DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

USMAN UL HAQ

READER COLLEGE
MIT
PART 01:
USEFUL TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS

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1. Define Analog and Digital quantities.
An analog quantity is one having continuous values. A digital quantity is one
having a discrete set of values. Most things that can be measured quantitatively
occur in nature in analog form. For example, the air temperature changes over
a continuous range of values.
2. Define mechatronics.
Both digital and analog electronics are used in the control of various mechanical
systems. The interdisciplinary field that comprises both mechanical and
electronic components is known as mechatronics.
3. Define bit.
Each of the two digits in the binary system, 1 and 0, is called a bit, which is a
contraction of the words binary digit.
4. What is positive logic and negative logic?
Generally, 1 is represented by the higher voltage, which we will refer to as a
HIGH, and a 0 is represented by the lower voltage level, which we will refer to
as a LOW. This is called positive logic.
Another system in which a 1 is represented by a LOW and a 0 is represented by
a HIGH is called negative logic.
5. Define binary codes?
Groups of bits (combinations of 1s and 0s), called codes, are used to represent
numbers, letters, symbols, instructions, and anything else required in a given
application.
6. What is a pulse?
It is digital wave of very short duration. a pulse has two edges: a leading edge
that occurs first at time t0 and a trailing edge that occurs last at time t1. For a
positive-going pulse, the leading edge is a rising edge, and the trailing edge is a
falling edge.
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7. What is duty cycle.
It is the ratio of the pulse width (tW) to the period (T). It can be expressed as a
percentage.

8. What do you mean by clock pulse?

In digital systems, all waveforms are synchronized with a basic timing waveform
called the clock. The clock is a periodic waveform in which each interval between
pulses (the period) equals the time for one bit. It has duty cycle of 50%.

9. What is serial transfer of data?

When bits are transferred in serial form from one point to another, they are sent
one bit at a time along a single line, as illustrated in Figure. During the time
interval from t0 to t1, the first bit is transferred. During the time interval from
t1 to t2, the second bit is transferred, and so on. To transfer eight bits in series,
it takes eight-time intervals. DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

10. What is parallel transfer of data?

When bits are transferred in parallel form, all the bits in a group are sent out on
separate lines at the same time. There is one line for each bit, as shown in Figure
for the example of eight bits being transferred. To transfer eight bits in parallel,

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it takes one-time interval compared to eight-time intervals for the serial
transfer.

11. Define logic gate.

A digital circuit that performs a specified logic function (AND, OR) is called a logic
gate. AND and OR gates can have any number of inputs.
12. NOT GATE
The NOT function changes one logic level to the opposite logic level, as indicated
in Figure. When the input is HIGH (1), the output is LOW (0). When the input is
LOW, the output is HIGH. In either case, the output is not the same as the input.
The NOT function is implemented by a logic circuit known as an inverter.

13. AND GATE

The AND function produces a HIGH output only when all the inputs are HIGH, as
indicated in Figure for the case of two inputs.
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14. OR GATE
The OR function produces a HIGH output when one or more inputs are HIGH, as
indicated in Figure for the case of two inputs.

15. What is a sign-magnitude form?

In the sign-magnitude form, a negative number has the same magnitude bits as
the corresponding positive number but the sign bit is a 1 rather than a zero.
For example, the decimal number +25 is expressed as an 8-bit signed binary
number using the sign-magnitude form as
00011001
The decimal number -25 is expressed as
10011001
16. What is a co-processor?
In addition to the CPU (central processing unit), computers use coprocessors to
perform complicated mathematical calculations using floating-point numbers.
The purpose is to increase performance by freeing up the CPU for other tasks.
The mathematical coprocessor is also known as the floating-point unit (FPU).
17. NAND GATE
A NAND gate produces a LOW output only when all the inputs are HIGH. When
any of the inputs is LOW, the output will be HIGH. The Boolean expression for
the output of a 2-input NAND gate is
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18. NOR GATE
A NOR gate produces a LOW output when any of its inputs is HIGH. Only when
all of its inputs are LOW is the output HIGH. The Boolean expression for the
output of a 2-input NOR gate can be written as

19.EXCLUSIVE-OR GATE
The XOR gate has only two inputs. The exclusive-OR gate performs modulo-2
addition. The output of an exclusive-OR gate is HIGH only when the two inputs
are at opposite logic levels.

20. EXCLUSIVE NOR GATE

For an exclusive-NOR gate, output X is LOW when input A is LOW and input B is
HIGH, or when A is HIGH and B is LOW; X is HIGH when A and B are both HIGH
or both LOW.
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21.

22.

23. Rules of Boolean Algebra

24. Proof:

25. Proof:

26. DE Morgan’s Theorems:

DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

DeMorgan’s first theorem is stated as follows:

The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the
complements of the variables. The formula for expressing this theorem for
two variables is

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 DeMorgan’s second theorem is stated as follows:
The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the
complements of the variables.

27. Sum of Product Form (SOP):

When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition, the
resulting expression is a sum-of-products (SOP). Some examples are

28. Product of Sum Form (POS):

When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting expression is a
product-of-sums (POS). Some examples are

29. Karnaugh Map:

A Karnaugh map is similar to a truth table because it presents all of the
possible values of input variables and the resulting output for each value.
Instead of being organized into columns and rows like a truth table, the
Karnaugh map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a binary value
of the input variables. The cells are arranged in a way so that simplification
of a given expression is simply a matter of properly grouping the cells.
Karnaugh maps can be used for expressions with two, three, four, and five
variables.
30. The Full Adder;
The full-adder accepts two input bits and an input carry and generates a sum
output and an output carry. The basic difference between a full-adder and a
half-adder is that the full-adder accepts an input carry. A logic symbol for a
full-adder is shown in Figure
DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

31. Ripple Carry Adder:

A ripple carry adder is one in which the carry output of each full-adder is
connected to the carry input of the next higher-order stage (a stage is one
full-adder). The sum and the output carry of any stage cannot be produced
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 until the input carry occurs; this causes a time delay in the addition process,
as illustrated in Figure. The carry propagation delay for each full-adder is the
time from the application of the input carry until the output carry occurs,
assuming that the A and B inputs are already present.

32. Look Ahead Carry Adder:

The look-ahead carry adder anticipates the output carry of each stage, and
based on the inputs, produces the output carry by either carry generation or
carry propagation. Carry generation occurs when an output carry is produced
(generated) internally by the full-adder. A carry is generated only when both
input bits are 1s. The generated carry, Cg, is expressed as the AND function
of the two input bits, A and B.

Carry propagation occurs when the input carry is rippled to become the
output carry. An input carry may be propagated by the full-adder when either
or both of the input bits are 1s. The propagated carry, Cp, is expressed as the
OR function of the input bits.
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33. Decoder:
A decoder is a digital circuit that detects the presence of a specified
combination of bits (code) on its inputs and indicates the presence of that
code by a specified output level. In its general form, a decoder has n input
lines to handle n bits and from one to 2n output lines to indicate the presence
of one or more n-bit combinations.
34.BCD to 7-Segment Decoder:
he BCD-to-7-segment decoder accepts the BCD code on its inputs and
provides outputs to drive 7-segment display devices to produce a decimal
readout. The logic diagram for a basic 7-segment decoder is shown

35. Encoder:
An encoder is a combinational logic circuit that essentially performs a
“reverse” decoder function. An encoder accepts an active level on one of its
inputs representing a digit, such as a decimal or octal digit, and converts it to
a coded output, such as BCD or binary. Encoders can also be devised to
encode various symbols and alphabetic characters. The process of converting
from familiar symbols or numbers to a coded format is called encoding.
36. Priority Encoder:
A priority encoder also offers additional flexibility in that it can be used in
applications that require priority detection. The priority function means that
the encoder will produce a BCD output corresponding to the highest-order
decimal digit input that is active and will ignore any other lower-order active
inputs. For instance, if the 6 and the 3 inputs are both active, the BCD output
is 0110 (which represents decimal 6).
37. Demultiplexer:
DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

A demultiplexer (DEMUX) basically reverses the multiplexing function. It

takes digital information from one line and distributes it to a given number
of output lines. For this reason, the demultiplexer is also known as a data
distributor.

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38.Basic Parity Logic:
A parity bit indicates if the number of 1s in a code is even or odd for the
purpose of error detection. In order to check for or to generate the proper
parity in a given code, a basic principle can be used:
The sum (disregarding carries) of an even number of 1s is always 0, and the
sum of an odd number of 1s is always 1.
Therefore, to determine if a given code has even parity or odd parity, all the
bits in that code are summed.
39. Parity Generator:
If this device is used as an even parity generator, the parity bit is taken at the
sum of Odd output because this output is a 0 if there is an even number of
input bits and it is a 1 if there is an odd number. When used as an odd parity
generator, the parity bit is taken at the Sum of Even output because it is a 0
when the number of inputs bits is odd.
40. Latch:
The latch is a type of temporary storage device that has two stable states
(bistable) and is normally placed in a category separate from that of flip-flops.
Latches are similar to flip-flops because they are bistable devices that can
reside in either of two states using a feedback arrangement, in which the
outputs are connected back to the opposite inputs. The main difference
between latches and flip-flops is in the method used for changing their state.

41. S-R Latch:

An active-HIGH input S-R (SET-RESET) latch is formed with two cross-coupled
NOR gates, as shown in Figure (a); an active-LOW input S-R latch is formed
with two cross-coupled NAND gates, as shown in Figure (b). Notice that the
output of each gate is connected to an input of the opposite gate. This
produces the regenerative feedback that is characteristic of all latches and
flip-flops.
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42. Edge Triggered Flip Flop:
An edge-triggered flip-flop changes state either at the positive edge (rising
edge) or at the negative edge (falling edge) of the clock pulse and is sensitive
to its inputs only at this transition of the clock. E.g.

43. Four categories of propagation Delay Time:

DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

44. Set Up time:

The set-up time (ts) is the minimum interval required for the logic levels to
be maintained constantly on the inputs (J and K, or D) prior to the triggering

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 edge of the clock pulse in order for the levels to be reliably clocked into the
flip-flop. This interval is illustrated in for a D flip-flop.

45. Hold Time:

The hold time (th) is the minimum interval required for the logic levels to
remain on the inputs after the triggering edge of the clock pulse in order for
the levels to be reliably clocked into the flip-flop. This is illustrated in Figure
for a D flip-flop.

46. Register:
A register is a digital circuit with two basic functions: data storage and data
movement. The storage capability of a register makes it an important type of
memory device. A register can consist of one or more flip-flops used to store
and shift data.
47. Bi-Directional Shift Register:
A bidirectional shift register is one in which the data can be shifted either left
or right. It can be implemented by using gating logic that enables the transfer
of a data bit from one stage to the next stage to the right or to the left,
depending on the level of a control line.
48. Shift register counter:
A shift register counter is basically a shift register with the serial output
DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

connected back to the serial input to produce special sequences. These

devices are often classified as counters because they exhibit a specified
sequence of states. Two of the most common types of shift register counters,
the Johnson counter and the ring counter.

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49.Asynchronous Counter:
The term asynchronous refers to events that do not have a fixed time
relationship with each other and, generally, do not occur at the same time.
An asynchronous counter is one in which the flip-flops (FF) within the counter
do not change states at exactly the same time because they do not have a
common clock pulse.
50. Synchronous Counter:
The term synchronous refers to events that have a fixed time relationship
with each other. A synchronous counter is one in which all the flip-flops in
the counter are clocked at the same time by a common clock pulse. J-K flip-
flops are used to illustrate most synchronous counters. D flip-flops can also
be used but generally require more logic because of having no direct toggle
or no-change states.

51. State Diagram:

The first step in the design of a state machine (counter) is to create a state
diagram. A state diagram shows the progression of states through which the
counter advances when it is clocked. As an example, Figure is a state diagram
for a basic 3-bit Gray code counter.
DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

52. Memory:
Memory is the portion of a computer or other system that stores binary data.
In a computer, memory is accessed millions of times per second, so the
requirement for speed and accuracy is paramount. Very fast semiconductor

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 memory is available today in modules with several GB (a gigabyte is one
billion bytes) of capacity.
53. Bit, Bytes, Nibble and Words:
As a rule, memories store data in units that have from one to eight bits. The
smallest unit of binary data, as you know, is the bit. In many applications,
data are handled in an 8-bit unit called a byte or in multiples of 8-bit units.
The byte can be split into two 4-bit units that are called nibbles. Bytes can
also be grouped into words. The term word can have two meanings in
computer terminology. In memories, it is defined as a group of bits or bytes
that acts as a single entity that can be stored in one memory location. In
assembly language, a word is specifically defined as two bytes.
54. Flash Memory:
Flash memories are high-density read/write memories (high-density
translates into large bit storage capacity) that are nonvolatile, which means
that data can be stored indefinitely without power. High-density means that
a large number of cells can be packed into a given surface area on a chip; that
is, the higher the density, the more bits that can be stored on a given size
chip.
55.FIFO:
The term FIFO (First in First out) refers to the basic operation of this type of
memory, in which the first data bit written into the memory is the first to be
read out.
56. Cloud Storage:
A cloud storage system consists of a remote network of servers (also called
nodes) that are connected to a user device through the Internet, as shown in
Figure. Some cloud storage systems accommodate only certain types of data
such as e-mail or digital pictures, while others store all types of data and
range in size from small operations with a few servers to very large
operations that utilize hundreds of servers. A facility that houses cloud
storage systems is called a data center. A typical storage cloud system can
serve multiple users.
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PART 02:
IMPORTANT SHORT
QUESTIONS

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