor
The various power expressions can be written form the equivalent circuit of Figure
2. 4 as follows:
⎛P⎞
Input power: Te = π ⎜ ⎟ lrB p Fp sin δ (2-13)
⎝2⎠
9
Stator copper loss: Pls = 3I s 2 Rs (2-14)
3Vm 2
Core loss: Plc = (2-15)
Rm
Rr
Power across air gap: Pg = 3I r 2 (2-16)
S
Rotor copper loss: Plr = 3I r 2 Rr (2-17)
1− s
Output power: Po = Pg − Plr = 3I r 2 Rr (2-18)
S
Since the output power is the produce of developed torque Te and speed ωm, Te can
be expressed as
P0 3 1− S ⎛ p⎞ R
Te = = I r 2 Rr = 3⎜ ⎟ Ir 2 r (2-19)
ωm ωm S ⎝ 2 ⎠ sωe
The equivalent circuit of Figure 2. 4 can be simplified to that shown in Figure 2. 5 ,
where the core loss resistor Rm has been dropped and the magnetizing inductance Lm
has been shifted to the input. This approximation is easily justified for an integral
horsepower machine, where
( Rs + jωe Lls ) << ωe Lm (2-20)
The performance prediction by the simplified circuit typically varies within 5

percent from that of the actual machine [4].
Figure 2. 5 Approximate Per phase equivalent circuit of induction motor
In Figure 2. 5 , the current I r is figured out by:
10
Vs
Ir = (2-21)
( Rs + Rr / S ) + ωe 2 ( Lls + Llr )
2 2
substituting Equation (2-21) in (2-19) yields
⎛P⎞ R Vs 2
Te = 3 ⎜ ⎟ r (2-22)
⎝ 2 ⎠ Sωe ( Rs + Rr / S ) + ωe 2 ( Lls + Llr )
2 2
A further simplification of the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.6 can be made by
neglecting the stator parameters Rs and Lls . This assumption is not unreasonable for an
integral horsepower machine, particularly if the speed is typically above 10 percent [4].
Then, the equation (2-22) can be simplified as
2
⎛ P ⎞⎛ V ⎞ ωsl Rr
Te = 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ s ⎟ (2-23)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ωe ⎠ Rr + ωsl Llr
2 2 2
where ωsl = sωe . The air gap flux can be given by
Vs
ψm = (2-24)
ωe
in a low-slip region, (2-23) can be approximated as
⎛P⎞ 1
Te = 3 ⎜ ⎟ (ψ m ) ωsl
2
(2-25)
⎝ 2 ⎠ Rr
where Rr 2 >> ωsl 2 Llr 2 . Equation (2-25) is critical for following analysis because it
indicated that at constant flux, the torque is proportional to slip frequency, or at constant
slip frequency, torque is proportional to flux.
11
0.75 1.0Vs
Torque (Te/Tem) pu
100% stator
voltage
0.5
0.75Vs
0.25 0.5Vs
0.25Vs
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Speed (ωr/ωe ) pu
Figure 2. 6 Torque-speed curves at variable frequency
2.3.3 Variable-voltage operation
A very simple and economical way to control speed in a cage-type induction

machine is to adjust stator voltage at constant supply frequency. Figure 2. 6 illustrate the
torque-speed waveforms with variable stator voltage which have been drawn from
Equation (2-22).In this study, we used a 3-HP, 4-pole, 1760-rpm, 230V (line to line, rms)
machine with the parameters rs = 0.5Ω , lls = 4.7mH , LM = 81.8mH , llr′ = 4.7mH ,
rr′ = 0.42Ω This type of circuit has been used extensively as “soft starter” for constant
speed IM, where the stator voltage is applied gradually to limit the stator current. Since
the air gap flux is reduced at lower supply voltage, the stator current tends to be excessive
at low speeds, which leads to high copper loss. Therefore, this type of drive is often used
for speed control under the situation where the efficiency is not an important
consideration.
12
2.3.4 Variable-speed operation
If the stator frequency of a machine is increased beyond the rated value, but the
voltage is constant, the torque-speed cures derived from Equation (2-22) can be plotted as
shown in Figure 2. 7. The air gap flux and rotor current decrease while the frequency
increases and corresponding developed torque also decreases. The breakdown torque as a
function of slip (at constant frequency) can be derived by differentiating Equation (2-23)
as
2
⎛ P ⎞⎛ V ⎞ ωslm Rr
Tem = 3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ s ⎟ (2-26)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ωe ⎠ Rr + ωslm Llr
2 2 2
where ωslm = Rr / Llr is the slip frequency at maximum torque. The equation show that
Temωe 2 = constant
1 Tem
Rated cruve
Torque (Te/Tem) pu
2
0.5 Temωe=constant
0 1 2 3
Frequency (ωe/ωb) pu
Figure 2. 7 Torque-speed curves with variable stator voltage
2.3.5 Constant Volts/Hz operation
If an attempt is made to reduce the supply frequency at the rated supply voltage, the
air gap flux ψ m will tend to saturate, causing excessive stator current. Therefore, the
region below the rated frequency should be accompanied by the proportional reduction of
13
stator voltage so as to maintain the air gap flux constant. This relationship can be
expressed by Equation (2-24) as well. Figure 2. 8 shows the plot of torque-speed curves at
Volt / Hz = constant. Note that the breakdown torque Tem given by Equation (2-26)
remains approximately valid, except in the low frequency region where the effect of
stator resistance in reducing the flux becomes very pronounced. It is clear from Figure 2.
8 that the starting torque at the minimum frequency is much less than the breakdown
torque at higher frequencies, and this could be a problem for loads which require a high
starting torque. For example, the starting torque for the stage’s revolve is quite high. The
additional stator voltage can be compensated to restore Tem value, as shown in Figure 2.
9.
Maximum torque
V s /ωe=constant
Rated cruve
1
Torque (Te/Tem) pu
0.5
0
0.5 1
Frequency (ωe/ωb) pu
Figure 2. 8 Torque-speed curves with constant voltage/frequency ratio

If the air gap flux of the machine is kept constant in the constant torque region, as
indicated in Figure 2. 9, it can be shown that the torque sensitivity per ampere of stator
current is high, permitting fast transient response of the drive with stator current control.
In variable-frequency, variable-voltage operation of a drive system, the machine usually
has low slip characteristics, giving high efficiency. With low-frequency voltage boosting,
the machine can always be started at maximum torque, as shown in Figure 2. 9. The
14
absence of high starting current in a direct-start drive reduces stress and therefore
improves the effective life of the machine.
Maximum torque
Vs / ωe=constant
Rated cruve
1
Torque (Te/Tem) pu
0.5
0
0.5 1
Frequency (ωe/ ωb) pu
Figure 2. 9 Torque-speed curves with low-speed voltage boost, constant voltage/frequency ratio
2.4 Open Loop Volts/Hz Control with Voltage-Fed Inverter
The open loop volts/Hz control of an induction motor is by far the most popular
method of speed control because of its simplicity, and there types of motors are widely
used in industry [4]. Traditionally, the induction motors have been used with power
supplies at constant frequency for constant speed applications. For adjustable speed
applications, variable voltage and variable frequency is prevalent. The simple principle is
to keep state flux ( ψ s = Vs / ωe ) constant by changing voltage with proportional to
frequency. Figure 2. 10 shows the block diagram of the Volt / Hz speed control method.
The power circuit consists of a diode rectifier with three phase AC supply, LC filter, and
PWM voltage-fed inverter. The frequency command ωe * is the control signal because it
is approximately equal to speed ωr , neglecting the small slip frequency ωsl of the
machine. Based on Volt / Hz control theory which has been motioned in the above
15
section, the phase voltage command Vs * can be generated from frequency command be
the gain factor G, as shown, So that the flux ψ

 s remains constant. If the stator resistance
and leakage inductance of the machine are neglected, the flux will also correspond to the
air gap flux ψ m or rotor flux ψ r . At low speed areas, the stator resistance become
significant and absorbs the major amount of the stator voltage, thus weakening the flux.
Therefore, the boost voltage Vboost is added to compensate flux to keep it equal to rated
flux and corresponding full torque become available at low frequency. The ωe * signal
is integrated to generate the angle signal θ e * , and the corresponding sinusoidal phase
voltages ( Va * , Vb * , Vc * ) are generated by the expressions shown in the figure. Then
PWM controllers which is embedded in DSP can generate control signals to drive the
inverter. Detailed description of hardware and software for this control topology will be
given in chapter3 and chapter 4 respectively.
Va* = 2Vs sin θ e
⎛ 2π ⎞
Vb* = 2Vs sin ⎜ θ e − ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
∫ ⎛ 2π ⎞
Vc* = 2Vs sin ⎜ θ e + ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
Figure 2. 10 Open loop volts/Hz speed control with voltage-fed inverter
16
Chapter 3 Hardware Implementation
3. Chapter 3
Hardware Implementation
Based on the theory has been discussed in chapter 2, a practical variable-speed
drive will be built for experimental result. In this chapter, emphasis will be given on how
to choose components and put them together to form a prototype of IM variable-speed
drive.
3.1 Introduction of System
The drive system of the stage can be depicted in

Figure 3. 1. It includes an AC-DC rectifier, a DC-AC inverter, a DSP, an induction
motor and other accessorial components. It works based on popular AC-DC-AC

topology. Following discussion will one by one explain above components.
Figure 3. 1 Revolve system of the stage
17
3.2 Three-Phase Rectifiers
In order to obtain the essential DC bus voltage for the inverter, a three-phase diode
bridge rectifier (Figure 3. 2) was applied in this application. A six pulse full bridge
rectifier will produce 325V DC bus voltage while input AC line to line voltage is 230V.
Figure 3. 2Three-phase rectifiers
3.2.1 Thermistor
A thermistor is installed to avoid high inrush current and voltage ringing when
connecting the capacitors to the input network. When current begins to flow through
resistor and charge capacitors, the voltage difference between the power source and
capacitor is almost equal to 325V, which will produce big current in the circuit loop. This
current could be so high that it is in excess of capacitor’s rating current and damage
capacitors permanently. The thermistor has biggest resistance value of 5 ohms at 25
degree centigrade. It will be helpful in limiting starting charge current to 65A in a short
time. With the process of charging capacitors, thermistor’s resistance will drop
dramatically with the increase of its temperature. Finally, it reaches 0.082ohms, which
brings very small power dissipation in the steady state. In other words, the thermistor can
be considered as a short circuit and without any voltage drop on it in the steady state.
18
3.2.2 The DC bus bulk capacitor
Sizing of the capacitor represents a tradeoff. For a given load, a larger capacitor
will reduce ripple but will cost more and will create higher peak currents in the supply
feeding it. In Figure 3. 3, the voltage waveform of capacitors is depicted to calculate
corresponding capacitance value.
Electrolytic capacitors are used to smooth the dc bus voltage. Its capacitance can be
found from the formula:
2 Pin
Cmin = (3-1)
2
(V
max − Vmin
2
) f rect
where Pin is the load power in watts, f rect is the ripple frequency, Vmax is the maximum
dc voltage and Vmin is the minimum dc voltage [5].
Figure 3. 3 DC bus voltage curve

In practical realization, a three phase 230V AC input is connected to the input of
the rectifier. The peak voltage value of input is as follows:
Vmax = 2VLL = 325V
assume Vmin = 96%Vmax = 312V ; Pin = 3 * 745 = 2235W ; for three phase rectifier
f rect = 6 × 60 = 360 Hz . Then
19
2 Pin 2 × 2235
Cmin = = = 1499μ F
(V2
max − Vmin ) f rect (325 − 3122 ) ⋅ 360
2 2
tc, the charging time, can be calculated as
Vmin
cos −1 ( )
Vmax cos −1 (0.96)
tc = = = 753μ S (3-2)
2π f in 2π ⋅ 60
and discharging time tDC is
1 1
tDC = − tc = − 753μ = 2mS (3-3)
f rect 360
the average charging current is given by
ΔV V −V 325 − 312
IC = C = C max min = 1499 = 26A (3-4)
tc tc 753
According to the calculation, at least a 1500μF capacitor should be employed to

maintain the dc bus ripple within 4% or less. The capacitor should also can stand 26A
charging current.
3.3 Three-Phase Bridge Inverter
Figure 3. 4 shows a leg which includes high side and low side IGBT modules,
drivers and DC-DC converters of the three-phase bridge inverter. In the following
paragraphs, the detailed discussion will be focused on all components of this inverter.
20
VCC
+5
*1
1
+Vin
C1
10uF
2
-Vin
4
-Vout
C2 R5
10uF 3.8K
5
COM
C5
1 8 10uF R6
N/C Vcc
3.8K
R1 2 7 6
Vin-1 ANODE V0 +Vout
180R
3 6 VASD1-S5-D15-SIP
CATHODE V0
4 5
N/C VEE Q1
HCPL-1 R3 IGBT-N
180R
R9
1.0K
+5
*2
1
+Vin
C3
Phase A
10uF
2
-Vin
4
-Vout
C4 R7
10uF 3.8K
5
COM
1 8 C6 R8
N/C Vcc
10uF 3.8K
R2 2 7 6
Vin-2 ANODE V0 +Vout
180R
3 6 VASD1-S5-D15-SIP
CATHODE V0
4 5
N/C VEE Q2
HCPL-2 R4 IGBT-N
180R
R10
1.0K Negative side of DC bus link
Figure 3. 4 One leg of a three phase inverter
3.3.1 The basic IGBT drive principle
Figure 3. 5 illustrates a basic IGBT gate drive circuit, which converts logic level
control signals into appropriate voltage and current that can drive the IGBT power
21
module reliably and efficiently [6]. The conversion is performed by a pair of bipolar
transistors alternately connecting the IGBT’s gate to the appropriate on (Von) and off
(Voff) voltages. The gate resistor is selected to generate a proper peak current charging or
discharging the IGBT’s gate. The optocoupler provides isolation between the high power
component and control signal to avoid potential damage to the digital controller.
3.3.2 Maintaining dv/dt noise immunity
The IGBT gate drive circuits are subjected to high common mode dv / dt noise
produced by the fast switching, high voltage and high current IGBT power modules. To
maintain the immunity to the high dv / dt noise is critical for the drive circuit to function
normally in an offensive environment.
Figure 3. 5 Basic IGBT drive circuit
If the wiring between the drive circuit and the IGBT is long, the IGBT may be in a
malfunction due to gate signal oscillation or induced noise. A countermeasure for this is
shown in Figure 3. 6 . In order to avoid this situation, some points should be taken into
account as follows:
a) Make the drive circuit wiring as short as possible and finely twist the gate and
emitter wiring.
b) Increase RG. However, pay attention to switching time and switching loss
c) Separate the gate wiring and IGBT control circuit wiring as much as possible,
22
and set the layout so that they cross each other

d) Do not bundle together the gate wiring or other phases
Stray inductance
LS RG
Drive circuit
RGE
Figure 3. 6 Gate signal oscillation countermeasure

In this circuit, RGE is installed to prevent IGBT from being destroyed if gate circuit
is bad or if the gate circuit is not operating and a voltage is applied to the power circuit
Figure 3. 7 Noise shielding of opto-couplers

Furthermore, an optocoupler which is built in IGBT’s drive is used to prevent high
common mode dv / dt . The immunity is normally achieved by adding shields between the
“primary” and “secondary” side of the opto-coupler (Figure 3. 7).
In addition, a larger series gate resistance is desirable to help reduce transient
voltage during turn-off switching. Unfortunately, in most cases the series gate resistance
must be increased substantially to have any significant impact on the turn-off fall time.
Usually, such an increase in series gate resistance will result in poor dv / dt noise
immunity and excessive switching losses. It is usually better to reduce transient voltages
with improved power circuit layout or snubber designs. There are detailed discussions
about how to find a right way to build dv / dt noise immunity in this application circuit
in Chapter 5.
23
Figure 3. 8 Additional dv/dt immunity of negative bias turn-off voltage

Finally, a substantial negative bias is used for IGBT drive, which provides
additional dv / dt immunity and reduces turn-off losses. The additional margin to absorb
"real" collector-gate capacitance coupled reverse transfer charge during high dv / dt ,
with respect to the gate-emitter "turn-on" threshold voltage, is a significant reliability
improvement, particularly when switching peak (fault) current, coincident with a high
dc-bus voltage (Figure 3. 8).
3.3.3 The applied IGBT drive
The gate drive used in the prototype, HCPL-3120, is a high-current output IGBT
gate drive with built-in opto-coupler. Its main parameters are given in Table 3.1.
The current and voltage supplied by HCPL-3120 make it ideally suited for directly
driving IGBTs with ratings up to 1200V/100A. In this drive, IR’s IGBTs (IRG40C50UD)
are used as power switches. Their rating current is 27A at 100 oC and rating voltage is
600V. The switching frequency is 10 kHz. From HCPL-3120 datasheet, it is easy to draw
a conclusion that this drive is suitable for designated IGBTs. The HCPL-3120 contains an
under-voltage lockout (UVLO) feature that is designed to protect the IGBT under fault
conditions which cause the HCPL-3120 supply voltage (equivalent to the fully- charged
IGBT gate voltage) to drop below a level necessary to keep the IGBT in a low resistance
state. When the HCPL-3120 output is in the high state and the supply voltage drops
24
below the VUVLO- threshold, the opto-coupler output will go into the low state with a
typical delay. When the HCPL-3120 output is in the low state and the supply voltage rises
above the HCPL-3120 V UVLO+ threshold, the opto-coupler output will go into the high
state with a typical delay.
Feature Specification Description
Peak output current 2.0 A
Common-mode rejection 15 kV/μs Vcm = 1.5 kV
Input voltage Vcc 15 – 30 V
UVLO Threshold Vuvlo+ 11-13.5 V
UVLO Threshold Vuvlo- 9.5 – 12 V Hysteresis
Maximum switch frequency 2 MHz
Isolation 630 V peak
Table3.1 Features of the IGBT gate drive
3.3.4 DC-DC converters
A dc-dc converter (VASD1-SIP-S5-D15-SIP) is chosen to provide the isolated

±15V power to the IGBT drive. The converter can provide 1kV dc voltage isolation
across its input and output that is high enough in this application. The output isolated
power is 1 w. A resistor has to be connected to the output of the converter which needs a
minimum of 10% loading to maintain a reliable and fully-performed output. In order to
confirm that converter can provide enough power to drive, a 3.8kΩ resistor is chosen as
the load resistor. The corresponding power dissipation is:
V2 302
P= = ≈ 0.12W (3-5)
2 R 7600
Approximate 0.9W output power could be used by IGBT’s drive.
25
3.3.5 Drive’s input resistors
To provide enough current to drive LED in HCPL-3120, a appropriate resistor has

to be installed between output of DSP and input of HCPL. The operating condition of this
LED diode is:
Current: 7~16mA
Voltage: 0.8V
the following equation is employed to calculate essential resistance
3.3 − 0.8
RIN = = 178 ≈ 180Ω (3-6)
14 x10−3
3.3.6 Gate resistors
There are numerous methods to size IGBT’s gate resistors. Here some of them
which are applied by industries will be illustrated. More accurate resistance values can be
found by practical tests depending on the different emphasis of switching loss, switching
time and slope of dv / dt .
3.3.6.1 Turn-on resistors
By properly sizing the gate resistors the switching speed of the output IGBT can be
controlled [7]. Some basic rules are given below for sizing the gate resistors to obtain
desired switching time. The switching time tsw is defined as the time spent to reach the
end of the plateau voltage, as shown in Figure 3. 9. VGE * indicates the plateau voltage;
QGC and QGE indicate the gate to collector and gate to emitter charge respectively.
26
Figure 3. 9 IGBT turn-on sequence

Depending on Figure 3. 10, to obtain the desired switching time, the gate resistance
can be sized by:
QGC + QGE
I avg = (3-7)
tsw
and
VCC -VGE
RTOT = (3-8)
I avg
where RTOT = RDRP + RGon
RGon = gate on-resistor
RDRP = driver equivalent on-resistance
Figure 3. 10 RGon sizing

Table3.2 shows the calculation process to size the turn-on gate resistor driven by
27
tsw constraint.
Reference Description IRG4PC50UD
QGE Gate Emitter charge (turn-on) 25 nC
QGC Gate Collector Charge (turn-on) 61 nC
t sw Switching Time 500 ns
QGC + QGE
I avg = Average Charging Current 172 mA
t sw
*
VGE Gate Plateau Voltage 6V
VCC − VGE* Equivalent Output Resistance of

RTOT = 52 Ω
I avg the Gate Driver
R DRp Driver Equivalent on-resistance 0Ω
RGon = RTOT − R DRp Gate On-resistance 52 Ω
Table3.2 Turn-on gate resistor sizing by tsw constraint
Turn-on gate resistor can also be sized to control output slope dVout / dt . Although
the output voltage has a non-linear behavior, the maximum output slope can be
approximated by
dVout I
= avg (3-9)
dt CRESoff
inserting the expression yielding Iavg and rearranging:

VCC -VGE
RTOT = (3-10)
dVout
CRESoff
dt
The calculation of this kind of constraint is given in Table 3.3.
28
dVout
Output Voltage Slope 5 V/ns
dt
Reverse Transfer Capacitance

C RESoff 52 pF
(off-state)
dVout
I avg = C RESoff Average Charging Current 260 mA
dt
V ge* Gate Plateau Voltage 6V
VCC − V ge* Equivalent Output Resistance

RTOT = 34 Ω
I avg of the Gate Driver
R DRp Driver Equivalent on-resistance 0Ω
RGon = RTOT − R DRp Gate On-resistance 34Ω
Table3.3 Turn-on gate resistor sizing by dVout/dt constraint
3.3.6.2 Turn-off resistors
The worst condition in calculating the turn-off resistor is when the collector of the
IGBT in the off state is forced to commutate by the turn-on of the companion IGBT [7].
In that case, a parasitic current through CRESoff will be induced by the high dv / dt of the
output node. If the voltage drop at the gate exceeds the threshold voltage of the IGBT, the
device may be turned on by itself, which will cause cross conduction for the whole leg. If
no negative bias voltage is used, condition
dVout
Vth > Vge = ( RGoff + RDRn ) ⋅ CRESoff ⋅ (3-11)
dt
must be verified to avoid spurious turn-on. Rearrange (3-11)
Vth
RGoff < − RDRn (3-12)
dV
CRESoff ⋅
dt
29
Figure 3. 11 Current paths when Low Side is off and High Side turns on
Figure 3. 12 shows the current induced by the high dv / dt of the output node,
where CIES is the input capacitance, and CRESoff is the reverse transfer capacitance. An
example of calculating the turn-off gate resistor is given in Table 3.4
dVout
Output Voltage Slop 5 V/ns
dt

C RESoff 52 pF
(off-state)
Vth Gate Threshold Voltage 6V
Equivalent Output Resistance of the

RTOT 23 Ω
Gate Driver
RDRn Driver Equivalent off-resistance 0Ω
RGoff = RTOT − R DRn Gate Off-resistance 23 Ω
Table3.4 Turn-off gate resistor sizing

Apart from the methods mentioned above, another way to avoid the spurious
turn-on is to use negative bias voltage for the off state. For the negative bias voltage of
-15V, the actual gate voltage under the extreme condition will be -11V as maximum
30
during the ‘off’ state, which is quite far from the threshold voltage of the IGBT. In the
prototype, a -15V negative bias voltage is connected to VEE, which provide enough
margin to avoid spurious turn-on by the parasitic current.
3.3.6.3 Minimal switching loss constraint
There is a dilemma of how to choose proper resistance for gate resistor from
turn-on and turn-off gate resistors. Figure 3. 13 shows a way to resolve this problem by
employing a diode, which enables the gate resistor to be a different resistance depending
on “on” or “off” state; however, another simple and practical way is introduced by
calculating the gate resistor from drive side to minimize IGBT Switching Losses.
Figure 3. 13 Separate gate current paths for turning-on and turning-off

From equation (3.12) [8], a new value of gate resistance is obtained.
(VCC − VEE − VOL ) 15 − ( −15) − 2

Rg ≥ = = 11Ω (3-13)
I OLPEAK 2.5 A
where VOL is low level output voltage at the peak current of 2.5A. Table 4.7 gives the
verification for the IGBT used in the prototype.
The above-described methods for sizing gate resistors are intended to approximate
phenomena of turn-on and turn-off switching time and switching losses of power IGBTs.
More accurate sizing may rely on more precise IGBT modeling and parasitic components
dependant on the layout and connection of the circuit. In the prototype, thanks to a big
error from stray inductance of wires which are used to connect drives and IGBTs, an
180Ω resistor has been installed to avoid dramatic oscillation in VGE. In chapter 5, a
detailed experimental study related to the gate resistor will be made.
31

C RESoff 52 pF
(off-state)
C IES Input Capacitance 4000 pF
Vce Collector Voltage 300 V
V ge Gate Voltage 3.9 V
Vth Gate Threshold Voltage 3-6V
Table3.5 Gate voltage spike induced by high dv/dt

Other components used in the gate drive are listed in Table 3.6.
Reference Name Type Description
U1 Dc/dc power supply VASD1-S5-D15 5V/±15V
With built-in
U2 Gate drive IC HCPL3120
opto-coupler
RIN Resistor 180 Ω
RG Gate resistor 180Ω
R1 Resistor 1kΩ
R2,R3 Resistor 3.8kΩ
C1,C2,C3 Capacitor 10 μF electrolytic
Table3.6 Component list for the IGBT gate drive

The per-phase IGBT drive schematic is shown in Figure 3. 14.
32
Figure 3. 14 IGBT gate drive schematic
3.4 Energy Dissipation Subsystem
When an induction motor’s rotor is turning slower than the synchronous speed set
by the drive’s output power, the motor is transforming electrical energy obtained from the
drive into mechanical energy available at the drive shaft of the motor. This process is
referred to as motoring. When the rotor is turning faster than the synchronous speed set
by the drive’s output power, the motor is transforming mechanical energy available at the
drive shaft of the motor into electrical energy that can be transferred back to the drive.
This process is referred to as regeneration
Most AC PWM drives convert AC power from the fixed frequency utility grid into
DC power by means of a diode rectifier bridge or controlled SCR bridge before it is
inverted into variable frequency AC power. Diode and SCR bridges are cost effective, but
can only handle power in the motoring direction. Therefore, if the motor is regenerating,
the bridge cannot conduct the necessary negative DC current; the DC bus voltage will
33
increase and cause an over-voltage fault at the drive. More complex bridge configurations
use SCRs or transistors that can transform DC regenerative electrical power into fixed
frequency utility electrical energy. This process is known as line regeneration.
A more cost effective solution can be provided by allowing the drive to feed the
regenerated electrical power to a resistor which transforms it into thermal energy. This
process is referred to as dynamic braking. In the prototype, a braking resistor is applied to
avoid high voltage in DC bus link during the regeneration of motor. The detailed method
on how to calculate resistance of this resistor is explained as follows.
During the braking period, the kinetic energy of the stage system will be reverted to
electric energy through the induction machine, which is shown in Figure 3. 15[3]. The
braking branch includes a voltage-controlled IGBT and a power resistor connected in
series to the dc bus. The IGBT switch will be closed and connect the braking resistor to
the dc bus when the dc voltage exceeds a threshold. The control circuit disconnects the
braking resistor when the dc voltage drops back to normal level.
Figure 3. 15 Current paths for (a) Operation mode of motoring

(b) Operation mode of generating
In order to find the resistance, following information should be gathered:
34
a) Required decelerate time

b) Motor inertial and load inertia in kg-m2
c) Gear ratio
d) Motor shaft speed, torque and power profile of the drive application
Figure 3. 16 shows typical application profiles for speed, torque and power. The
following variables are defined for Figure 3. 15
W (t ) = Motor shaft speed in radians per second (rps)
N= Motor shaft speed in Revolutions Per Minute (RPM)
T (t ) = Motor shaft torque in Newton-meters
P (t ) = Motor shaft power in watts
ωb = Rated angular rotational speed (rad/s)
ω0 = Angular rotational speed less than ωb (can equal 0) (rad/s)
− Pb = Motor shaft peak regenerative power in watts
Determine value of equation variables [9]

Step 1 Total Inertia
J T = J m + (GR 2 × J L ) (3-14)
where:
J T = Total inertial reflected to the motor shaft (kg.m2)
J m = Motor inertia (kg.m2)
GR = Gear ratio for any gear between motor and load
J L = Load inertia (kg.m2)
2
⎛ 0.1495 ⎞
J T = 0.011 + ⎜ ⎟ × 34000 = 0.107kg .m
2
⎝ 89 ⎠
35
Figure 3. 16 Application speed, torque and power profiles

Step 2 Peak Braking Power
J T × ωb 2
Pb = (3-15)
(t 3 − t 2)
where ωb = Maximum rotor speed (89 rad / s ), the corresponding maximum speed of
the revolving stage is 0.1495 ( rad / s )
t3 − t2 = Deceleration time from ωb to 0
0.107 × 892
Pb = = 28w
30
Step 3 Brake Resistance Value
Vd 2
Rdb = (3-16)
Pb
where:
36
Vd = DC bus voltage (150V)
1502
Rdb = = 804Ω
28
From above calculation, it is obvious that the regenerating power is small.

Consequently, the braking resistor becomes large under designated voltage condition. The
reason for this is that it takes 30 second to decelerate maximum speed to zero. In order to
keep actors feel comfortable, the stage runs at a low speed (maximum 42 seconds per
revolution). Limited acceleration/deceleration speed is applied to avoid jerks for the sake
of riding safety and convertibility. The total deceleration time from permitted maximum
to zero is 30 seconds. Under this condition, most power is dissipated as IGBT switching
loss and stage friction loss. Some power is regenerated to charge the bus bulk capacitors
to make their voltage increase; however, the voltage rise is still in the inverter’s rating
area in this prototype. In the practical measurement, the maximum voltage rise is 5 Volts
at DC bus 150V and fast drop to 150V with the completion of deceleration. Therefore, no
braking resistors are installed in the prototype. In the future, a braking resistor could be
mounted next to motor to ensure the inverter to work stably in deceleration of the motor.
3.5 Over Current Protection
A3.3V A3.3V
+15V
C7
3
104 R12
8
R11 12K D2
R8 3 U17A 10K
1 5 U17B I_protection
2
15K
R9 2 7
port1
Ia_IN 10k OP284_1 C8 6
102 Comment: OP284_1
4
R10
5.6K C6 R13
104 10K
-15V
GND
Figure 3. 17 over current censoring circuit

In Figure 3. 17, two operational amplifiers (Op amp) are employed to implement
37
two tasks. The first one is used to scale input voltage to -1.5V~1.5V by a coefficient of
0.25. The second one will bring 1.5v offset, which scale output voltage to 0~3.3V.
Depending on input signal from current voltage transducer and anticipating trip current,
the coefficient could be modified by change R9 and R10 resistance. Figure 3. 18 gives
detailed explanation for current scaling.
Anticipating fault current Input of censoring circuit First Op-amp Second Op-amp DSP
6V 1.5V 3.0V 931
Current sensor coefficient 0 offset A/D

60A(pk)
x0.1 x0.25 +1.5V
-6V -1.5V 0 0
Figure 3. 18 Current scaling for short circuit protection

After A/D conversion, a digital offset should be added in the program. Its value is
-931/2., herein the number 931 corresponds to 3V where 1024 corresponds to 3.3V in
DSP’s A/D conversion. The next step is to figure out absolute value of this signal and
compare with threshold 450, which corresponds to 58A. If the input signal is larger than
threshold, it means that the short circuit happens in the main circuit and DSP will disable
all PWM outputs to shut down the inverter right away. In a commercial IGBT module, a
fault signal pin will produce fault signal when IGBT’s internal circuit is exposed to
abnormalities such as over-voltage and over-current. This pin can be connected to DSP
PdpintA or Pdpint B pin. When fault signal pin carry a falling edge signal, Pdpint will be
enabled and put PWM output pins in the high-impedance state, which prevents IGBT
module from being damaged by over current and voltage.
38
Chapter 4 Software Implementation
4. Chapter 4
Software Implementation
Related hardware such as the inverter, driving circuits and DC link has been
described in chapter 3. Here, a software setup to implement control algorithm will be
posted. All description and discussion of the software are based on TI’s (Texas
Instruments) DSP 320F-2407A CPU. A program flow chart will be presented with a
detailed explanation of crucial points to achieve the design objective.
4.1 Approaches of SV_PWM Signals:
In order to control a three-phase AC induction motor, one needs a three phase

inverter with the required DC link and driving circuits, and a digital processor that
supplies the PWM signals based on a selected control algorithm. In this chapter, we focus
on algorithm and software implementation issues.
A 3-phase AC induction motor control algorithm based on the discussed
constant V / Hz principle and the space vector PWM technique generally
contains the following steps:
Configure the timers and compare units to generate symmetric PWM outputs;
Input desired speed, use it as the command speed;
Obtain the magnitude of reference voltage vector U out (command voltage)
based on V / Hz profile;
Obtain the phase of U out based on command frequency;
Determine which sector U out is in;
Decompose U out to obtain T1, T2 and T0;
39
Determine the switching pattern or sequence to be used and load the calculated
compare values into the corresponding compare registers.
The above procedure assumes that the digital signal processor has all the needed
timers and compare units with associated PWM outputs. This is true in the case of
TMS320F -2407A. The major features of the TMS320F2407A include:
TMS320F-2407A CPU core with 25nS instruction cycle time;
544 words of on-chip data/program memory, 32K words of on-chip program
ROM or Flash EEPROM, 64K words of program, 64Kwords of data and 64K words of
I/O space of address reach;
Sixteen multiplexed analog inputs 10-bit ADC core with built-in Sample and
Hold (S/H) and fast conversion time (S/H + Conversion): 375 ns
PLL, Watchdog Timer, SCI, SPI, and 41 multiplexed I/O pins;
Event Manager featuring
Two general-purpose (GP) timers;
a) Three general-purpose up and up/down timers, each with a 16-bit compare unit
capable of generating one independent PWM output;
b) Pulse-width modulation (PWM) circuits that include space vector PWM
circuits, dead-band generation units, and output logic;
c) Three 16-bit simple compare units capable of generating 4 independent PWM
outputs;
d) Three capture units
e) Quadrature encoder pulse (QEP) circuit;
TMS320F2407A has the necessary features to allow easy implementation of
different motor control algorithms and PWM techniques. For the application here, the
following set up is needed for the generation of PWM outputs:
GP Timer 1 is configured in continuous-up/down mode to generate symmetric
PWM. The three full compare units are configured in PWM mode to generate
six complementary PWM outputs.
40
Once the above items are completed, all that is needed to generate the required
PWM outputs is for the application code to update the compare values based
on the discussed principle and PWM techniques.
4.2 Implementation-Open-Loop Speed Control for 3-Phase
AC Induction Motor
There are two major issues that must be resolved to implement the discussed
principle and PWM technique. One is how to generate or represent the revolving
reference voltage vector Uout given the command frequency and magnitude of the
reference voltage vector. The other is the determination of the switching pattern based on
this reference voltage vector.
4.2.1 Overview
The major features of this implementation are 16-bit integration to obtain the
frequency of the reference voltage vector, frequency-based table look-up magnitude of
the reference voltage, frequency-based table look-up SIN and COS functions, projection
of the reference voltage from d _ q to α _ β axis, update of compare units for PWM
channel toggling sequence. GP Timer 1 is used as the time base for PWM output
generation with the Full Compare Units. The flow chart of this implementation is
illustrated in Figure 4. 1
An ADC channel is used to input the speed command. In this application, the
accuracy of speed response is not a concern. Therefore, open-loop speed control is
implemented.
The major steps involved in this implementation are:
Integrate the command speed to get the phase, theta, of the reference vector;
Determine theta, and use theta based look-up table to obtain SIN(theta) and
COS(theta) and the α and β components of the reference voltage vector;
41
Find out the Va, Vb and Vc by Clarke-1 transformation

Calculate commutation duration for every sector
Determine the sector s based on Va, Vb and Vc
Determine the T1 and T2 based on sector and commutation duration
Use table to load the compare registers with appropriate values.
The assumptions here is that the timers and compare units and associated
compare/PWM outputs have been properly configured to generate the right PWM outputs
based on on-line determined compare values. The following explains the details of these
steps.
Step by Step Explanation
Figure 4. 1 Program flow chart
42
4.2.2 Initialization module description
After a processor reset, the initialization module performs the following tasks:
DSP setup : core, watchdog, clocks, ADC, SCI, general purpose IO, event
manager
Variables initializations : default values
Interrupt source selection and enable
Waiting loop
The waiting loop implemented corresponds to an interruptible communication
between the DSP and a Graphical User Interface. The DSP communicates via its
asynchronous serial port to the COM port of a PC. The user can send commands via this
RS232 link and update variables and flags from the computer.
4.2.3 Interrupt module description
The interrupt module handles the whole V/F algorithm. It is periodically computed
according to a fixed PWM (pulse width modulation) period value. The choice of the
PWM frequency depends on the motor electrical constant L/R. If the PWM frequency is
too low, audible noise can be heard from the motor. Usually, PWM frequencies are in the
range of 20 kHz. In this project, a PWM frequency of 10 kHz has been chosen. In Figure
4. 2 , the sampling period T of 100 μs (10kHz) is established by setting the timer period
T1PER to 2000 (PWMPRD=2000). This timer is set in up-down count mode and
generates a periodical interrupt on T1 underflow event. The goal of the interrupt module
is to update the stator voltage reference and to ensure the regulation of rotor mechanical
speed.
43
Figure 4. 2 Software flowchart and timing
4.2.4 Generation of sine and cosine
The Park-1 uses the value of the rotor electrical position in order to handle a rotating
frame d _ q axis projection in a rotating frame α _ β axis. The electrical position is
not directly used in this transforms but the sine and cosine values of this electrical
position.
To obtain both sine and cosine from the electrical angle, a sine look-up table has
been implemented. The table contains 256 words to represent sine values of electrical
angles in the range [0;360°]. As a result, the resolution on θ e is limited
to 360 / 256 = 1.40625o .
θ e = electrical angle / 360° (with θ e in the range [0;1FFFh])
θ e varies from 0 to 8191. As only 256 words are available to represent this range,
θ e is divided by 32 and stored into the variable index that will be used to address the
lookup table.
44
The content of the table row pointed by the index is fetched in indirect addressing
mode via AR5 auxiliary register (Figure 4. 3). This content coded in Q12 is stored in the
variable sin that will be used in the Park-1 transforms.
Note that to get the cosine value of the electrical angle, 90° is added to θ e . This
operation corresponds to add 64 (256/4) to the value of index. The result is stored in the
variable cos .
Figure 4. 3 Sin, Cos calculation using the sine look-up table
4.2.5 Space vector pulse width modulation
The Space Vector Modulation is used to generate the voltages applied to the stator
phases. It uses a special scheme to switch the power transistors to generate sinusoidal
currents in the stator phases [10].
This switching scheme comes from the translation of the (α , β ) voltage reference
vector into an amount of time of commutation (on/off) for each power transistors. In
order to understand some of the assumptions made in the case of the rectified voltage, a
brief description of three phase systems is described in the following section. .
45
4.2.5.1 Expression of the 3 phase voltages (phase to neutral)
Previously, the method used to generate a rotating magnetic field was to use three
independent voltage sources that were dephased from 120 degrees from one another.
Figure 4. 4 3-phase equilibrium system
In this standard three-phased system (Figure 4. 4), 3 sinusoidal voltages are applied
to each of the motor phases to generate the sinusoidal currents. These voltages can be
expressed as follows:
Voa = V 2 cos(ωe * t ) (4-1)

2π
Vob = V 2 cos(ω e * t − ) (4-2)
3
4π
Voc = V 2 cos(ωe * t − ) (4-3)
3
In order to calculate the phase to neutral voltages(respectively Van, Vbn, Bcn) from
the applied source voltages( respectively Voa, Vob, Voc), the assumption is made that the
system is equilibrated is made. This leads to the following equations:
Von = Voa + Z * I1 (4-4)
Von = Vob + Z * I 2 (4-5)
Von = Voc + Z * I 3 (4-6)
46
then
3 *Von = Voa + Vob + Voc + Z * ( I1 + I 2 + I 3 ) ; where I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0
As Von is now expressed by a combination of Voa = V 2 cos(ω e * t ) the source
voltages the phase to neutral voltage for phase A can be calculated as:
Van = Von − Voa = (1 / 3)(Voa + Vob + Voc ) − Voa = −2 / 3Voa + 1 / 3Vob + 1 / 3Voc
the same calculation is made for the three phases leading to:
Van = 1/ 3(2Vao − Vbo − Vco ) (4-7)
Vbn = 1/ 3(2Vbo − Vco − Vao ) (4-8)
Vcn = 1/ 3(2Vco − Vao − Vbo ) (4-9)
4.2.5.2 Application to the static power bridge
In the case of a static power bridge, sinusoidal voltage sources are not used. They
are replaced by 6 power transistors that act as on/off switches to the rectified DC bus
voltage. The goal is to recreate a sinusoidal current in the coils to generate the rotating
field. Owing to the inductive nature of the phases, a pseudo sinusoidal current is created
by modulating the duty cycle of the power switches.
In Figure 4. 5, the power transistors are activated by the signals (a,b,c) and their
complemented values.
Figure 4. 5 Power bridge
47
Only eight combinations of the switches are possible with this configuration (Table
4.1). The applied voltages are referenced to the virtual middle point of rectified voltage.
A B C VAO VBO VCO
0 0 0 -VDC/2 - VDC/2 - VDC/2
0 0 1 - VDC/2 - VDC/2 +VDC/2
0 1 0 -VDC/2 +VDC/2 -VDC/2
0 1 1 -VDC/2 +VDC/2 +VDC/2
1 0 0 +VDC/2 -VDC/2 -VDC/2
1 0 1 +VDC/2 -VDC/2 +VDC/2
1 1 0 +VDC/2 +VDC/2 -VDC/2
1 1 1 +VDC/2 +VDC/2 +VDC/2
Table 4.1 Power bridge output voltages (VAO, VBO, VCO)

Because of the equations:
Van = 1 / 3(2Vao − Vbo − Vco )
Vbn = 1 / 3(2Vbo − Vco − Vao )
Vcn = 1 / 3(2Vco − Vao − Vbo )
It is possible to express each phase to neutral voltages, for every combination of the
power transistors as listed in Table 4.2.
4.2.5.3 Expression of the stator voltages in the (α , β ) frame
This voltage reference is expressed in the (α , β ) frame. To make the relationship
between the 3 phase voltages (VAN, VBN and VCN) and the voltage reference vector, the 3
phase voltages are also projected in the (α , β ) frame.
48
A B C VAN VBN VCN
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 - VDC/3 - VDC/3 2VDC/3
0 1 0 - VDC/3 2VDC/3 - VDC/3
0 1 1 -2VDC/3 VDC/3 VDC/3
1 0 0 2VDC/3 - VDC/3 - VDC/3
1 0 1 VDC/3 -2VDC/3 VDC/3
1 1 0 VDC/3 VDC/3 -2VDC/3
1 1 1 0 0 0
Table 4.2 Power bridge output voltages (VAN, VBN, VCN)
The expression of the 3 phase voltages in the (α , β ) frame is given by the general
Clarke transform equation:
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ 1 − − ⎡VAN ⎤
⎡Vsα ⎤ 2 2 2 ⎥⎢
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ VBN ⎥ (4-10)
⎣ sβ ⎦ 3 ⎢0 3 3⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ − ⎢
⎣V ⎥⎦
2 ⎥⎦
CN
2
Since only 8 combinations are possible for the power switches (Table 4.3), VSα
and VS β can also take only a finite number of values in the (α , β ) frame according to the
status of the transistor command signals ( a, b, c ) .
V 2 ( 010 ) V 6 (110 )
20
30
10
V 3 ( 011 ) V 7 (111) V 0 (000) V 4 (100)
60
40
50
V 1 ( 001 ) V 5 (101 )
Figure 4. 6 Stator voltages
49
The eight voltage vectors defined by the combination of the switches are
represented in Figure 4. 6 .
A B C Vα　 Vβ　
0 0 0 0 0 V0
VDC VDC
0 0 1 − − V1
3 3
VDC VDC
0 1 0 − V2
3 3
2
0 1 1 − VDC 0 V3
3
2
1 0 0 VDC 0 V4
3
VDC VDC
1 0 1 − V5
3 3
VDC VDC
1 1 0 V6
3 3
1 1 1 0 0 V7
Table 4.3 Stator voltages

Now, given a reference voltage, the following step is to use the 8 above defined
vectors to approximate this reference voltage.
4.2.5.4 Projection of the stator reference voltage Vs
The method used to approximate the desired stator reference voltage with only
eight possible states of switches is to combine adjacent vectors of the reference voltage
and to modulate the time of application of each adjacent vector.
50
V 6 (110 )
V s β ref
T6
V6
T
60 0
X V 4 (100 )
T4 V s α ref
V4
T
Figure 4. 7 Projection of the reference voltage vector
In Figure 4. 7, the reference voltage VSref is in the third sector and the application
time of each adjacent vector is given by:
⎧T = T4 + T6 + T 0
⎪
⎨ JG T4 JG T6 JG (4-11)
⎪⎩V sref = V4 + V6
T T
The determination of the amount of times T4 and T6 is given by simple

projections:
⎧ T6 JG
⎪Vsβ ref = V 6 cos(300 )
⎪ T
⎪ T4 JG
⎨Vsα ref = V4 + x (4-12)
⎪ T
⎪ Vsβ ref
⎪x =
⎩ tg (600 )
Finally, with the (α , β ) components values of the vectors given in the previous
51
table, the amount of times of application of each adjacent vector is:
⎧ T
⎪T4 = 2V (3Vsα ref − 3Vsβ ref )
⎪ DC
⎨ (4-13)
⎪T = 3 T V
s β ref
⎪⎩ 6 VDC
The rest of the period is spent in applying the null vector. The variable T / VDC is
named VDCinvT . T is the period of the PWM interrupt and VDC is the rectified DC voltage.
T PWMPRD
vDCinvT = ⇔ (4-14)
2VDC VDC
For every sector, the commutation duration is calculated. The amount of times of
vector application can all be related to the following variables:
X = 3vDCinvT Vsβ ref (4-15)
3 3
Y= vDCinvT Vsβ ref + vDCinvT Vsα ref (4-16)
2 2
3 3
Z= vDCinvT Vsβ ref − vDCinvT Vsα ref (4-17)
2 2
in the previous example for sector 1, T4 = -2Z and T6 =2X.

In order to know which of the above variable apply, the knowledge of the sector in
which the reference voltage vector is, is needed.
To determine this sector, a simple approach is to calculate the projections Ra, Rb
and Rc of the reference voltage vector in the ( a, b, c) plane. These projections are then
compared to 0.
The projections Ra, Rb and Rc are given by the Clarke-1 transform as follow:
Ra = vsβ ref (4-18)
1
Rb = ( 3vsα ref − vsβ ref ) (4-19)
2
1
Rc = (− 3vsα ref − vsβ ref ) (4-20)
2
52
The complete algorithm performed by the Space Vector Module is given in the next
section.
4.2.5.5 Space vector algorithm
Now that the meaning of the variables has been given, the order in which the steps
are processed during the PWM interrupt is given.
The first step is to determine in which sector the voltage vector defined
by Vsα ref . Vsβ ref is found. The following few code lines give the sector as output:
Sector determination
IF Ra > 0 THEN A: =1, ELSE A: =0
IF Rb > 0 THEN B: =1, ELSE B: =0
IF Rc > 0 THEN C: =1, ELSE C: =0
P = A+2B+4C
Then, finding corresponding Sector number based on Table 4.4
P 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sector 2 6 1 4 3 5
Table 4.4 Relationship between sector and P

The second step is to calculate and saturate the duration of the two P boundary
vectors application as shown below:
CASE P OF
1 t1 =Z t 2 =Y
2 t1 =Y t 2 =-X
3 t1 =-Z t 2 =X
4 t1 =-X t 2 =Z
53
5 t1 =X t 2 =-Y
6 t1 =-Y t 2 =-Z
End times calculation

Saturations, which means that the total time of vector1’s interval and vector2’s
interval is larger than the PWM period
IF t1 + t 2 > PWMPRD then
PWMPRD
t1SAT = t1 (4-21)
t1 + t2
PWMPRD
t2 SAT = t2 (4-22)
t1 + t2
The third step is to compute the three necessary duty cycles. This is shown below:
⎧ PWMPRD − t1 − t2
⎪taon = 2
⎪
⎨tbon = taon + t1 (4-23)
⎪t = t + t
⎪ con bon 2
⎩
The last step is to assign the right duty cycle (txon) to the right motor phase (in
other words, to the right CMPRx) according to the sector. The table below depicts this
determination.
Sector
2 6 1 4 3 5
Phase
CMPR1 tbon taon taon tcon tcon tbon
CMPR2 taon tcon tbon tbon taon tcon
CMPR3 tcon tbon tcon taon tbon taon
Table 4.5 Assigning the right duty cycle to the right motor phase
After the duty cycle has been determined, the state sequence has to be determined
by Table 4.6[11].
54
Sector Initial State 2nd State 3rd State Final State
1 V7 V6 V2 V0
2 V7 V5 V4 V0
3 V7 V6 V4 V0
4 V7 V3 V1 V0
5 V7 V3 V2 V0
6 V7 V5 V1 V0
1 V0 V2 V6 V7
2 V0 V4 V5 V7
3 V0 V4 V6 V7
4 V0 V1 V3 V7
5 V0 V2 V3 V7
6 V0 V1 V5 V7
Table 4.6 State sequence

Based on Table 4.5 and Table 4.6, the PWM patterns in Sector 1 are drawn in
Figure 4. 8. The corresponding PWM output in other sectors can be figured out by the
same method, but will be omitted here
Figure 4. 8 Sector 1 PWM patterns and duty cycles
55
4.3 Voltage Per Hertz Algorithm
In order to compensate the flux in the low speed period, the voltage applied to the
stator needs to be modified based on Figure 4. 9. In the software realization, a look-up
table is used to calculate the corresponding phase voltage of motor’s stator. The detailed
method is depicted as follows.
The output of a three phase diode bridge rectifier is 310V. The corresponding
maximum output of connecting inverter is:
V DC 310
V phase _ pk = = = 179.2V
3 3
Figure 4. 9 Voltage versus frequency

This value is equal to the motor’s phase rating voltage, which is 180V pk_pk.
Under this condition, the motor stator phase voltage change in the electrical speed of
60HZ.
As mentioned above, the number 8192 expresses electrical angle of 3600.Thanks to
fix PWM period, the number, called Δθ , which is counted in this time span can be used
to express corresponding electrical speed.
8192 8192 1
Δθ = Tsw = X = 49.15 (4-24)
T 1/ 60 10000
where T is the period of stator’s voltage at rating frequency of 60Hz and Tsw is the
period of PWM’s switching frequency.
56
It is obvious that Δθ of 49.15 will present 60Hz in the DSP’s program. For
convenience, an integer number, 50, is applied to express 60Hz in the software.
Resolution is 60/50=1.2Hz. It is convenient to achieve high resolution by enlarging times
of 4096 to 3 or 4.
The next step is to figure out V/Hz constant by following formula:
Vphase _ rate 180

Cons tan t = = = 3.5 (4-25)
f _ rate 50
During the accelerating period, the stator’s phase voltage can be calculated by
given frequency timing Constant derived above.
In the starting period, V/H=constant is not valid. Compensation will be applied
based on practical test.
If the given frequency is larger than the rating frequency, stator’s phase voltage
becomes saturated, and its valve keeps constant to rating voltage. Depending on the
above analysis, a look-up table is built to figure out command voltage based on different
input command frequency (speed) signal in the software application. The whole program
is written by assembly language based on the TI’s user guide. The detailed parameters are
chosen depending on the practical stage revolve.
Figure 4. 10 illustrates voltage waveform in a complete process of locating target
position. The technique which applied in the starting phase is the same as what have been
discussed above. In decelerating period, a sensor which is mounted on the steel bracket is
used to detect reflection material attached on the bottom of revolve bottom. While a
reflecting signal is detected by the sensor, a binary stop-code is read by DSP through its
A/D conversion units. Then DSP forces the motor to decelerate to a slow speed by
reducing the command frequency automatically. The corresponding slew-rate is easy to
adjust in the software by requests. Meanwhile, revolve becomes creeping with a speed of
Slow. No sooner is “Stop Index” signal caught by the sensor than the revolve stop. It is
obvious that an overshot exists in open loop control. However, because the big friction of
revolve, the total weight of revolve, scenery and actors is 4000kg, ΔT is so small that
57
the corresponding displacement error can be neglected in this application.
Figure 4. 10 Speed waveform of accurate position control
4.4 Frequency Command Module
In order to obtain command frequency signal, the hardware interface which is

drawn in Figure 4. 11 is built. The output of a potentiometer connects to a DSP’s A/D pin
directly, which translates analog signals into digital signals which are standard in DSP’s
programs. The Figure 4. 12 represents the correspondence between the command
frequency signal and its binary representations. The 0-3.3v analog input presents relevant
-50 to +50 digital values in DSP, which will infer -60 Hz to +60Hz command frequency
in physical value.
Figure 4. 11 Command frequency sensing hardware
58
Figure 4. 12 Command frequency scale translation
4.5 Deadtime Setting
Because any real power electronic devices do not turn on or off instantaneously, it
is necessary to include a protection time, called the deadtime, to avoid cross conduction
when two switching devices are in the same leg. In the EVA of the LF2407 DSP, a
programmable dead-band unit DBTCONA is built-in to add a deadtime into the PWM
signals. It has been found that the deadtime causes a reduction in the fundamental
component of the output voltage and introduces low order harmonics [12]. In variable
frequency drive systems the magnitude drop of the voltage subsequently leads to a
reduction of the output electromagnetic torque. Therefore the deadtime should not be set
excessively long compared with the total turn-off time of the IGBT devices. There are
numerous papers discussing how to make deadtime compensation. However, in this
application, efficiency is not crucial consideration in a few operating requests. In the
software, the deadtime is set to 1.7μs.
4.6 Look-Up Tables
Look-up tables are widely used in the program which provides an easy way to
implement functions such as sin and cos calculation. V_H_period table is used to modify
59
slew-rate of acceleration and deceleration speed. V_H_vol contains voltage compensation

in motor’s starting phase. This compensation value may need to adjust based on the
different Load. A brief introduction for all the look-up tables used in the program is
attached for reference.
No. of Step size

Name Format Range Description
Entries /entry
Sine(θ)
sin_entry_ 256 Q12 0 – 360 º 1.44 º
Cos(θ)
Slew-rate setting
Unsigned The interval time
V_H_period_ 50 6-20 Sec
integer To increase one
unit freq.
V/Hz
V_H_vol_ 50 Q12 0-180V Desired voltage
value
Table 4.7 Look-up tables used in the program
4.7 Execution Time
Figure 4. 13 Execution time of V/Hz control routine

Figure 4. 13 illustrates the execution time of control routine. The Open loop V/Hz
60
control routine takes an average of 80us for execution. The amount of program memory
used for the whole program is lower than 1Kword.
61
Chapter 5 Experimental Results
5. Chapter 5
Experimental Results
5.1 Noise Studies of Gate Signals
As mentioned in Chapter 3, a clean and noise-free gate signal is vital to confirm

that IGBTs can turn on and off as they are required. In this application, Space Vector
PWM (SVP) technique is employed to generate gate signals for the inverter. The DC bus
bar is supplied from a diode bridge rectifier, and a variable transformer is used to produce
different AC voltage inputs to the rectifier. Thus variable DC bus voltages are attained.
Gate signal, Vdc -bus=0V
20
10
V (v) low side
0
GE
-10
-20
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Time(s) -4
x 10
Gate signal, Vdc -bus=70V

20
10
V (v) low side
0
GE
-10
-20
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
Time(s) -4
x 10
Figure 5. 1 Gate signal, low side with different DC bus link voltage
The motor which is coupled to stage revolve is connected as the load of the
inverter. No obvious dv / dt noise is observed from the gate signal VGE (Figure 5. 1)
while the DC bus voltage is 0 V. Then increasing bus voltage to 70V, the waveform is
still smooth except small oscillation in the rising period from 0V to 12V. The reason to
apply SVP is that this technique is efficient in removing harmonics at the high
62
modulation index compared with the sinusoidal PWM technique. In Figure 5. 2, the phase
voltage command contains the triple order harmonics that are generate by SVP However,
the triple order harmonics do not appear in the line voltage and the reference voltage
becomes a perfect sinusoidal waveform, which results in a perfect motor performance.
Phase voltage signal, DSP output

2
1
V P h a s e(V )
-1
-2
-0.025 -0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time(s)
Line voltage signal, DSP output

4
2
V L in e (V )
-2
-4
-0.025 -0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time(s)
Figure 5. 2 Phase and line voltage reference waveforms with SVP
5.2 Analysis of the Running Revolve
In the final test, 1500kg scenery is located on the corner of the stage as the full
unbalanced load and the total weight including revolve is 4000kg, as shown in Figure 5. 3.
The gate resistor is 180ohms. Manual and automatic starting processes are separately
tested on inverter prototype. The maximum speed is 42 seconds per revolution (1.4rpm),
63
and the total acceleration time is 30 second. The maximum speed and acceleration satisfy
the safety and comfortable requirements which are analyzed in chapter 2. The actor
standing on stage does not have any uncomfortable feeling in the whole process. By a
knob mounted on control box, the stage speed can be adjusted continuously and the
revolving stage can be controlled to move in both clockwise/ counterclockwise direction.
Based on the system tested, the current curves of the induction motor are drawn in
Figure 5. 4. In the initial period, because the rotor stays in a standstill, the starting current
jumps to 60 Amps (peak to peak value) which is approximately equal to the current value
in the Blocked-rotor test. Then the current value decreases with the increase of rotor
speed and reaches to rated value 8.6 Amps (RMS) when the rotor speeds to 1.4 rpm.
Figure 5. 3 The tested stage with 1500kg unbalanced loads
64
Starting current, Variable freq=2.4Hz, VDC=150V, Load=1500kg

30
20
10
C u rre n t (A )
-10
-20
-30
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Current, Variable freq=28Hz, VDC=150V, Load=1500kg

10
5
C u rre n t (A )
-5
-10
-0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time(s)
Figure 5. 4 Motor current curves under different running conditions

From chapter 1, based on the induction motor’s equivalent circuit, the three phase
power across air gap can be written as
Rr
Pg = 3I r 2 (5-1)
s
the mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given by
R2
Pmech = Tmechωmech = I 2 2 (1 − s ) (5-2)
s
65
the mechanical speed ωmech is related to the synchronous speed by
ωmech = (1 − s )ωsyn (5-3)
from Equation (5-1), (5-2) and (5-3), for three phase induction motor,
R
Tmechωsyn = 3I 2 2 2 (5-4)
s
equation (5-4) can be written as
R2
Tmech = 3I 2 2 (5-5)
sωsyn
In Figure 5. 4, the starting current is equal to I 2 = 25 / sqrt (2) = 17.7 A ; s = 1 ;
ωsyn = 4* pi * f / p ; p = 4 and R2 = 0.422 ohms. Substituting these parameters into
Equation (5-4), the starting torque is attained

0.422
Tmech ( start ) = 3 ×17.7 2 × = 52.5 N .m=38.3Lb. ft
3.14* 2.4
In the practical measurement, the starting torque is 9lb.ft. The difference between
of calculation and measuring result comes from a couple of reasons. First, the measure
instrument is a regular scale with a piece of 1ft long wood instead of a sophisticated
meter, which will bring a big measuring error. Another reason is that it is hard to locate
the suitable point to measure the biggest starting torque because the torque value
decreases dramatically with motion of the rotor.
Figure 5. 5 shows the gate signals,VGE , at 150 V and 34 V DC bus link respectively.
There are not obvious spikes on both curves. Meanwhile, during the rising period from 0v
to 10v, there is quite small voltage drop on the gate waveform. However, with the
objection of the layout of the prototype, above results are attained with a big gate resistor
(180Ω), which will bring remarkable switching loss and lead to low power efficiency in
the inverter. A detailed discussion on reasons and improvement methods of this problem
will be introduced in the next section.
66
Gate signal, VDC=150V, Load=1500kg

20
(v) low side

10
GE
-10
V
-20
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Time(s) -4
x 10
Gate signal, VDC=34V, Load=1500kg
20
(v) low side
10
0
GE
-10
V
-20
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time(s) -4
x 10
Figure 5. 5 Gate signals
5.3 Gate Resistor Studies with Different Drives
An ideal gate-to-source voltage waveform in Figure 5. 6 determines the charge

required for the gate-to-emitter capacitance, and the charge required for the
gate-to-collector capacitance. Since a constant current is supplied to the gate, the
horizontal time scale is directly proportional to the charge supplied to the gate. With a
suitable scaling factor, therefore, this waveform is a plot of gate voltage versus charge.
Form t0 to t1, the gate-to-emitter (GTE) capacitance is charging. From t1 to t2, the
gate-to-collector (GTC) capacitance is charging. The collector voltage excursion during
the period t1 to t1 is relatively large, and hence the total drive charge is typically higher
for the GTC capacitance than for the GTE capacitance [13]. At t2, the collector voltage
falls to a value equal to IC x RCE, and the IGBT now comes out of the “active” region of
operation, which means it has reached “saturation”. The gate voltage is now no longer
constrained by the transfer characteristic of the IGBT to relate to the collector current,
and is free to increase. This it does, until time t3, when the gate voltage becomes equal to
the voltage “behind” the gate circuit current source. The total charge at time t2 is the
charge required to switch the given voltage VCC and current IC. The additional charge
67
consumed after time t2 does not represent “switching” charge; it is simply the excess
charge which be delivered by the drive circuit because the amplitude of the applied gate
drive voltage normally will be higher than the bare minimum required to accomplish
switching
Figure 5. 6 Basic gate charge waveforms

However, in the practical test, a big voltage drop is observed from t1 to t2 with the
calculated gate resistance from chapter 3. Under the condition that gate resistors are
chosen as 15ohms, 23ohms and 51ohms, VGE waveforms show obvious oscillation when
the GTC capacitors are charged. Meanwhile, motor give out a harsh sound. This
oscillation becomes inconspicuous with increase of gate resistor. In the prototype, a 180
ohms resistor is used to be a gate resistor and motor work smoothly.
Selecting the proper series gate resistor series gate resistor for IGBT gate drive is
very important. The value of the gate resistor has a significant impact on the dynamic
performance of the IGBT. During turn off of the free wheeling diode across an IGBT, the
dv / dt applied to the IGBT and its CTG capacitance can cause a current to flow in the
gate circuit. If this current is large enough, the voltage developed across the gate resistor
can cause the IGBT to turn on. Therefore, smaller gate resistances offer enhanced
ruggedness(rejection of dv / dt turn on)[14]. But, they also provide fewer margins for
noise and lead to oscillation problems in conjunction with the GTE capacitance and any
parasitic inductance in the gate drive wiring. The practical implementation of prototype is
depicted in Figure 5. 7 . Because signals from drive output to IGBT’s gate are transferred
68
by twisted pair, the parasitic stray inductance inevitably induces big voltage drop with
high di/dt accompanying with small gate resistances. Thus the oscillation occurs.
Figure 5. 7 The practical realization of the prototype

In order to make further research of oscillation in VGE, several methods are chosen
to set up drive circuits. The corresponding gate-emitter voltage waveforms are drawn to
analyze the reasons and solution for diminishing oscillation.
5.3.1 Gate signal with flyback transformer as power supplies
As mentioned in chapter 3, a dc-dc converter (VASD1-SIP-S5-D15-SIP) is used to

supply ±15V isolated DC source for the drive chip. From the datasheet of VASD1, note
that the highest isolation voltage between input and output is 1kV. From theoretical
calculation, this converter has enough abilities to prevent noise being produced from
IGBT switching on and off state from coupling back to its input of a 5V DC source,
which shares the same ground with DSP. However, 1kV isolation only has a small margin
to get rid of possible coupling noise. In some serious situation, such as high dv/dt, the
isolation might be impaired and noise goes back to the input power, thus inducing noise
signal in DSP. This noise signal becomes significant after it is enlarged by drive circuit
and makes oscillation in gate voltage more serious. To eliminate this possibility, a
flyback transformer (Figure 5. 8) which has 2kV isolation voltage is used to replace the
converter.
69
Figure 5. 8 The schematic diagram of the flyback transformer

The gate signal curves are drawn in Figure 5. 9. With a 15 Ω gate resistor, the
oscillation is still obvious in the gate signal under both 30V and 38V DC bus voltage. In
order to fully remove the coupling noise from drive’s power supply, a group of batteries,
which has isolating floating ground, is used to provide necessary positive and negative
voltage to the drive.
70
Gate signal, VDC=38V, RG=15Ω Collector-Emitter signal, V DC=30V, RG=15Ω

15 35
10
5 30
(v) low side
-5 25
GE
V
-10
-15
20
-20
4.8 4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
Time(s) -5
V (V)
x 10
15
CE
Gate signal, VDC=30V, RG=15Ω
15
10
10
(v) low side
5
5
0
GE
-5
V
-10
-15 -5
4.8 4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 4.8 4.9 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
Time(s) -5 Time(s) -5
x 10 x 10
Figure 5. 9 Gate signal with flyback transformer as power source of the drive
5.3.2 Gate signals with battery as power supplies
Figure 5. 10 A group of batteries as power supply for IGBT drives

Three batteries are applied to supply positive 18V and negative 9V DC power to an
71
IGBT drive chip (Figure 5. 10)Figure 5. 10. In this topology, the floating common point is
absolutely isolated from other disturbance sources. With a 15 Ω gate resistor, distinct
oscillation is still observed in the gate signal, shown in Figure 5. 11. There is no notable
amelioration while the gate resistance is increased to 51Ω.
Gate signal, RG=51Ω , VDC=0V, RL-Load

VGE(v) low side
20
-20
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(s) -6
x 10
VGE(v) low side
20
-20
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(s) -6
x 10
VGE(v) low side
20
-20
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time(s) -6
x 10
Figure 5. 11 Gate signal with batteries as power source of the drive
5.3.3 IGBT’s gate signal with commercial drives
Figure 5. 12 The commercial drive
72
In order to find precise reasons accounting for oscillation in gate signal, a

commercial drive, shown in Figure 5. 12. Its relevant parameters are given in Table 5.1.
This prototype board has 2500VRMS isolation for control power and signals. To confirm
the drive has an enough current to drive IGBTS, two types of drives, 1.5A and 5A, are
chosen to make a test. The testing results are drawn in Figure 5. 13. Here, internal gate
resistance 23 Ω is chosen as gate resistance. One test adds a 17 W external resistor as
total gate resistance. 150, 100, 70 V DC bus voltages are used as input of the inverter
respectably. There is not heart-stirring improvement in oscillation issue of gate signal
waveform. 5A drive has a very similar result.
Gate signal, RG=41Ω , VDC=150V, RL-Load Gate signal, RG=23Ω , VDC=100V, RL-Load
15 15
10 10
V GE(v) high side
V GE(v) low side
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -5 0 5
x 10 x 10
Gate signal, RG=23Ω , VDC=150V, RL-Load Output of drive, RG=23Ω , VDC=70V,driver with 5A peak output current
20 15
15
10
V GE(v) high side
V GE(v) low side
10
5
5
0
0
-5
-5
-10 -10
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x 10 x 10
Figure 5. 13 The gate signals with commercial drives
73
Peak Drive Minimum Typical DC/DC

Gate Driver
current RG Application Converter
M57159L-01 +/-1.5A 4.2Ω Up to 100A VLA106-15424
VLA503-01 +/-5A 2.0Ω Up to 400A VLA106-15424
Table 5. 1 Features of the BG2B universal gate drive
5.3.4 Improved drive circuits and corresponding gate signals
From above tests, it is obvious that the DC-DC converters in original prototype can
provide fully isolated control power for IGBT driving channels. Meanwhile, the drive’s
output current is not a reason for gate signal oscillation. The possible cause may come
from imperfect layout, especially the long wires. In Figure 5. 14, a PCB board includes six
GB2B universal gate drives is connected to IGBT power module. A DSP board is
embedded into this PCB board to prevent the ribbon cable, which is used to transfer
PWM signals to drives, from being infected noise. This time a 10 Ω resistance is chosen
as gate resistor. The gate signal (Figure 5. 15) has substantial improvement. Under the
180V DC bus voltage, the voltage drop in oscillation is not low than 7 volt, which is
essential to make motors work without harsh noise.
Figure 5. 14 DSP embedded in PCB board with commercial drives

74
Gate signal, Vdc -bus=180V, RG=10Ω

20
15
10
5
VGE(v)
-5
-10
-15
-20
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time(s) -5
x 10
Figure 5. 15 The gate signal curve with improved hardware layout
5.4 Collector-Emitter Surge Voltage
Because of a layout defect of the prototype, there are wires between bulk capacitors
and DC bus bar; herein the stray inductance induces very high surge voltages in the
process of charging and discharging bulk capacitors. As seen in Figure 5. 16 In order to
get rid of the effect of stray inductance which comes from the wire between DC bus bar
and IGBT’s collector, a commercial power module is replaced the prototype power
module. Other components keep as same as the former test. The result is drawn in Figure
5. 15Figure 5. 16 too. We find that the surge becomes bigger than former one. The reason
is that commercial power module’s built-in capacitance might induce resonance in the
circuit loop.
75
Gate signal, Vdc -bus=34.5V, RG=180Ω , Prototype Gate signal, Vdc -bus=34.5V, RG=180Ω , Commercial IGBT
15 15
10 10
5 5
V G E(v)
V G E(v)
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -5 0 5
x 10 x 10
Collecter-emitter signal, Vdc -bus=34.5V, RG=180Ω , Prototype Collecter-emitter signal, Vdc -bus=34.5V, RG=180Ω , Commercial IGBT
120 300
100 250
80 200
V CE(v)
V CE(v)
60 150
40 100
20 50
0
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -5 0 5
x 10 x 10
Figure 5. 16 Gate and Collector-emitter voltage curves

To remove surge voltage and ensure that the IGBTs can run with the rating voltage
under the condition that maximum input DC bus voltage is 300V, a new layout for bulk
capacitors and DC bus bar is shown in Figure 5. 17. Capacitor’s positive and negative
electrodes are directly mounted to DC bus bar’s positive and negative sides
correspondingly. There are not extra wires between them. The collector-emitter voltage
of an IGBT in new layout is shown in Figure 5. 18. Surge voltages disappear in the VCE
curve.
76
Figure 5. 17 The layout of capacitors be mounted on bus bar

Collector-emitter signal, Vdc -bus=180, RG=10Ω
200
150
100
VCE(v)
50
-50
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time(s) -4
x 10
Figure 5. 18 The Collector-Emitter voltage curve with the new layout
5.5 Deadtime Analysis
As mentioned in chapter 4, deadtime is helpful in avoiding a cross conduction of

two switching devices which are in the same leg; However, the introduction of the dead
time causes a reduction in the fundamental component of the output voltage and
introduces low order harmonics which are not intrinsically present in the ideal modulated
77
waveforms. In variable speed drive, the reduction of fundamental voltage causes a

reduction in output torque. There are a lot of papers discussing how to compensate the
negative effect of deadtime in some sophisticated variable speed motor drive applications.
In the prototype, because of the stage’s running specialties which are less than five
minutes ruining time and little power consumption, no special compensation methods
are used except for limiting deadtime in a small value to make its negative effect as
obscure as possible. Although there is reduction in torque output, drive can provide
enough starting torque for the stage revolve. Figure 5. 19 and Figure 5. 20 show current
waveforms at different deadtime settings. It is easy to conclude that the current distortion
vanish at lower frequency with deadtime 1.4μs compared with another setting with 2μs
deadtime. At the same time, one cross conduction between two switching devices which
are in the same leg has been avoided. The reason for obvious current distortion at low
frequency is that the ratio of deadtime to IGBT’s Ton time is big at low frequency, which
corresponds to low voltage and small duty of PWM, and becomes small at high
frequency, which corresponds to high voltage and big duty of PWM in V/F control.
Current waveform @18.1Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=2μs
Current(A)
10
0
-10
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.050 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Current waveform @15Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=2μs
Current(A)
10
0
-10
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.050 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Current waveform @14Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=2μs
Current(A)
10
0
-10
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Current waveform @9.8Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=2μs
Current(A)
10
0
-10
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Figure 5. 19 Current waveforms with different command frequency, deadtime=2μs
78
Current waveform @14Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=1.4μs

10
Current(A)
0
-10
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Current waveform @9.8Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=1.4μs
10
Current(A)
-10
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Current waveform @6Hz, Load=1750pounds, deadtime=1.4μs
20
Current(A)
-20
-0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Time(s)
Figure 5. 20 Current waveforms with different command frequency, deadtime=1.4μs
79
Chapter 6 Conclusion and Future Work
6. Chapter 6
Conclusion and Future Work
6.1 Conclusion
In this thesis, the development of a DSP-controlled variable-speed drive has been

considered. A number of issues regarding the implementation of machine drive have been
investigated. A brief conclusion opens in this section by summarizing the major
concluding remarks obtained in the early chapters.
In chapter 2, a safety area of stage revolve’s speed and acceleration is presented
after a theoretical analysis of mechanical system. After thorough studies control requests
from operators, the open-loop voltage per Hz topology is chosen as the implementation
method for the variable speed. Meanwhile, a summary introduction of induction motor’s
equivalent circuit and torque-speed characteristics are addressed.
The next chapter introduces the method to choose main components for the motor
drive. Numerous discussions have been addressed on how to figure out the suitable gate
resistance for IGBT module, which is the key factor to make this drive work efficiently
and reliably. Then the current detection circuit is introduced for over current protection of
the IGBT power module and upgrading Volt/Hz to other sophisticated control methods,
such as vector control, in the future.
In chapter 4, a detailed description of realization of Space Vector PWM technique
and volt/Hz control principles of induction motor drives on Ti’s DSP 320F-2407A. In
order to limit the highest acceleration and speed of stage revolve, a look-up table is
introduced in the software, and so does the low frequency voltage compensation.
Although the greatest efforts have been made in components selection and
schematic diagram design of the drive, a lot of deficiency still exists in the practical
80
Chapter 6 Conclusion and Future Work
implementation. Much of this comes from layout of the hardware. In chapter 5, numerous
pages are devoted to the oscillation problems in gate control signals. After a series of
tests, we have concluded that the gate drive layout is critical to avoid potential
oscillations, slow rise of gate voltage, loss of noise immunity, or reduction in efficiency
of the gate protection circuitry. If we did not take discrete components to set up our own
inverter, the above problems would have not been found with commercial products.
Meanwhile, the experience from this implementation will give some guidelines to future
work of IGBT related motor drives.
6.2 Future Work
Due to the special operating schedule of the theatre, a wealth of options of future
practical work exists. One consideration is to implement position sensor circuits because
it is crucial in open loop accurate position control. According to analysis in chapter 4, in
practical realization, the open loop control with a number of position sensors could satisfy
requests of accurate position control with more simple/reliable software and hardware,
affordable cost being compared with complicated close-loop position control.
An additional contemplation is the improvement of layout by introduction of a PCB
board. Based on the similar layout of commercial product drive (BG2B), a big PCB board
includes six IGBT drives of the inverter; one IGBT drive of the breaker and I/O interface
to connect with DSP’s I/O output directly. In addition, the drive’s output I/O interface
which can be connected to power module directly should have enough ampere capacity of
2A.
An interesting subject for future work encompasses connection of bulk capacitors
and the DC bus bar. A pair of copper bus bar is an option for surge voltage removal. A
further solution is to embed the DC bus bar into the big PCB board.
Finally, a USB interface of the control box will be helpful in simplifying operation
of position control. Operators input new position command through a laptop USB
interface conveniently.
81
References
References
[1] Austin Hughes, Electric Motors and Drives, second edition, Nwenes, An imprint of
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, 1993, pp. 52
[2] H. B. Ertan, M. Y. Uctug, R. Colyer, and A. Consoli, Modern Electrical Drives, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Boston, 2000
[3] Y. Li, “Designing and Implementing A DSP Based Variable-Speed Drive for Theatre Stage
System”, M. Sc. Thesis, Electrical & Computer Engineering Department, The University of
British Columbia, BC, Canada, 2007
[4] Bimal K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Prentice-Hall, Inc.2003
[5] P. Wood, M. Battello, N. Keskar, and A. Guerra, Plug N Drive Application Overview,
International Rectifier, 2002.
[6] E. R. Motto, Hybrid Circuits Simplify IGBT Module Gate Drive, Powerex Inc., 1999.
[7] Data Sheet, PD60232, IR22381Q/IR21381Q, International Rectifier, 2005.
[8] Data Sheet, 2.0 Amp Output Current IGBT Gate Drive Optocoupler, Agilent Technologies,
Inc., 2003
[9] Power flex, Dynamic Braking Resistor Calculator, Rockwell Automation, 2003
[10] Erwan Simon, Application report, Implementation of a Speed Field Oriented Control of
3-phase PMSM Motor using TMS320F240, Texas Instruments Incorporated, 1999
[11] Paul C, Krause, Oleg Wasynczuk, Scott D. Sudhoff , Analysis of Electric Machinery and
Drive Systems, IEEE PRESS, 2002
[12] V. M. Cardenas, S. Horta, R. Echavarria, "Elimination of dead time effects in three phase
inverters," in Proc. IEEE International Power Electronics Congress, vol. , no. , Oct. 1996,
pp.258-262.
[13] Application Note, Use Gate Charge to Design the Gate Drive Circuit for Power MOSFETs
and IGBTs, International rectifier, see ttp://www.irf.com/technical-info/appnotes/an-944.pdf
[14] Application Note, How to use IGBT Modules, Powerex Inc, 1999
82
Appendix A Estimation of Moment of Inertia of the Stage
Appendix A
Estimation of Moment of Inertia of the
Stage
The moment of inertia of a complex structure, such as the stage, containing steel
frame and wood surface can in practice only be determined by approximation. Here an
estimation of the moment of inertia of the stage is given for simulation.
The moment of inertia of the stage can be calculated as J=MR2/2; with M being the
mass of the stage, R being the radius of the stage. The stage is a steel-framed
wood-covered structure. The estimation is given by the table below.
Item Calculation Note
Radius of the 8.23 diameter

R= = 4.115m
2
stage of the stage is
27-foot.
Mass of the M = 1500 kg

wood
Mass of the 2500kg

steel frame, scene
setup and actors on
the stage
Total mass of 4000kg

the stage
Total moment 34000kg ⋅ m 2

of inertia of the stage
Table a.1 Calculation of the moment of inertia of the stage
83
Appendix B Induction Motor Parameter Estimation
Appendix B
Induction Motor Parameter Estimation
Parameters on the nameplate of the machine are given in Table b.1.
Variable Value
3 hp
Rated output
(2.24kW)
Voltage 230 V
Full load current 8.2 A
Frequency 60 Hz
Speed 1760 rpm
Power factor 0.77
Efficiency 89.5%
Table b.1 Nameplate data of the induction machine
Some tests have been carried out to estimate the detailed parameters of the
machine. Tests include dc test, no load test and block rotor test. Testing results and
parameter derivation are given below:
1) DC Test: rs = 1 / 2 = 0.5Ω
2) No-load Test
Vl −l , NL 205.2
Vas = = = 118.47V , I NL = 3.577 A
3 3
S NL = 1257.66VA , PNL = 108W , Q NL = 1253VAR , Pf = 0.086
Q NL 1253
X NL = = = 32.64Ω
3I NL 3 × 3.577 2
2
3) Blocked-rotor Test
84
Vl −l , NL 28.35
3.1) Vas = = = 16.37V , I BR = 4.0015 A
3 3
PBR 56
RBR = = = 1.166Ω
3I BR 3 × 4 2
2
X BR = (Vas / I BR ) 2 − RBR
2
= (16.37 / 4.0015) 2 − 1.166 2 = 3.92Ω
X BR
X ls = X lr' = = 1.96Ω
2
Vl −l , NL 38.65
3.2) Vas = = = 22.31V , I BR = 5.995 A
3 3
PBR 129
RBR = = = 1.196Ω
3I BR 3 × 5.995 2
2
2
= (22.31 / 5.995) 2 − 1.196 2 = 3.524Ω
X BR
X ls = X lr' = = 1.762Ω
2
Vl −l , NL 48.75
3.3) Vas = = = 28.15V , I BR = 8.0295 A
3 3
PBR 230
RBR = = = 1.189Ω
3I BR 3 × 8.0295 2
2
2
= (28.15 / 8.0295) 2 − 1.189 2 = 3.298Ω
X BR
X ls = X lr' = = 1.649Ω
2
3.4) Average value:
X ls = X lr' = 1.79Ω
X M = X NL − X ls = 32.64 − 1.79 = 30.85Ω
85
'
4) Estimate rr from the torque-speed curve
XM 30.85 230
Vas ,th = Vas = = 0.945 × 132.8 = 125.5V
rs2 + ( X ls + X M ) 2 0.5 2 + 32.64 2 3
jX M (rs + jX ls )
rs ,th + jX ls ,th = = 0.4466 + j1.6987
rs + j ( X ls + X M )
Vas2 ,th rr' / s

Te = 3 = 12.19 , find rr' = 0.422Ω
ω syn (rs ,th + rr' / s) 2 + ( X ls ,th + X lr' ) 2
86
Appendix C Clarke and Park Transformation
Appendix C
Clarke and Park Transformation
Clarke and Park transforms are used in high performance drive architectures related
to variable speed motor control Functions to implement Clarke and Park transforms will
be explored as follows.
Through the use of the Clarke transform, the real (Ids) and imaginary (Iqs) currents
can be identified. The Park transform can be used to realize the transformation of the Ids
and the Iqs currents from the stationary to the moving reference frame and control the
spatial relationship between the stator vector current and rotor flux vector.
Clarke transformation
Figure 1 Stator current in the stationary reference frame and its relationship with a,b,and c
stationary reference frame
The Clarke transform uses three-phase currents ia, ib and ic to calculate currents in
the two-phase orthogonal stator axis: iα and iβ. From Figure.1, the mathematical Clarke
transform can be written as
2 1
iα = ia − (ib − ic )
3 3
2
iβ = (ib − ic )
3
87
2
io = (ia + ib + ic )
3
with iα and iβ components in an orthogonal reference frame and io the homopolar
component of the system.
In many applications, the homopolar component is absent or is less important. In
this way, in absence of homopolar component the space vector u = uα + juβ represents the
original three-phase input signal.
Consider now a particular case with iα superposed with ia and ia + ib + ic is zero, in
this condition ia, ib and ic can be transformed to iα and iβ with following mathematical
transformation:
iα = ia
1 2
iβ = ia + ib
3 3
ia + ib + ic = 0
The modification from a two-phase orthogonal α, β frame to a three-phase system

is done by the following equations:
ia = iα
1 3
ib = − iα + iβ
2 2
1 3
ic = − iα − iβ
2 2
Park transformation
The two phases α, β frame representation calculated with the Clarke transform is
then fed to a vector rotation block where it is rotated over an angle θ to follow the frame
d,q attached to the rotor flux.
88
Figure 2 Stator current in the d,q rotating reference frame and its relationship with　,　
stationary reference frame
The rotation over an angle θ is done according to the formulas:
id = iα cos(θ ) + iβ sin(θ )
iq = −iα sin(θ ) + iβ cos(θ )
The vector in the d, q frame is transformed from d, q frame to the two phases α,
β frame representation calculated with a rotation over an angle θ according to the
formulas:
iα = id cos(θ ) − iq sin(θ )
iβ = id sin(θ ) + iq cos(θ )
89

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A DSP BASED VARIABLE-SPEED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE

FOR A REVOLVING STAGE

B. A. Sc., Huazhong University of Science and Technology, WH, China, 1992

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Electrical and Computer Engineering)

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

© Yong Zhang, 2007

Table of Contents .............................................................................................iii

List of Tables ....................................................................................................vi

List of Figures .................................................................................................vii

1.2 Advantages of an Induction Motor in Variable Speed Application ..................................... 2

1.3 Thesis Motivation and Objective ........................................................................................ 3

Chapter 2 Principles of Stage Mechanic System and V/Hz Control .............4

2.2 Safe Riding Conditions ....................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Induction Machines............................................................................................................. 8

2.3.1 Torque production ................................................................................................... 8

2.3.2 Equivalent circuit .................................................................................................... 9

2.3.3 Variable-voltage operation .................................................................................... 12

2.3.4 Variable-speed operation ....................................................................................... 13

2.3.5 Constant Volts/Hz operation.................................................................................. 13

2.4 Open Loop Volts/Hz Control with Voltage-Fed Inverter................................................... 15

Chapter 3 Hardware Implementation ............................................................17

3.2 Three-Phase Rectifiers ...................................................................................................... 18

3.2.1 Thermistor ............................................................................................................. 18

3.2.2 The DC bus bulk capacitor.................................................................................... 19

3.3 Three-Phase Bridge Inverter ............................................................................................. 20

3.3.2 Maintaining dv/dt noise immunity ........................................................................ 22

3.3.3 The applied IGBT drive ........................................................................................ 24

3.3.4 DC-DC converters................................................................................................. 25

3.3.5 Drive’s input resistors............................................................................................ 26

3.3.6 Gate resistors......................................................................................................... 26

3.3.6.1 Turn-on resistors............................................................................................. 26

3.3.6.2 Turn-off resistors ............................................................................................ 29

3.3.6.3 Minimal switching loss constraint.................................................................. 31

3.4 Energy Dissipation Subsystem.......................................................................................... 33

3.5 Over Current Protection .................................................................................................... 37

Chapter 4 Software Implementation .............................................................39

4.2 Implementation-Open-Loop Speed Control for 3-Phase AC Induction Motor ................. 41

4.2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 41

4.2.2 Initialization module description........................................................................... 43

4.2.3 Interrupt module description ................................................................................. 43

4.2.4 Generation of sine and cosine ............................................................................... 44

4.2.5 Space vector pulse width modulation.................................................................... 45

4.2.5.1 Expression of the 3 phase voltages (phase to neutral).................................... 46

4.2.5.2 Application to the static power bridge ........................................................... 47

4.2.5.3 Expression of the stator voltages in the (α, β) frame ..................................... 48

4.2.5.4 Projection of the stator reference voltage Vs ................................................. 50

4.2.5.5 Space vector algorithm................................................................................... 53

4.3 Voltage Per Hertz Algorithm ............................................................................................. 56

4.4 Frequency Command Module........................................................................................... 58

4.5 Deadtime Setting............................................................................................................... 59

4.6 Look-Up Tables................................................................................................................. 59

Chapter 5 Experimental Results....................................................................62

5.2 Analysis of the Running Revolve...................................................................................... 63

5.3 Gate Resistor Studies with Different Drives ..................................................................... 67

5.3.1 Gate signal with flyback transformer as power supplies....................................... 69

5.3.2 Gate signals with battery as power supplies.......................................................... 71

5.3.3 IGBT’s gate signal with commercial drives .......................................................... 72

5.3.4 Improved drive circuits and corresponding gate signals ....................................... 74