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Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

11th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, ICTP 2014, 19-24 October 2014,
Nagoya Congress Center, Nagoya, Japan

Production engineering strategies and metalworking at Toyota

Motor Corporation
Tatsuro Takami*
Unit Production Engineering Field, Toyota Motor Corporation, 1 Toyota-cho, Toyota, Aichi 471-8571, Japan

Abstract

Vehicles consist of a large number of products of different shapes and sizes. These products can be manufactured very
efficiently by metalworking. Products manufactured by metalworking also have superior mechanical properties, such as
strength and elongation; these are useful in reducing vehicle weight which leads to improved fuel efficiency and performance.
In addition, these products help to reduce cost. Toyota Motor Corporation considers metalworking as a source of
competitiveness and has continued to develop innovative metalworking technologies over many years as a means of responding
to changes in the social environment and customer needs. This paper describes the history of this innovation, explains the
current challenges, and also discusses the direction of future innovations.

© 2014
© 2014 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by
by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Nagoya University and Toyohashi University of Technology
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya University
Keywords: Toyota; Production engineering; Metalworking; TPS; Global production; Better cars

1. History of metalworking processes at Toyota

1.1. Metalworking products manufactured by Toyota

Table 1 shows examples of the manufacturing processes used by Toyota and the parts manufactured by these
processes. Fig. 1 shows photographs of parts (a) to (h) listed in Table 1. Parts in Table 1 marked by an asterisk (*)
will be discussed later in this paper.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tsuyoshi_sato_aa@mail.toyota.co.jp

1877-7058 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Nagoya University
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2014.09.123
6 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

Before a part is forged, the characteristics of the material, such as its deformability, forming load, and forming
precision, are comprehensively taken into account. Hot forging, warm forging, or cold forging processes are then
adopted as required. The characteristics of the warm forging process are between those of hot forging and cold
forging. Its most significant characteristic is that decarburization does not occur on the surface of the material
during the forging process. This allows the application of induction hardening, which is into the machining line.
Combination forging is another type of forging process, in which cold forging is used to finish the parts with a high
degree of precision after a hot or warm forging is used to form the complex shape. For example, a combination of
hot forging and cold forging are used to manufacture gear parts, while a combination of warm forging and cold
forging are used to manufacture constant velocity joint (CVJ) parts. In some cases a combination of sintering and
hot forging are even used to manufacture connecting rods.
Stamping processes are used to manufacture parts such as body panels, chassis parts (suspension arms) and
powertrain parts (transmissions and exhaust manifolds). In recent years a thick sheet forming technology has been
developed that is capable of changing the sheet thicknesses through a combination of stamping and cold forging
technologies. The application of this sheet forming technology is currently being expanded.

Table 1. Manufacturing processes used by Toyota and examples of manufactured parts.

Process Examples of manufactured parts
Forging Hot ᲤCrankshafts,ᲤConnecting rods, Gears, ᲤAluminum knuckles
Warm CVJ parts (tulips and outer laces)
Cold Differential pinions, (a)Tripodes, (b)Steering lock holders,(c)Input shafts
Combination (d)Counter gears, (e)CVJ tulips, (f)Powder forged connecting rods
Body parts, Chassis parts ( (g)Arms)
Stamping
Power train parts ( (h)Carrier, CVT piston, Exhaust parts)

(a) Tripode (b) Steering lock holder (c)Input shaft (d) Counter gear

(e )CVJ tulip (f) Powder forged connecting rod (g)Sheet metal upper arm (h ) Sheet metal carrier

Fig. 1. Photographs of products (a) to (h) in Table 1.

1.2. Historical background and trends in production engineering (PE) challenges

Fig. 2 shows Toyota’s historical vehicle production trends, the characteristics and PE issues of each era. In the
1960’s annual production was around 100,000 vehicles. This increased nearly tenfold over the next decade, and
again by almost the same amount up to the present day.
Increased volume of production outside of Japan along with changes in the social environment and customer’s
needs has led Toyota to adopt new approaches to production. Toyota’s approach has been to develop creative ideas
and promote innovation of metalworking technologies, while responding to and anticipating these changing needs.
 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17 7


9
8
Total production Eras and characteristics PE issues
7
(million vehicles/year)

Motorization of Japanese
Development of mass production technology and systems,
6 Phase society
Production volume

Phase I Phase II Phase III Introduction of high-speed automatic stamping equipment,

I Rapid expansion of production
Development of stable transfer technology
5 volume
ref. Oil shocks Weight reduction (adoption of FWD, etc.), Expansion of
4 Sales inside Japan Production net shape technology (high-precision and complex shapes),
Phase Tightening of emissions
outside Japan Compliance with emissions regulations (forming of stainless
3 II regulations, etc.
steel materials, etc.), Shorter development lead-times
Product diversification (CAD, CAM, CAE)
2
Expansion of global production Adoption of simple and slim dies, Definition of working
1 Phase Expansion of demand in points, Establishment of the exact manufacturing conditions,
III emerging markets Small-scale production engineering, Development of PE for
0 Global environmental issues hybrid vehicles and other next-generation vehicles
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Fig. 2. Toyota’s production trends and PE issues of each era.

In phase I, Toyota’s production volume increased rapidly due to the motorization of Japanese society. Therefore,
the most critical challenge was to establish a mass production system and related technologies. For example,
Toyota developed technology to stamp two parts simultaneously and automatic part transfer technologies to help
achieve a stable operation throughput, while also incorporating high-speed automatic stamping machines.
In Phase II, events such as the oil shocks of the 1970s, which led to soaring energy prices, and the tightening of
vehicle emissions regulations were major social issues. Therefore, improving fuel efficiency and dynamic
performance, which had deteriorated due to the emissions countermeasures, was an important challenge. To meet
this challenge, Toyota adopted more front-wheel drive (FWD) vehicles instead of rear-wheel drive (RWD).
Development efforts to reduce the weight of various parts and increase engine power were emphasized. In addition,
the production of CVJ parts used in FWD vehicles increased, as did the production of high-temperature resistant
exhaust parts made from stainless steel materials that are difficult to stamp. At the same time, the vehicle line-up
became more diverse with the introduction of SUVs, four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles, and luxury vehicles (Lexus).
Since these factors have the potential to increase the costs of vehicle production, the development of net shaping
technology was actively pursued. This reduces cost by applying metalworking to parts that require high precision
and have complicated shapes. Other efforts also aimed to reduce the size of lots and to shorten die changing times
to handle various types of low-volume production. Finally, this phase saw the active adoption of various computer-
aided technologies (CAD, CAM, and CAE) that had been developing rapidly to reduce the development lead time
of a wide variety of products.
Phase III is characterized by the expansion of global production, the expansion of demand in emerging markets,
and a rising awareness of global environmental preservation. To facilitate the globalization of production, it is
essential to have the capability to consistently manufacture products with the same level of quality all around the
world, especially at local plants where highly skilled workers may not be available. Consequently, Toyota modified
its equipment and dies to simpler structures that were easier to use. Efforts also focused on quantitatively
identifying phenomena occurring at the contact points between die and work piece to prevent the manufacture of
defective products. This included identifying and standardizing the exact manufacturing conditions necessary to
ensure that only good quality products are produced (these are also referred to as ryohin joken, or defect-free
conditions). Small-scale PE was adopted to ensure cost competitiveness even at plants outside Japan with small
production volumes. The additional change of global environmental preservation has promoted fuel efficiency
improvements in conventional vehicles and increased the number of next-generation vehicles, such as hybrids
(HVs). As a result, many new products have emerged, such as the large variety of new engine devices and electric
motors. These new products include many examples of parts that require an extremely high level of precision in the
8 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

manufacturing process thereby necessitating development of more advanced forming technologies and die making
than previously available.

8 Total production

(million vehicles/year)
7

Production volume
6
g
5 Production inside Japan
g g
g g
4 g
g g
Production outside
3 g
Japan overtakes
g
g production inside Japan.
2 g
Great East Japan Earthquake
1 Production outside Japan
Global financial crisis
0
’䠌䠍 ’䠌䠎 ’䠌䠏 ’䠌䠐 ’䠌䠑 ’䠌䠒 ’䠌䠓 ’䠌䠔 ’䠌䠕 ’䠍䠌 ’䠍䠍 ’䠍䠎 Year
30 Russia
25
(million vehicles/year)

Brazil
Production volume

India
20

15
China
10

0
'90 '95 '00 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 ' 12 Year

Fig. 3. Toyota’s recent production trends and BRICs market trends.

With respect to expansion of global production, Fig. 3 shows that Toyota’s production outside Japan exceeded
its production inside Japan in 2007. Since this trend will likely continue to increase in the future, there is the risk
that Japan’s manufacturing base, which is vital to a technology-oriented nation like Japan, will become hollowed
out. In addition to this challenge, Japan has also had to face very difficult issues in recent years, such as the
economic downturn caused by the global financial crisis in 2008, a variety of natural disasters, and a super strong
yen. As a result, the continuous increases in vehicle production up to that point suddenly reversed, which put
downward pressure on earnings. In response, Toyota is aiming to build a more flexible production system that is
not dependent on volume.
Emerging markets must also be considered as they have experienced remarkable growth in recent years, Fig. 3.
In 2009 the Chinese vehicle market overtook the United States and, in 2010, the markets of Brazil, Russia, India,
and China (the four BRIC nations) alone exceeded 25 million vehicles, approximately one-third of the world’s
vehicle market. The markets in these emerging nations are different from the mature markets in the United States
and Europe. Customers in these markets are demanding good-quality, inexpensive vehicles that meet the specific
needs of each region.
The previous sections have described how Toyota has learned greatly from the intense changes in the business
environment over the past several years and is now moving forward toward new initiatives. The current challenges
in the PE field may be summarized as follows.
x To respond to expanding global production, it is important to continue facilitating globalization and to
manufacture products with the same quality all over the world in a timely manner.
x Flexible and competitive manufacturing that does not rely on volume and can respond to fluctuations is
essential.
x A unique Japanese style of manufacturing is the key to make better cars.
 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17 9

2. PE strategies and metalworking technology innovations at Toyota

2.1. Global production technologies

An essential element for carrying out global production in a timely manner is the capability to manufacture
products with the same quality anywhere in the world within a short time frame. For example, global production of
body panels requires the global deployment of the necessary stamping dies. The following section describes how
this is implemented.
Fig. 4 compares conventional and newly developed manufacturing methods of copy dies for body panels. The
machining of the conventional first die is carried out using data based on the ryohin joken data. However, die
corrections must be carried out repeatedly after this machining is completed. In addition, the results of all these
repeated corrections of the first die are not reflected in the copy dies, which means that these same corrections must
be carried out at the local production bases. These small corrections, e.g. modifications of the profile and imprecise
curvatures (R), can be handled easily by die maintenance technicians, but cannot be incorporated easily into the
data. As a result, it is often necessary to send technicians from Japan to these local bases to assist with the die
corrections. This makes it difficult to deploy stamping dies for body panels globally and in a timely manner.
Consequently, a newly developed method was adopted in which the first die already incorporates all of the
corrections. This is then used as the master die. The copy dies are then manufactured from machining data that
already includes all of the results of the corrections. The need for correcting the copy dies was eliminated by
thoroughly implementing this new method. This approach also reduced the amount of time from the design of the
first die until the launch of the first copy die by approximately 30%.
To achieve true globalization of production in a timely manner, it will be necessary to continue to strengthen
various initiatives like these in the future.
(a) First die
Die
Diedesign Machining Assembly
Assembly Correction Correction
design Machining Correction Correction Correction
Correction

Machining Die quality gap

data

Copy dies
Machining
Machining Assembly
Assembly Correction
Correction Correction
Correction Correction
Correction Correction
Correction

Delivery to bases
outside Japan

Master
(b) First die die
Die
Diedesign Machining Assembly Correction Correction
design Machining Assembly Correction Correction Correction
Correction

Measurement

Correction Digitalization of
Machining master die
data data

Copy dies No
No die quality gap
Machining
Machining Assembly
Assembly
Delivery to bases Only need to confirm
outside Japan reproducibility at local base

Fig. 4. Body panel copy dies manufacturing methods: (a) conventional and (b) newly developed.

2.2. Flexible and competitive manufacturing

The fundamentals of manufacturing are vital, especially when intense changes are occurring, as is the case today.
The basis for the manufacturing innovation at Toyota is the Toyota Production System (TPS), which has been
handed down over the years and should rightly be called the DNA of Toyota. The two pillars of TPS are jidoka
10 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

(autonomation) and just-in-time. Fig. 5 shows the concepts of TPS. The roots of the jidoka concept lie with Sakichi
Toyoda, the founder of the Toyota group, who is well known for having invented an automatic loom that would
stop automatically when a thread broke. The other pillar is just-in-time, which refers to making what the customer
needs, when it is needed, and only in the amount that is needed. The idea for this was conceived by Kiichiro
Toyoda, the founder of Toyota Motor Corporation, on a business trip to the United States after observing the
stocking system at a supermarket. He sought to take the idea of replenishing the items that a customer bought and
implement it into a vehicle production system.

Two pillars of the Toyota Production System

Jidoka Just-In-Time
Machine or line is stopped immediately if an Make only what is needed when it is needed.
abnormality occurs.

Improve quality Levelled

at the plant production

Standardized Continuous
work flow processing

Failsafe devices,
Rope switch Pull system

Andon (problem Kanban method

display board)

Fig. 5. Concepts of TPS.

The ingenious part of the original jidoka approach was that it detected the moment when a defect occurred and
then automatically stopped the loom before the defective item was produced. At that point, the question “why?”
was asked repeatedly to determine the cause of the thread breaking and a countermeasure was developed for that
cause to prevent recurrence. That history has been handed down over the generations to this day. In recent years the
concept of jidoka has been promoted even further to achieve the aim of producing no defects, i.e., manufacturing
that results in 100% defect-free products (ryohin). For this purpose, phenomena at the contact points are being
quantified to promote exact manufacturing conditions. In Toyota, this is referred to as activities to establish ryohin
joken.
Fig. 6 shows the concepts behind these ryohin joken activities. Ryohin joken is defined as the manufacturing
conditions that will always produce defect-free products. It also means breaking away from the intuition and innate
skills of workers, and concretely quantifying the manufacturing conditions that were previously known only as
implicit knowledge. To accomplish this goal, it is important to master measuring technologies, clarify and quantify
the relationship between forging conditions and manufacturing quality, and then create standard conditions.

Creation of ryohin joken and betterdrawings through integrating Design,PE , and Manufacturing
Design Product
(R&D phase) development

Improve drawing quality

IntegratedSimultaneous
Integrated
PE (prototype VerifyVerify
PE (prototype under under mass-
mass- Enhance ryohin
Production Simultaneous
Production phase) production Engineeringacrossacross all
phase) production conditions
conditions joken Engineering all
threethree
steps steps
Indicate
Indicate ryohin joken
ryohin joken

Manufacturing Maintenance and Strictly follow Identify difficulties and

(mass-production phase) control standardized work raise issues

Standardized work
Standardized work

Fig. 6. Concepts of ryohin joken activities.

As an example of ryouhin joken, one can consider hot forging of crankshaft. Conventional manufacturing is
often dependent on the experience of the technicians to help stabilize the quality of the hot forging process, which
is one of the most difficult forging processes to ensure quality. Fig. 7 shows step 1 of the quality assurance process.
First, the question “why?” is asked repeatedly and the most important conditions that are required to attain defect-
free manufacturing are identified and organized. The following five items were identified as the important
 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17 11

conditions for defect-free hot forging: billet temperature, lubricant coating/air-blow, die temperature, the forming
process, and die maintenance.
In step 2, the forging conditions are visualized utilizing measurement technologies. This is the most important
part of finding the ryohin joken. These conditions were conventionally adjusted by relying on the intuition and
specialized skills of veteran technicians. Now, these conditions must be specifically quantified. Various measuring
devices, such as thermo-viewers, thermocouples, and shape measurement equipment, were introduced into the
worksite, and it is now possible to quickly determine the state of items such as the die pre-heating temperature, die
temperature, and die wear.
In step 3, process control is carried out in accordance with operation standards. For example, since the amount
of the lubricant coating has a large effect on the die lifetime, the relationship between the lubricant coating and die
temperature was clarified. At the worksite, control charts are used to carry out trend control of the die temperature.
The key contact points have a large effect on product quality in forging. Therefore, these key contact points are set
for the die by utilizing the die temperature CAE analysis results. All of this information is incorporated into the
operation standards and the work is carried out at the worksite by adhering thoroughly to all of the instructions in
these standards.

Step 1 Step 3 Trend control using Setting of key working

(1) Billet temperature (2) Lubricant coating/air-blow
control charts points ( 1) Die temper ature conditions
Defect-free conditions

ᲶDefectᲸ Billet
heating Forging Trimming Die temperature CAE
ŨŨ

gg
ŨŨ

gg
ŨŨ

gg
ŨŨ

gg

Controlled Inspection Control chart

condition sheets
ŨŨ ŨŨ ŨŨ ŨŨ

cooling

Die temperature
NG Upper l imit
Control using Setting of key
gg gg gg gg

ŨŨé
working points Under 㽢㽢䉝: Die pre-heating
Over 䕿䕿䉝: L ubrication abnor mality

ȷUnder fill
inve stigation
Ryohin joken 1 3
ȷScale pits, etc. ggé
NG Lower li mit
2 4

(3) Die temperature (4) Forming process (5) Die maintenance Condition sheets
(operation standard)
Step 2 Die temperature Die temperature Die pre-heating temperature Step 4 ᲶFormerᲸ ᲶFocus pointsᲸ ᲶCurrentᲸ
Dieatpre-heating temperature
working point Die wear Whole-surface coating of all Identification of optimum Required coating amount for high-
at working pointThermocouple
forging

similar parts temperature portions

Thermo-viewer conditions by Digital
Definitionofofforging

Engineering
position

position
Nozzle
improvement

Nozzle
Coating Coating
conditions

Die surface position amount

Condition

temperature
conditions

New nozzle development

temperature

Contact temperature
Definition

temperature
gauge (nozzle for working point)
Quantification Die shape measurement Large die temperature Small die temperature
Die

Contact temperature gauge apparatus

Die
Thermo-viewer apparatus
Die side Large die temperature Small die temperature
Die temperature Closetemperature
to press machine dispersion dispersion

Fig. 7. Incorporating ryohin joken to achieve defect-free manufacturing.

Step 4 indicates how the forging conditions were further improved. Under the former lubrication method,
common nozzles were used for all parts from the standpoint of general utility and the entire surface of the die was
coated. This created a large dispersion in die temperature depending on the shape of the product and resulted in
defects even after a small fluctuation in the conditions. Therefore, experimentation and CAE were utilized and new
nozzles were developed for each part to apply lubricant preferentially to the portions with the highest die
temperature. As a result, the temperature dispersion of each portion was improved by 40 % (Inada et al., 2010).
The implementation of these ryohin joken activities allows the PE divisions to focus on various other issues at
manufacturing sites and to indicate ryohin joken for resolving these issues. Information and feedback is also
provided to the design departments to improve drawings. This makes it easier to manufacture good-quality
products more consistently than before.
The direction of technological innovation with respect to the second pillar of TPS, just-in-time, is shown in Fig.
8.

Direction of technologicalinnovation
Just-In-Time 1ᲣManufacture one-by-one
Make only what is
2ᲣManufacture at same speed as sales
needed when it is 3ᲣSmall-scale manufacture
12 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

Fig. 8. Aims of a just-in-time approach.

The first item is to manufacture products one-by-one. Toyota has always used one-by-one production as its basis.
Products are completed one-by-one based on orders from the customer. The second item is to manufacture at the
same speed as sales. This means not always manufacturing products as fast as possible. Instead, products should be
manufactured at the same speed as the speed of sale. The third item is small-scale manufacturing. In other words,
large-scale facilities and equipment should not be set up all at once on the premise of mass production, as was the
case in the past. Instead, small-scale production lines commensurate with sales volume should be established.
Metalworking is very compatible with high-speed mass production. Therefore, adapting metalworking to be
competitive for low-volume production is generally thought to be extremely difficult. To manufacture products
inexpensively and at low volumes, it is necessary to reduce investment in the production line and to improve
various indices, such as die changing times and costs, compared to conventional manufacturing. This kind of small-
scale production line enables gradual investment in accordance with the production volume and also makes it easier
to carry out production at local bases. For this reason, the development of small-scale production lines based on
this approach is being promoted.
As an example, the development of a hot forging line for aluminium high-mount knuckles is explained. Fig. 9
shows the aluminium high-mount knuckle manufacturing process and samples from each of the processes. These
parts were manufactured following the just-in-time concept instead of a conventional manufacturing method. The
first challenge was to develop a compact forging line.
Fig. 10 shows an overall view of the developed compact forging line. The aim was to break away from mass
production and to develop a production line that integrated all of the processes from forging through to the
completed product. In specific terms, this production line is located within a low-roof machining plant, in which
machining teams supervise all the processes from forging through to machining. In addition, production cycle
times are close to those of machining.

Fluorescent
Billet Heating Roll Heating Blocker Finishing Trimming 䠰䠒 Etching Inspection Machining
penetrant testing

Aluminum high-mount knuckle manufacturing process

Billet

Roll Blocker Finishing Trimming

Process samples
Fig. 9. Aluminium high-mount knuckle manufacturing process

Solution treatment Aging Etching and fluorescent

furnace furnace penetrant testing devices

Heater 1 Heater 2

Inspection
Forging Forging Trimming (ultraviolet) Machining line
䡎oll press equipment

Aims:
(1)Breakaway from mass
- production

(2)Integrated production from forging to completed product

[ S upervise inside machining building and by machining teams ]
(3)Production line with machining
- based production cycle times
Action item:
Create simple and slim dies, equipment, and production lines
 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17 13

Fig. 10. Compact aluminium forging line.

First, the size of the exclusive portions was reduced to match the product size. In other words, the size of the
dies was minimized. On a conventional forging line, the dies and die sets are designed to have a general-purpose
structure to produce a variety of different types of products. The sizes of the dies are determined according to the
dimensions of the largest product that will be produced on that line. On the other hand, in the case of a compact
line, the types of products are limited so that none of the waste described above occurs.
Furthermore, the minimum thickness of the dies was clarified by forming analysis and die stress analysis. This
information was combined with a number of other innovations, such as to the mounting portion of the dies, to
further help minimize the size. Fig. 11 compares the former and current dies.
Width of die including No wear due to low-temperature
all similar parts aluminumforming

No re-machining
320㽢620㽢230(mm) ȷHardness
Width Depth Height increased
ȷThickness
reduced

Thickness of die assuming

re-machining of die
235㽢600㽢103(mm)
Width Depth Height

Former Current
Fig. 11. Minimizing die size.

Next, the size of the die sets was reduced to match the new smaller dies. The forming and trimming processes
were separated because of the difference in the loads that are applied. It was also decided to use separate presses for
these processes. This meant that the die sets were divided into separate bodies as well. As a result of implementing
stress analysis and other techniques to reduce the size of the die sets, the total weight was reduced to approximately
one-eighth of the former weight. Fig. 12 shows the former die sets (top) and the current die sets (bottom). A slower
production speed on the line was also utilized so that the die temperature could be controlled more precisely than
before. Induction heating coils were provided near the dies to help keep the dies warm. Coolant is passed through
the interior of the dies for cooling.

Finishing Core trimming

Blocker External trimming
Former Idle
Total weight
16tons

Design minimum based on Use different press and adopt one

required strength process due to low load
䇲90%
Current
Weight subtotal: 0.5 tons
Total weight
2tons
Blocker Finishing Core/external trimming
Forming Trimming
Fig. 12. Comparison of die set size.
14 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

Adopt hydraulic press to take advantage of low-

temperature and slow forming properties of aluminum.
Mechanical press
Adopt integrated
cylinder/crown structure
Crown
12m Hydraulic press Hydraulic cylinder
9.4m
Side frame
4.3m 6m
Bed
FL
With pit Without pit

Former Current

Fig. 13. Comparison of presses.

Finally, the size of the presses was reduced to match the new smaller die sets. Since a slow forming speed is
acceptable, hydraulic presses were adopted as they are less expensive than mechanical presses. In the case of steel,
forging performed at approximately 1,200qC, slower forming speed for hydraulic presses increases the length of
time that the work piece and the die are in contact with each other. This causes the die to quickly weaken and its
lifetime is exhausted. In contrast, if aluminium is used instead of steel, a lower forming temperature of 450qC can
be used. In this case, the dies do not weaken and the slower forming speed of the hydraulic presses can be used.
Toyota was involved in the structural design of the presses and carried out joint development of smaller-sized
presses with the press manufacturers. As a result, the height of the presses was reduced to fit inside the machining
plants. Fig. 13 compares of the former and current presses. Fig. 14 shows a photograph of the exterior of a forging
press that was set up inside a machining plant. A worker from the machining team, with no connection to forging,
will operate the line from start to finish.
This type of development has also been used to promote the simplification and streamlining of production
processes other than those described above. For example, the following have also been put into practical use: a
compact forming roll that uses servo motors, a compact induction heating device for heating billets, and a very
simple dedicated hydraulic device for trimming after forging. Fig. 14 shows example effects of adopting this
compact aluminium forging line.

Forging press

䇲 95% 䇲 85% ̺ 85%

60 3minutes 800

Former Current Former Current Former Current

Lot size Die change time Inventory
(including machining process)

Forging rollᲢservoᲣ

Fig. 14. The appearance and effects of compact aluminium forging line.

Small-scale production lines were developed and adopted following these ideas and have achieved good results
even for the hot forging and cold forging of steel. Some of those production lines were awarded the JSTP Medal by
the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity in 2011. This award was shared by Toyota and multiple press
manufacturers who carried out the joint development (Morishita et al., 2011).
 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17 15

2.3. Making better cars with Japanese strong point

Fig. 15 shows the general requirements to make a good car. However, the definition of a good car differs
depending on the era, the person, and the country, and there are certainly various other criteria besides the items
shown in Fig. 15.

[ Exceed the expectations of the customer ]

High-efficient combustion system
Good quality and reasonably priced
Fuel-efficient Dynamic driving performance Engine
Attractive design Comfort
Safety and peace of mind Weight reduction
Low positioning, Noise and vibration reduction

Drivetrain

HV
Next-generation vehicle
Stability and
Zero emissions EV, FC, Battery
controllability

Fig. 15. Definition of a good car.

Auxiliary equipment 3% Engine 13%

Improvement of performance
Drivetrain 10% (particularly reciprocating parts)
Improvement of space efficiency
(smaller parts, etc.)
Body shell 36%
Improvement offuel efficiency
Chassis 24% and dynamicperformance
Improvement of ride comfort and stability
(particularly chassis parts) Body, etc. 14%
Fig. 16. Weight ratio of parts and expected performance improvement.

Toyota’s aim is to make better cars that exceed the customer’s expectations and that are more advanced than
cars from other manufacturers. Toyota also aims to deploy new technologies outside Japan after a period of
maturity in the Japanese domestic market. Sustaining these activities into the future should also alleviate concerns
about the hollowing out of Japanese domestic manufacturing.
Several examples are provided below for the practical adoption of metalworking to help improve vehicle
performance and functionality. Weight reduction is a constant activity for automotive engineers to make better cars.
Lower weight has a positive effect on numerous functions as well as overall performance. Fig. 16 shows the weight
ratios of the different parts of a vehicle and the main performance improvements that can be obtained by reducing
weight.
The crankshaft, which was explained above in the section about ryohin joken activities, is the heaviest of all
products manufactured by forging. Crankshaft weight reduction activities started accelerating in the late 1990s as
CAD, CAM, CAE, and simultaneous engineering (SE) and design activities became more advanced. Common
three-dimensional (3D) solid models were used by R&D, PE division, and die shop. Characteristics such as the
strength, rigidity, and balance rate were also optimized. At the same time, product shapes were improved to
incorporate better forging capability and the die machining requirements. As a result of these improvements, a
streamlined shoulder portion and smaller counterweights (C/W) were achieved. Fig. 17 compares the crankshafts
for 1.8-liter class gasoline engines. The figure indicates that product weight was reduced from 13.4 kg in 1997 to
10.8 kg in 2006. The lifetime of the forging dies also increased by approximately 2.3 times due to forging
capability improvements, ryohin joken activities, and the like.
16 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17

Product weight (kg)

20 25
A

(1,000 shots)
Product weight

Die lifetime
15 20

15
Streamlining of shoulder 10
(optimization of strength and stiffness) 10
5
C Die lifetime 5

0 0
'97 '01 '06 '11
Size reduction and adoption of A B C D
forged surface for counterweight 1.8L class crankshaft
Fig. 17. Crankshaft weight reduction and die lifetime improvement.

Reducing the weight of reciprocating parts within the engine is well-known and very effective way of improving
vehicle fuel efficiency. Fig. 18 shows the effects of reducing the weight of engine parts.
improvement effectᲢ%/gᲣ

䠍㻜㻜
Fuel efficiency

㻟㻡

䠍 㻡

Body Piston Connecting Fly wheels Engine moving parts

rod

Fig. 18. Effects of reducing the weight of engine parts.

[ Issue: Achieving both high-strength and high machinability ]

Fuel efficiency improvement ratio (%)

70
Parts weight ratio (%)

4.0

80

2.0
90 High-strength
vanadium steel
Manganese steel
(semi-hot forging)
100 0
Carbon steel
(hot forging)
1 1.5 2 2.5
Fatigue strength ratio
Fig. 19. Progress of connecting rod weight reduction.

Continuous efforts have been put into reducing the weight of the connecting rods in particular. Fig. 19 shows the
progress that has been made in reducing the weight of these rods. This weight reduction was realized mainly by
switching to materials with both high strength and good machinability. Using manganese steel lowered the hot
forging temperature to approximately 1000qC and reduced the amount of decarburization. Shot peening was also
added to increase strength. Recently, a project organized by the Japanese government investigated temperature and
strain controlled forging technologies that can achieve both strength and machinability targets. The aim of this
project is to manufacture the column portion with the required strength while maintaining the characteristics of the
other portions. The research results of this project have already been published, and application of this thermo-
mechanical treatment technology should produce good results in the future.
The next example illustrates how the unique advantages of forging were utilized to help reduce product size.
The synchro gear and transmission gear of a manual transmission were integrated and the gear tooth width was
reduced by using forging to efficiently manufacture a product shape that is difficult to produce via machining.
 Tatsuro Takami / Procedia Engineering 81 (2014) 5 – 17 17

These improvements contributed to a more compact size for the entire transmission. Fig. 20 shows an explanatory
diagram of this integrated synchro gear.

Synchro gear Transmission gear Integrated gear

Hot forging Hot forging Hot forging
䋻

䋻
Cold forging Cold coining

䋻
䋻

䋻
Machining Machining Machining
䞉 䞉

䞉
Heat treatment Heat treatment Heat treatment

Insertion Insertion

Processes for former shape Former shape Processes for integrated shape Integrated shape
Fig. 20. Integrated synchro gear.

The previous sections have explained the history and development various automotive products. In recent years
new, next-generation vehicles, such as Hybrid Vehicle have been launched. As a result, new products, such as
electromagnetic parts, have appeared. The precision and material properties of these kinds of metalworking
products have a large impact on the performance and functionality of the unit. Therefore, new advances in various
fundamental areas of metalworking, such as forming precision, die manufacturing, and lubrication methods, are
becoming necessary. Toyota wants to seize this opportunity to leap ahead technologically and is promoting further
development of these products.

3. Conclusion

The direction of future development can be summarized as follows.

(1) In conventional fields of metalworking, it will be important to continue clarifying the phenomena at contact
points and to promote simpler and more streamlined equipment and dies to deploy metalworking around the
world reliably and in a timely manner. Instead of setting mass production as a precondition, it is important to
develop competitive low-volume production that can respond flexibly to fluctuations in volume.
(2) In new fields, such as those represented by the electromagnetic parts used in next-generation vehicles,
improving performance and functionality are key considerations. PE technologies must be adopted that can
contribute to making better cars.
(3) The development of innovative new technologies is often advanced through the craftsmanship of highly skilled
technicians for finishing the dies, making adjustments, performing measurements, and the like. In addition to
the creation of explicit knowledge from conventional tacit know-how, it will also be important to improve the
continuous maintenance of these skills and ensure a virtuous improving spiral of technologies and skills.

References

Inada, T., Nogami, Y., Kobyashi, T., Inokuchi, T., .Higaki, S., 2010. Product quality stabilization and die-life improvement for hot forging
Process of crankshafts by utilizing mesurement tools. Journal of the JSTP, 51-593, 488-492.
Morishita, H., Suetsugu, K., Hirai, Y., Tanaka, H., Tado, M., Hashimoto, H., 2011. Development of small lot size & compact forging line for
global manufacturing. Journal of the JSTP, 52-611, 1247-1251.