WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

ME-3320, C’2005

Lecture 13
February 03, 2005
C. Furlong

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 Fatigue failure theories
Stress analysis
CAE model of shaft

Shaft and rotor of a turbine

M w

R1

R2 W

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 Fatigue failure theories
Finite element analysis: rotating shaft
Initial Load levels increase/decrease
Parameters to consider

Load:
• Time varying
• Fully reversed
• Repeated load
• Fluctuating load, etc.

Material:
• Fatigue strength
• Tensile strength
• Endurance limit
Deflection due to load: w Deflection due to load: w • Cycles to failure
• Reliability
1 2

• Environment effects
• etc.

Design (geometry):
• Stress concentrations
• Type of load
• Surface finish
• Residual stresses
• etc.
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 Fatigue failure theories
Stress analysis: rotating shaft

Bending (normal) stress

σ = σ max may vary over time,
however, it can be
A
considered fixed at a
particular load level
A

As shaft rotates (at a
A σ = σ min specific speed), sections
are subjected to fully
reversed bending stress.
Normal stress at point A See point A: stress varies
σ = σ max from tension to
compression as a function
σ =0 of time (as shaft rotates)

σ = σ min

Stress variations, at any
point A, may induce fatigue
failure by bending

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 Fatigue failure theories
Stress analysis: rotating shaft
τ =0

Transversal shear stress
may vary over time,
however, it can be
A
considered fixed at a
particular load level
A
τ = τ max
As shaft rotates (at a
A specific speed), sections
τ =0 are subjected to repeated
transversal shear stress.
See point A: stress varies
Transversal shear stress at point A from zero to maximum as a
τ = τ max function of time (as shaft
rotates)

τ =0

Stress variations, at any
point A, may induce fatigue
failure by shear

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 Fatigue failure theories
Stress analysis: rotating shaft

Torsional shear stress may

vary over time, however, it
can be considered fixed at
A a particular load level

Torsional shear stress

A
varies only when applied
A torque (load) changes:
fluctuating stress
Torsional shear stress at point A. Obtained
when only the applied torque (load) changes,
Please note pre-load/mean value
Fluctuations in torsional
τ = τ max stress may induce fatigue
τ = τ mean Fixed torque failure by shear
τ = τ min
Fluctuation of torque (wrt to mean/fixed value)

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 Fatigue failure theories
Mechanisms of fatigue failure

Fatigue failures always begin at a crack
• Cracks may be present in raw material used for fabrication
(crystallographic defects; inclusions; etc.)
• Cracks may be introduced during fabrication
• Cracks develop over time due to cyclic loading (& corrosion)
• Cracks develop around stress concentrations
Shaft failed in fatigue.
Crack initiated at keyway
Shaft with keyway
Failure due to
rotating bending

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 Fatigue failure theories
Stages of crack propagation

There are three stages of
fatigue failure:
• Crack initiation: I
• Crack propagation: II
• Sudden fracture: III
Region Region

Crack growth rate
Region • Valid only in Region II
(Paris-equation):

da
= A( ∆K ) n ,
dN
∆K = β π a (σ max − σ min ),
a = length of crack
N = number of cycles
A, n = Paris - equation parameters
∆K = stress intensity factor
β = geometry - load factor

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 Fatigue failure
Important definitions and considerations

Our design should minimize stress concentrations -- to
minimize effects of cracks

Fatigue regimes
• Low-cycle fatigue (LCF)
• High-cycle fatigue (HCF): when number of cycles, N > 103 cycles.
Crankshafts of cars rotate about 2.5x108 cycles in 100,000 miles

Fatigue failure models

Stress-life (S-N) approach: used in HCF. Stress based model. In
this model, we seek to obtain designs in which the maximum cyclic
stress induced in the component is lower than the fatigue strength
and/or endurance limit of the material used

• Strain-life (εε-N) approach: used in LCF. Strain based model. Used

when the cyclic load is high enough to cause local yielding. Also used
when cyclic and thermal loads are considered

• Linear-elastic fracture-mechanics (LEFM) approach: used in LCF and

finite life situations. Used to design and model in the crack
propagation stage (Region II). Used when the cyclic load is high
enough to cause the formation of cracks

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 Fatigue failure
Important definitions

Stress range: ∆σ = σ max − σ min

∆σ σ max − σ min

Alternating stress component: σ a = =
2 2
σ max + σ min

Mean stress component: σm =
2
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 Fatigue failure
Important definitions

Wohler strength-life or S-N diagram
 Theoretical or uncorrected fatigue strength: S f '
 Theoretical or uncorrected endurance limit: Se'

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 Fatigue failure
Important definitions

Materials with a “knee” in the S-N curve:
 Many low-strength carbon and alloy steels
 Some stainless steels
 Irons
 Molybdenum
 Titanium, and some polymers
 Knee typically appears at nearly 106 cycles
 Endurance limit at 106 cycles is typically used

Material without a “knee” in the S-N curve:

 Aluminum, magnesium, copper
 Nickel alloys
 Some stainless steels
 High-strength carbon and alloy steels
 Fatigue strength at 5××108 cycles is typically used

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 Fatigue failure
Experimental observations: materials with a “knee”

Endurance
limit
Wrought steel, Sut < 200 ksi

“Knee”

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 Fatigue failure
Experimental observations: materials without a “knee”

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 Estimating fatigue failure criteria
Based on experimental observations (bending, torsion, axial
fatigue testing)
Some materials with a “knee”
 Se ' = 0.5 Sut for Sut < 200 ksi (1400 MPa)
For steels: 
 Se ' ≅ 100 ksi (700 MPa) for Sut ≥ 200 ksi (1400 MPa)
 Se ' = 0.4 Sut for Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa)
For irons: 
 Se ' ≅ 24 ksi (160 MPa) for Sut ≥ 60 ksi (400 MPa)

Some materials without a “knee”

 S f '@ N =5×108 = 0.4 Sut for Sut < 48 ksi (330 MPa)
For aluminums: 
 S f '@ N =5×108 ≅ 19 ksi (130 MPa) for Sut ≥ 48 ksi (330 MPa)

For copper  S f '@ N =5×108 = 0.4 Sut for Sut < 40 ksi (280 MPa)
alloys: 
 S f '@ N =5×108 ≅ 14 ksi (100 MPa) for Sut ≥ 40 ksi (280 MPa)
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 Reading

• Chapters 6 of textbook: Sections 6.0 to 6.5

• Review notes and text: ES2501, ES2502

Homework assignment
• Author’s:
• Solve: 6-1(a,b,c), 6-2(b,c)

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