CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Tapioca is familiar crop which cultivated around Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It
was harvested by using hand, it is very difficult to harvest crop so we decide to
make harvesting machine which should be economical. That’s way we make the
harvesting machine which contains of pneumatic cylinder, gripper, fixtures are
used to make this machine very simple mechanism makes this machine to user
friendly and less maintenance. Most of the Indian farmer’s economic condition is
not good, so they not able to buy tractor or large harvesting machines, so this kind
of equipment’s help them to harvest in low investment. It reduces the harvesting
wages of farmers. It's a shrubby, tropical, perennial plant that is less common in the
temperate zone. There is shortage of skilled labor available for agricultural
purpose. Because of this shortage the farmers have transitioned to using
harvestings. Cutting crop manually using labour but this method is very time
lengthy and time consuming. Development of labour saving technology for tapioca
harvesting becomes most critical challenge in tapioca transformation. Earlier
attempts at mechanized harvesting have been affected by constrain such as soil
characteristic, nature, size of tuber depth and both between tuber and soil leading
to high tuber damage and root tuber breakage.

The harvestings are available for purchase but because of their high costs,
they are not affordable. The tapioca roots are very strong and it requires to be
harvested assiduously when using hand. Large scale harvesters have harvesting
attachments attached to the tractor. But it may damage the cassava, so the design is
proposed to make a harvesting machine which will harvest the cassava without any
damage and to make an effective equipment available at nominal prices However,

1
agriculture groups make these available for rent on an hourly basis. But the small
holding farm owners generally do not require the full-featured combine
harvestings. Thus, there is a need for a smaller and efficient combine harvesting
which would be more accessible and also considerably cheaper.

The mission is to create a portable, user-friendly and low cost mini

harvesting machine. The idea was to create a machine which is cheap and will
reduce the labour required to harvest crops. This machine has the capability and
the economic value for fulfilling the needs of farmers having small land holdings
(less than 2 acres). This machine is cost effective and easy to maintain and repair
for the farmer.

2
 CHAPTER -2

LITERATURE REVIEW

[1] Akinbamowo R.O (Journal of agriculture and allied science, Volume-2,

issue2, April-2013) The rate of harvesting of dug tapioca was determined with
machine running on test field and designated PTO rotation with other selected
operational and implement parameters (forwards speed and rake angle) for each
row as plot layout, harvested tapioca are collected sown after harvesting, dug
losses were determined by digging up tapioca and lift in soil per plot and machine
has passed and surface produce collected labeled bugged and weighted.
[2]Asetifa B.O, Lawal N.S, Samuel T (Development on manually operated
tapioca harvester using hydraulic medium). The aim of study is to design and
fabricate low cost, light manually operated hydraulic tapioca harvester which
would produce minimal disturbance to soil when harvesting. This study seek to
eliminate high effort requirement in tapioca harvesting through use of hydraulic
ram and plunger which will replace human arm lifting operation.
There by pneumatic working will be more easier compared to hydraulic and it
is appropriate to do the harvesting process.
[3] K. Satheeshkumar et al., (2002) The author Contribute that, the effect of weld
quality is mainly depends on tool rotational speed and transverse speed. When the
tool rotational speed is increases the heat input also increased the heat input also
increased. Experimentally found that the 35 mm/min transverse feed gives
excellent mechanical property both tensile and hardness.

3
[4]Lambert MB, James OH(1990). Cost and productivity of New technology for
harvesting and in wood processing small diameter trees. USDA Forest service,
pacific research station.
[5]Shadrack Kwadwo Amponsah1, J. Thajudhin Sheriff 2, Gangadharan
Byju2(1. CSIR-Crops Research Institute, Kumasi, Ghana; 2. ICAR- Central
Tuber Crops Research Institute, Sreekariyam, India) The study also sought to
investigate the effect of cassava agronom parameters on uprooting force
requirement. Field study was carried out at the Central Tuber Crops Research
Institute (CTCRI).
[6]Shadwack kwadwo, Amponash and byju gongadharan(Review of various
harvesting option for tapioca) Various mechanized harvesting option have been
developed for use in different part of world to overcome challenges. Earlier
attempts at mechanizing tapioca scale of cultivation. Development of labour saving
technology for tapioca harvesting becomes most critical challenge in tapioca
transformation. Earlier attempts at mechanized harvesting have been affected by
constrain such as soil characteristic, nature, size of tuber depth and both between
tuber and soil leading to high tuber damage and root tuber breakage.
There by usage of pneumatic cylinder and gripper in machine the chance of
getting damage to tapioca get reduced.

4
 CHAPTER -3
METHADOLOGY

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

SELECTION OF COMPONENT

MATERIAL SELECTION

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

DESIGN & FABRICATION OF MODEL

5
 CHAPTER-4

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

4.1 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

The components that are used in the project TAPIOCA HARVESTER are as
follows,
 Frame
 Pneumatic cylinder
 Solenoid valve
 Wheel
 Bearing
 Mild steel
 Hand lever

4.1.1 FRAME
This is made of mild steel material. The whole part is mounted on this frame
structure with suitable arrangement.

Boring of bearing sizes and open bores done in one setting so as to align the
bearing properly while assembling. Provision is made to cover the bearing with
grease.

4.1.2 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical

devices which use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a
reciprocating linear motion.

6
 Cylinder is a device which converts fluid power into linear mechanical
force. They are widely used in industrial pneumatic systems. These cylinders are
also called as linear motors and reciprocating motors and are designed for variety
of services.

Double acting cylinders are in one in which fluid force can be applied to the
movable element in two directories. The force exerted by the compressed air
moves the piston in two directories in a double acting cylinder.

In principle, the stroke length is unlimited, although bucking and bending

must be considered before we select a particular size of piston diameter, rod length
and stroke length. The main component of any pneumatic system is the cylinder,
which receivers air under pressure and the pressurized air helps to move the piston
to and fro. The force acting on the piston will be equal to the product of the
pressure of air and the area of the cylinder.

Fig 4.1.2 Pneumatic cylinder

7
4.1.3 SOLENOID VALVE

The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system.

Commonly known as DCV, this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in
the pneumatic system. The directional valve does this by changing the position of
its internal movable parts.

This valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual effort
and also for the modification of the machine into automatic machine by means of
using a solenoid valve. A solenoid is an electrical device that converts electrical
energy into straight line motion and force.

These are also used to operate a mechanical operation which in turn operates
the valve mechanism. Solenoids may be push type or pull type. The push type
solenoid is one in which the plunger is pushed when the solenoid is energized
electrically. The pull type solenoid is one in which the plunger is pulled when the
solenoid is energized.

Fig 4.1.3 Solenoid Valve

8
 The solenoid valve has 5 openings. This ensure easy exhausting of 5/2
valve. The spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according to spool
position; the ports get connected and disconnected. The working principle is as
follows.

Position-1

When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port ‘P’ gets connected to
‘B’ and ‘S’ remains closed while ‘A’ gets connected to ‘R’.

Poisition-2

When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port ‘P’ and ‘A’ gets
connected to each other and ‘B’ to ‘S’ while port ‘R’ remains closed.

4.1.4 WHEEL
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an
axial bearing. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved
easily facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, or
performing labor in machines.

Fig 4.1.4 wheel

9
4.1.5 BEARING WITH BEARING CAP:-

A bearing is machine element that constrains relative motion to only desired

motion and reduces friction between moving parts. The bearings are pressed
smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered the bearing may develop
cracks. Bearing is made up of steel material and bearing cap is mild steel. Some
types of bearings are roller bearing and ball bearing. The bearings are mainly used
to reduce friction. The allow demand application to met maximum efficiency,
reliability, durability and performance.

Fig 4.1.5 Bearing

10
4.1.6 MILD STEEL

Mild steel is type of carbon steel with low amount of carbon, it is also
known as “low carbon steel” although ranges vary depending on source, the
amount of carbon typically found in mild steel is 0.05% to 0.25% by weight.
Whereas higher ranges from 0.30% to 2.0%.

Mild steel is not an alloy steel and therefore does not contain large amount
of other elements beside iron.

Fig 4.1.6 Mild steel

11
 CHAPTER-5
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
5.1 SPECIFICATIONS

5.1.1 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Material : Aluminum/ M.S

Pressure : 10 bar max.

Stroke length : Cylinder stoker length 160 mm = 0.16 m

Piston rod : 18 mm = 18 x 10ˉ³ m

Seals : Nitride (Buna-N) Elastomer

End cones : Cast iron

Piston : EN – 8

Media : Air

Temperature : 0-80 º C

5.1.2 SOLENOID VALVE

Volt : 12V/24V D.C

Type : 1 inlet, 1 outlet, 1 exhaust

Pressure : 10bar Max.

Thread Size : 1/4"

12
5.1.3 MILD STEEL

5.1.3.1 Mild steel Composition

 Mild steel contains –C45

 Carbon 0.35 to 0.45 % (maximum 0.5% is allowable)
 Manganese 0.60 to 0.90 %
 Silicon maximum 0.40%
 Sulfur maximum 0.04%
 Phosphorous maximum 0.04%
 Mildest grade of carbon steel or mild steel contains a very low amount of
carbon - 0.05 to 0.26%
 Tensile strength – 63-71 kgf/mm2
 Yield stress -36 kgf/mm2
 Izod impact valve min -4.1 kgf m
 Brinell hardness (HB) - 229

13
 CHAPTER-6
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

6.1 Introduction:

Manufacturing involves turning raw material to finished products, to be used

for various purposes. There are a large number of processes available. These
processes can be broadly classified into four categories.

1 Forming processes

2 Fabrication processes

3 Material removal processes

6.1.1Forming Processes:

These are solid state manufacturing processes involve minimum amount of

material wastage. In forming process metal may be heated to temperature which is
slightly below. This solidifies temperature and large force is applied such the
material flows and act in desired shape. The desire shape is controlled by means of
a set of tool ties and dies, which may be closed during manufacturing.

These processes are normally used for large scale production rates. These
are generally economical and in many cases improve the mechanical properties.
These are some of the metal forming processes.

 Press forging

 Upset forging

14
1. Bending:

In this operation; the material in the form of flat sheet or strip is uniformly
strained around a linear axis which lies in the neutral plane and perpendicular it’s
the length wise direction of the sheet or metal.

Fig 6.1 Bending

2. Drawing:

This is a process of forming a flat work piece into a hollow shape by means
of a punch which causes the blank into a die cavity.

3. Squeezing:

Under the operation, the metal is caused to flow to all portions of a die
cavity under the action of compressive forces.

6.1.2 Fabrication Processes:

These are secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw

materials are produced by any one of the previous manufacturing processes
desired. Its assembly involves joining pieces either temporary or permanent. So

15
that they would be perform the necessary function. The joining can be achieved by
either or both of heat and pressure joining materials. Many of the steel structure
construction, we see are first rolled and then joined together by a fabrication
process are

 Welding

 Drilling

1. WELDING:

Welding is a process of joining two metal pieces by the application of heat.

Welding is the least expensive process and widely used now a days in fabrication.
Welding joints different metals with the help of a number of processes in which
heat is supplied either electrically or by mean of a gas torch. Different welding
processes are used in the manufacturing of Auto mobiles bodies, structural work,
tanks, and general machine repair work. In the industries, welding is used in
refineries and pipe line fabrication. It may be called a secondary manufacturing
process.

Fig. 6.2 Welding

16
Classification of welding processes:

There are about 35 different welding and brazing process and several
soldering methods, in use by the industry today. There are various ways of
classifying the welding for example, they may be classified on the basis of source
of heat (flames, arc etc.)
In general various welding processes are classified as follows.

1: Gas Welding
(a): Air Acetylene
(b): Oxy Acetylene
(c): Oxy Hydrogen Welding
2: Arc Welding
(a): Carbon Arc welding
(b); Plasma Arc welding
(c): Shield Metal Arc Welding
(d): T.I.G. (Tungsten Inert Gas Welding)
3: Resistance Welding:
(a): Spot welding
(b): Seam welding
(c): Projection welding
(d): Resistance Butt welding
4: Solid State Welding:
(a): Cold welding
(b): Diffusion welding
(c): Forge welding
5: Thermo Chemical Welding
(a): Thermite welding

17
6: Radiant Energy Welding
(a): Electric Beam Welding
(b): Laser Beam Welding

Welding Joints:

Fig 6.3 welding joints

BUTT JOINT

A butt joint is a technique in which two pieces of material are joined by

simply placing their ends together without any special shaping. The name 'butt
joint' comes from the way the material is joined together. The butt joint is the
simplest joint to make since it merely involves cutting the wood to the appropriate
length and butting them together

18
 Fig.6.4 Butt joint edge preparation

WELDING POSITION

Welding can be done by only correct positioning of two components. They

are joint by placing two materials to be welded are placed together and done the
welding process by placing them in correct position.

Some of welding position are listed as:

 Flat
 Vertical
 Over head
 Horizontal

19
 Fig 6.5 Welding position

Gas welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its

subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is
a welding process in which an electricarc forms between a consumable
MIG wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece
metal(s), causing them to melt and join. Along with the wire electrode, a shielding
gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in
the air.

MERITS OF WELDING

 Formation of a permanent joint which becomes an integral part of the

workpiece.
 Formation of joints stronger than the base metal with the usage of a good
quality filler metal.
 Economical method of joining.
 The joining process is not restricted to the factory environment alone.

20
DEMERITS OF WELDING

 Higher labour cost as only skilled welder can produce a sound weld.
 A permanent joint can create problem during dissembling.
 Hazardous fumes and vapours demanding a proper ventilation.
 Weld area is considered as a discontinuity due to variation in its structure,
composition and mechanical properties.

APPLICATIONS OF WELDING

 Welding is widely used for the fabrication of pressure vessels, bridges,

building structures, aircrafts and railway coaches.
 The more intense applications are seen in industries concerned with
shipbuilding, automobile, electrical, electronic and nuclear installations.
2. DRILLING:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular
cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from
hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge
against the work piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting
motion, though the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by
hammering a drill bit into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The
hammering action can be performed from outside of the hole (top-hammer drill) or
within the hole (down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are
called drifter drills.

21
 Fig. 6.6 Drilling

6.1.3 Material removal processes:

These are also a secondary removal manufacturing process, where the

additional unwanted material is removed in the form of chips from the blank
material by a hard tool so as to obtain the final desired shape.

Material removal is normally a most expensive manufacturing process.

Because more energy is consumed and also lot of waste material is generated in
this process. Still this process is widely used because it delivers very good
dimensional accuracy and good surface finished. Material removal process are also
called machining processes. Various processes in this category are

METAL CUTTING OPERATIONS:

1. Blanking:

Blanking is the operation of cutting a flat shape from sheet metal. The
product punched out is called the “blank” and the required product of the operation
the hole and the metal left behind is discarded as waste.

22
2. Punching or Piercing:

It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made in sheet

metal. Punching is similar to blanking except that in punching, the hole is the
desired product. The material punched out from the hole being waste.

3. Notching:

This is cutting operation by which metal pieces are cut from the edge of the
sheet, strip or blank.

4. Perforating:

This is a process by which multiple holes are very small and close together
are cut in a flat sheet metal.

5. Trimming:

This operation consists of cutting unwanted excess of material from the

periphery of a previously formed component.

6. Shaving:

The edge of a blanked part is generally rough, uneven and un-square.

Accurate dimensions of the part are obtained by removing a thin strip of metal
along the edges.

7. Slitting:

It refers to the operation of making incomplete holes in a work piece.

23
8. Lancing:

This is a cutting operation in which a hole is partially cut and then one side
is bent down to form a sort of tab. Since no metal is actually removed and there
will be no scrap.

9. Nibbling:

The nibbling operation, which is used for only small quantities of

components, is designed for cutting out flat parts from sheet metal. This operation
is generally substituted for blanking.

10. Grinding

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as

the cutting tool.

Fig 6.7 grinding

24
 CHAPTER-7

WORKING PRINCIPLE
This project consists of frame, battery, pneumatic cylinder and wheel. The
main working principle is to pull the tapioca from ground without using a labour.
A double acting cylinder is to fix to the top and bottom of frame. The first one
cylinder is used to open and close the cutter. The operating fluid is gas, this fluid
power convert fluid power into linear mechanical forces and reciprocating motion.
Due to this movement opening and closing of cutter is occurred. And second one
is used to move the shaft from up and down ward motion. This help the cutter to
move deep inside the soil to pull out tapioca from the soil, after pulling out tapioca
shaft of piston will move upwards. These movement of first cylinder connected to
cutter is controlled by a hand operating lever, and second is being controlled by
another hand operating lever.

25
 CHAPTER-8

DRAWING OF MACHINE

8.1 2-D Drawing

Fig 8.1 Top view

26
 Fig 8.2 Side view

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM.

27
 Fig 8.3 2-D Drawing

1. Frame
2. Wheel
3. Solenoid valve
4. Pneumatic cylinder
5. Blade

28
8.4. 3-D Drawing

Fig 8.4. 3D Diagram

29
FIG 8.5 3-D Diagram

30
 CHAPTER -9

CALCULATIONS

9.1.BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6202

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 35 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 12 mm

Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 150 mm

r₁ = 1 (From design data book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (35 + 15) / 2

dm = 25 mm

9.2.Pneumatic Cylinder

9.2.1 Design of Piston rod (Load due to air Pressure.)

Diameter of the Piston (d) = 40 mm

Pressure acting (p) = 6 kgf/cm²

Material used for rod = C 45

Yield stress (σy) = 36 kgf/mm²

31
 Assuming factor of safety = 2

Force acting on the rod (P) = Pressure x Area

= p x (Πd² / 4)

= 6 x {( Π x 4² ) / 4 }

P = 73.36 Kgf

Design Stress(σy) = σy / F0 S

= 36 / 2

= 18 Kgf/mm²

= P / (Π d² / 4 )

∴d = √ 4 p / Π[ σy ]

= √ 4 x 75.36 / {Π x 18}

= √ 5.33 = 2.3 mm

∴ Minimum diameter of load = 2.3 mm

We assume diameter of the rod = 15 mm

9.2.2 Design of cylinder thickness:

Assume internal diameter of cylinder = 40 mm

Ultimate tensile stress = 250 N/mm²

= 2500 gf/mm²

32
 Working Stress = Ultimate tensile stress /
. factor of safety

Assuming factor of safety = 4

Working stress ( ft ) = 2500 / 4

= 625 Kgf/cm²

Design of Piston rod:

Diameter of Piston Rod:

Force of piston Rod (P) = Pressure x area

= p x Π/4 (d²)

= 6 x (Π / 4) x (4)²

= 73.36 Kgf

Also, force on piston rod (P) = (Π/4) (dp)² x ft

P = (Π/4) x (dp)²x 625

(Π/4) x (dp)² x 625 = 73.36

∴ dp² = 73.36 x (4/Π) x (1/625)

= 0.15

dp = 0.38 cm

= 3.8 mm

33
By standardizing dp = 15 mm

Length of piston rod:

Approach stroke = 160 mm

Length of threads = 2 x 20

= 40mm

Extra length due to front cover = 12 mm

Extra length of accommodate head = 20 mm

Total length of the piston rod = 160 + 40 + 12 + 20

= 232 mm

By standardizing, length of the piston rod = 230 mm

34
 CHAPTER-10
ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

 Handling is easy.

 Manual power not required.

 Repairing is easy.

 Replacement of parts is easy.

 The involvement of manual work is highly negligible.

 Simple in construction.

 Easy to fabricate.

 No need of skilled operators to operate this system.

DISADVANTAGES

 Initial cost is high.

 More number of moving parts.

APPLICATIONS

 Agricultural purpose.
 Used in picking of components.
 Used in tapioca harvesting and other ground seed harvesting.

35
 CHAPTER-11
LIST OF MATERIALS

S. No. Name of parts Material

1. Frame M.S
2. Pneumatic Aluminum/Stainless steel
cylinder(double acting)
3. 5/2 Solenoid valve Brass/Aluminum and
plastic
4. Wheel -

5. Cutter M.S

Table 11.1 List of materials

36
 CHAPTER-12
COST ESTIMATION

12.1 MATERIAL COST:

S. No. Part Name Quantity Amount

1. Frame 1 5000
2. Pneumatic cylinder 2 4000
3. Solenoid Valve 2 1000
4. Wheel 4 3500
5. Blade 1 500

Table 12.1 Material Cost

TOTAL=14000
2. LABOUR COST
Lathe, Drilling, Welding, Grinding, Power Hacksaw, Gas cutting:
Cost = 3000
3. OVERHEAD CHARGES
The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost+ Labour cost

= 14000+3000
= 17000
Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost
= 3400

37
TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead

Charges
= 14000+3000+3400
= 20400
Total cost for this project = Rs. 20400

38
 CHAPTER-13
CONCLUSION
A strong multidiscipline team with a good engineering base is necessary for
the Development and refinement of advanced computer programming, editing
techniques, diagnostic Software, algorithms for the dynamic exchange of
informational different levels of hierarchy.

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience,

to use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding,
planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time
successfully. The “TAPIOCA HARVESTER” is working with satisfactory
conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances
and also quality.

We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available
facilities. In conclusion remarks of our project work. Thus we have developed a
“TAPIOCA HARVESTER”. By using more techniques, they can be modified
and developed according to the applications.

39
 CHAPTER -14

REFERENCE

 Design data book of PSG College of technology.

 Engineering economics and cost analysis - S.Senthil, L.Madan, N.Rabindro
Singh.
 Hawkins JC. 1980, Agricultural Engineering in Book. Perspectives in World
Agriculture (1980). Commonwealth Agriculture Bureaux. Pp 356 – 357; 358
- 359.

 International Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology: STUDY AND

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPRESSED AIR ENGINE SINGLE CYLINDER: A
REVIEW STUDY Mystery Manish K.1 , Dr. Pravin P.Rathod2 ,Prof. Sorathiya

Arvyind S.
 International journal of science and research(IJSR) paper ID:ART201940
 Manufacturing technology (Machine Processes & Types),- G.K
vijayaraghavan.
 Pneumatic system double acting cylinder with PID controller. Triangular
reference, Problems in Engineering Journal, ISSN 1563-5147, vol. 2014, p.
1-12.
 Strength of materials - R.S. Kurumi.
 Lambert MB, James OH(1990). Cost and productivity of New technology
for harvesting and in wood processing small diameter trees. USDA Forest
service, pacific research station.
 Lamminen S,Asikainen A (2011). The importance of the forwarder operator
In loading phase during virtual CLT-forwarding. Formic Austria

40
 CHAPTER – 15

PHOTOGRAPHY OF MODEL

FIG 5.1

41
FIG 15.2

42