Chapter TWO

Quadratic Equations
(This chapter contains all about the quadratic equations we need to learn and
implement in and about our journey throughout our level.)

A quadratic equation is an equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0.

OR

If a0≠ 0, polynomial equation of 'n' degree is represented by a0 xn + a1 xn-1 +

a2xn-2 + ......... + an-1 x + an where nЄN. If n = 1, equation is termed as 'linear'
and if n=2, equation is termed as quadratic equation

NOTE:
(i) Values of 'x' which satisfy the polynomial equation is termed as its roots or zeros.
(ii) If general, polynomial equation of 'n' degree is having n roots, but if it is having
more than n roots, then it represents an identity.
(iii) If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is an identity, then a=b=c=0.
(iv) An identity is satisfied for all real values of the variable. for example:
sin2x + cos2x = 1 ∀ xЄR.

Relation Between Roots and Coefficients :

i) The solutions of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a≠0) is given by
−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= where 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 𝐷 is called the discriminant of the equation.
2𝑎
ii) If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a≠0), then
ax2 + bx + c ≡ a(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) ⇒
𝑏
 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −𝑎
𝑐
 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎
√𝐷
 |𝛼 − 𝛽 |=
|𝑎|
iii) A quadratic equation whose roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽 is (x- 𝛼 )(x- 𝛽 ) = 0
⇒ x2 {sum of roots}x + {product of roots} = 0

Note : If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , 𝛼4 , … . . 𝛼𝑛 are roots of the equation a0 xn + a1 xn-1 + a2xn-2 +

......... + a0 _______________________________________________ (1)
Then
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … … … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )

n n-1
∴ a0 x + a1 x + a2xn-2 + ......... + a0≡ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … … … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 )
 Comparing the coefficients of like powers of x on both sides, we get
𝑛
𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛−1
𝑆1 = ∑ 𝛼𝑖 = 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 +. . . 𝛼𝑛 =− =−
𝑖=1
𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛
𝑛
𝑎𝑛−2 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛−2
𝑆2 = ∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 = 𝛼1 𝛼2 + 𝛼2 𝛼3 + 𝛼3 𝛼4 +. . . = (−1)2 = (−1)2
𝑖≠𝑗
𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛
𝑛
𝑎𝑛−3 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛−3
𝑆3 = ∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝛼𝑗 𝛼𝑘 = 𝛼1𝛼2 𝛼3 + 𝛼2 𝛼3𝛼4 +. . . = (−1)3 = (−1)3
𝑖≠𝑗≠𝑘
𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛
….
𝑎0 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ … … … … … … … … … … … 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 = (−1)𝑛
𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑜𝑓 𝑥𝑛

NATURE OF ROOTS
Discriminant Number of Solutions and
Type of Solutions
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
 If D is Perfect square  2 rational solutions
 If D is Not a perfect square  2 irrational solutions
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 1 rational solution (double root)
𝑏
𝛼=𝛽=−
2𝑎

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 2 imaginary solutions

(No real-number solution)

NOTE:
i) Imaginary roots are conjugate pairs. ie. If a,b,c Є Z, then
𝛼 + 𝑖𝛽 and 𝛼 − 𝑖𝛽 are its roots.
(ii) If the coefficients in the equation are all rational and 𝛼 + √β is one of its roots,
then 𝛼 − √β is also a root where α , β ЄQ and β is not a perfect square.
(iii) If a quadratic expression f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a perfect square of a linear
expression then D=b2–4ac = 0.

4. Common Roots :
Consider two quadratic equations, a1x2 + b1x + c1=0 and a2x2 + b2x + c2=0.
(i) If two quadratic equations have both roots common, then the equation are identical
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
and their co-efficient are in proportion. i.e. = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
(ii) If only one root is common, then the common root ' 𝛼 ' will be :
𝑐1 𝑎2 −𝑐2 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐2 −𝑐1 𝑏2
𝛼= =
𝑎1 𝑏2 −𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑐1 𝑎2 −𝑐2 𝑎1

Hence the condition for one common root is

(𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑐1 𝑏2 )( 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑏1 𝑎2 ) = (𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 ) 2
Note:
(i) If f(x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 are two polynomial equation having some common root(s) then
these common root(s) is/are also the root(s) of h(x)=af(x)+bg(x)=0.
(ii) To obtain the common root, make coefficients of x2 in both the equations same and
subtract one equation from the other to obain a linear equation in x and then solve it for
x to get the common root.

5. Factorisation of Quadratic Expressions :

If a quadratic expression f(x,y) = ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c may be

resolved into two linear factors, then

𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
Δ=abc + 2fgh–af2–bg2–ch2 = 0 OR | ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 |=0
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐
6. Graph of Quadratic Expression :
y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c; a ≠0
𝐷 𝑏 2
⇒ (𝑦 + ) = 𝑎 (𝑥 + )
4𝑎 2𝑎

Note:
𝑏 𝐷
i) y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c; a ≠0 represents a parabola with vartices: (− ,− )
2𝑎 4𝑎
ii) If a>0 then the shape of the parabola is concave upwards and if a < 0 then the
shape of the parabola is concave downwards.
iii) The parabola intersect the y-axis at point (0,c).
iv) The x-co-ordinate of point of intersection of parabola with x-axis are the real
roots of the quadratic equation f(x) = 0.
Important Results
(i) If α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0, then the polynomial f(x) is divisible by
(x - α ) or (x - α ) is a factor of f(x)
(ii) An equation of odd degree will have odd number of real roots and an equation of
even degree will have even numbers of real roots.
(iii) Every equation f(x) = 0 of odd degree has at least one real root of a sign opposite to
that of its last constant term. (If coefficient of highest degree term is positive).
(iv) The quadratic equation f(x) = ax2 + bx+c = 0, a ≠ 0 has α as a repeated root if and only
if f( α) = 0 and f'( α) = 0. In this case f(x) = a(x – α)2 ⟹ α = –b/2a.
(v) If polynomial equation f(x) = 0 has a root α of multiplicity r (where r > 1), then f(x) can
be written as f(x) = (x– α)r g(x), where g(α) ≠ 0, also, f'(x) = 0 has α as a root with
multiplicity r–1.
(vi) If polynomial equation f(x) = 0 has n distinct real roots, then
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 (𝑥 − 𝛼1 )(𝑥 − 𝛼2 ) … … … (𝑥 − 𝛼𝑛 ) where 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , 𝛼4 , … . . 𝛼𝑛 are distinct roots and
𝑓′ (𝑥) 1
= ∑𝑛𝑘=1
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥−𝛼𝑘

(vii) If there be any two real numbers 'a' and 'b' such that f(a) and f(b) are of opposite
signs, then f(x) = 0 must have odd number of real roots (also at least one real root)
between 'a' and 'b'
(viii) If there be any two real numbers 'a' and 'b' such that f(a) and f(b) are of same
signs, then f(x) = 0 must have even number of real roots between 'a' and 'b'
(ix) If polynomial equation f(x) = 0 has n real roots, then f'(x) = 0 has at least (n – 1) real
roots.
(x) Descartes rule of signs for the roots of a polynomial:

 The maximum number of positive real roots of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0

is the number of changes of the signs of coefficients of f(x) from positive to negative
or negative to positive.

 The maximum number of negative real roots of the polynomial equation f(x) = 0 is
the number of changes from positive to negative or negative to positive in the signs
of coefficients of f(–x) = 0.

(xi) To form an equation whose roots are reciprocals of the roots in equation
a0 xn + a1 xn-1 + a2xn-2 + ......... + an-1 x + an, x is replaced by 1/x and then both
sides are multiplied
by xn.