Chapter -3

RESISTOR

Word gallery:

Resist: Oppose.
Resistance: Opposition effect.
Resistor: Device which oppose to flow of something.
Circuit Symbol:

R
(Memory hint: We can remember it as zigzag path oppose the movement)
Definitions:
Resistor: Resistor is an electronics component which opposes flow of electric charge (current).
Resistance (R): Opposition property of the resistor for the flow of current.

Measuring unit: Ohm (Ω)

Yea i got
Ram….Little
confusing, can you it shyam
help me out?

Ram: Do you know valve?

Shyam:Ya ….. you mean to controll flow of water?
Ram: Yeah, thats pretty good, now your job is to imagin. Resistor is used
to controll the flow of electrons. We can compare the flow of electrons Why we have to use the resistor in

with water and resistor with water valve. circuits?

Shyam: Its interesting can you vindicate further? In circuit resistor is used to control the flow of

Ram: ya…sure, depend upon the degree of rotation water flow will depends electrons (reduce the amount of current that

right? Likewise depending upon the value of resistore the amount of flows through circuit) and also it helps to avoid

current flow depends. If you rotate valve completely water flow will stops. the access of voltage (force) that damage the

Similarly if you use higher value of resistsnce current flow through circuit electronics components.

stops……. I hope you got my analysis.

Shyam: yes 100%.........thank you.
Reason for the Resistance:
When current (flow of electrons) flows through conductor, electrons collide with the
free electrons of the conductor and also with wall of the conductor. This collision
causes opposition for the flow of electrons.

Point to note:
Figure 3.1

Resistor doesn’t have polarity i.e. we can connect the resistor in either direction.

Resistance value measured in ohms (Ω). Ohm is the S.I unit of resistance.
Every conductor (metals) have resistance, but it varies from one conductor to another
Resistance of the conductor changes with the temperature. (resistance of conductor increase with temperature)

Let us understand the resistor working by water analogy

Fig. 3.2 shows a pipe pinched at the center which is analogous to a
resistor.
Now let’s see how its work. Let us first consider the water flowing through the pipe, as
we can see from the figure the pipe has three sections ab , bc ,and cd. The diameter of
Figure3.2
ab is equal to diameter of cd, and the diameter of bc is quite lessor compared to ab. Now
consider water is forced into the pipe. Since the diameter of bc is smaller compare to ab.
It is not able to pass entire amount of water to its succeeding section cd because it resist
the flow of water. This creates high pressure in section ab, this high pressure increases
Figure 3.3
the rate of flow of water through the section bc. But the reduced Amount of water is
being forced into bc, at the end pressure is low and less amount of water coming out of the section cd.
Now let’s compare the above water analogy with the resistive circuit.
Resistor pinch of the pipe
Flow of charge (Current) water
Battery water pump which helps to push the water
through the pipe

Pipe conducting wire. figure 3.4

Consider a resistor connected in series with a battery with the help of connecting wires. Battery provides potential energy for the
flow of electric Charges, but resistor opposes the flow of electric charges though it.( This phenomena similar to pinching effect of pipe
on water). Some amount of voltage drops across the resistor. The rate of flow of current is high but, small amount of current passes
through the resistor.
Types of resistor

There are two types of resistor based on their function

1) Fixed resistor
2) Variable resistor
Fixed resistor:
Resistance of these resistors cannot be varied, their value is fixed. If we want change value of
resistor in the circuit we have to replace the resistor by another one. Carbon composition is the
best example various values of carbon composition resistor can be manufactured by varying
carbon composition in it.
Figure 3.5

Variable resistor:
Resistance of these resistors can be varied to the required value by rotating the knob.
As shown in the figure 3.6 variable resistor consists of a track which provides the resistance path. Two Circuit symbol

terminals of the device are connected to both the ends of the track. The third terminal is connected
to a slider that decides the motion of the track. The motion of the slider through
the track helps in increasing and decreasing the resistance. The track is usually
made of carbon. The carbon composition is different at different place of the track
therefore when slider slides on different areas of the track this creates different
amount of resistance. Example for variable resistor is potentiometer
Figure 3.6
Connecting the resistor in the circuit…..

Resistor can be connected either in series or in parallel manner in a circuit. This affects flow of current or voltage in the circuit
depending on the type of connection. We can connect the resistor in two way,
1) Series connection
2) Parallel connection

Series connection:
In this type of connection one end of the resistor is connected to another
end of the resistor as shown. When the current I passes through resistors
R1, R2 and R3 voltage V1, V2 and V3 get dropped across three section
respectively. But same current passes through all resistors. Resistor just
opposes the flow of current. The critical point is that the same current
flows through all resistors when three are in series. The particular
configuration does not matter
The only thing that matters is that exactly the same current flows
through all resistors. No part of the current that flows through
one resistor "escapes" and none is added .various series resistor
connection are shown in figure
figure 1

We can calculate the total resistance(R) offered by the resistors by using the following formula.

Total Resistance 𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ … + 𝑹𝒏

Where 𝑹𝟏 = Resistance of the First resistor
𝑹𝟐 =Resistance of the Second resistor and so on
𝑹𝟑 =Resistance offered by the (last) Resistor
We can calculate the total voltage (V) dropped across the resistors by using the formula.
Total Voltage 𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯ … …. . . +𝑽𝒏
Where 𝑽𝟏 =Voltage drop across resistor R1
𝑽𝟐 =Voltage drop across resistor R2
𝑽𝟑 =Voltage drop across resistor R3 and so on……

Let’s go in depth…..

Let’s consider series circuit in which 3 resistors 𝑅1 = 1𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 =

3𝑘Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 5𝑘Ω connected to battery of 9𝑉. Sum of all individual
resistors is the total resistance of the circuit.
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
= 1𝐾Ω + 3𝐾Ω + 5𝐾Ω
= 9𝐾Ω
Consider 1𝑉 dropping across resistor 1𝑘Ω 3𝑉 dropping across
figure 2
3𝑘Ω Resistor and 5𝑉 dropping across 5𝑘Ω resistor. Since total voltage dropping
across the circuit is 9𝑉. In fig shows equivalent circuit of the above circuit (fig).
Let’s say 1 𝐴𝑚𝑝 current passes the circuit, same amount current passes through all the
resistor, current is same in all points. 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝐼𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 IR3 be the currtent through the
resistor 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅3 respectively. Then
Ieq = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 = 1𝐴𝑚𝑝 figure 3

Let us put above information in table…

Resistance Voltage drop Current
1kΩ 1V 1A
2kΩ 2V 2A
kΩ3 3V 3A
let’s solve the above series resistor puzzle by again by water
Analogy
Water valve- Resistor
Pipe Conductor
Water flow Current flow
Water pump Battery (here we dint mentation) which provide necessary force for electron to move around in circuit
As our imagination if we connect water valve in series with pipe depending on the degree of rotation resistance for the flow
of water depends. Water pulling force dropped across valve is similar to voltage drop across resistor. Same amount of water flow
through all wall .since from this we can say that current flows through all the resistor is same but force that pushes water (current )is
depends upon degree of rotation(value of resistor)
.
It’s time workout………….

Calculate the total resistance of the following circuits.

figure 4
figure 5

figure 7
figure 6

Hints:

1) For circuit 1,2,3 and 4 use series resistance calculating formula 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + … … … … ….

Parallel connection
Resistors are said to be connected together in
"Parallel" when both of their terminals are respectively
connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors.
Unlike the previous series circuit, in a parallel resistor
connection the current can take more than one path.
Since there are multiple paths for the supply
current to flow through, “but current is not the same at all
points in a parallel circuit.
figure 8

However, the voltage drop across all of the resistors in a parallel resistive network is the same”. Then, Resistors in Parallel
have a Common Voltage across them and this is true for all parallel connected elements. In above fig. R1, R2 and R3 are resistors
connected in parallel, current through different resistor is different but the voltage is same at all the point. We can calculate the
value of resistance and current by following method, voltage drop is constant for all resistors in circuit and is equal to the voltage of
the battery.
𝑽𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝑽𝑹𝟐 = 𝑽𝑹𝟑
And total resistance of the circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistor. Total resistance of the
circuit is always less than the least resistance of the circuit.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒕 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Current flow in parallel circuit
The total current in the parallel circuit is the sum of the current in the each individual branch, but the amount current flow through
each parallel branch is not necessarily same. It is depend upon the amount of resistance in respective branch. The voltage at each
branch may same but the resistance at each branch is different since amount of current in each is different for different branch.
𝑰𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑

Various parallel resistor connections

 1 1 1
2) For circuit 5 and 6 use parallel resistance calculating formula 𝑅 = + + … … … ..
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

3) For circuit 7 first calculate parallel resistance then calculate series resistance.
4) For circuit 8 first calculate parallel resistance then calculate series resistance
Color coding of resistor
The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of resistors. There are commonly four bands in a resistor. First three
bands indicate value of resistor and fourth band indicating the tolerance of the resistor. During the calculation of resistance first we
want take consideration of three bands and note the corresponding value, fourth band is tolerance band, it has either silver or
golden band.
1st Band → First significant figure of component value (left side)
2nd Band → Second significant figure (Some precision resistors
have a third significant figure, and thus five bands.),
3rd Band → Decimal multiplier
4th Band → Indicates tolerance of value in percent

Raaaam Tolerance. ?

You are checking my

tolerance by
disturbing me,,,

Ram: You are disturbing for my meditation, though i would

like to help you. Tolerance means the power or capacity of a
figure 9
device to tolerate unfavorable environmental conditions.
The tolerance of a resistor is the deviation from its normal value of
resistance due change in environmental temperature.
Shyam: How can I find out these changes in resistance value?
Ram: For that in the next topic we are going to discuss “how to find
resistor value?” Did you notice anything in the above colored chart?
Shyam: Ya…… there are 12 colors in that chart with some numbers……
Ram: Now let me explain procedure with practical. In the adjacent figure you can find 4 colors. From the above chart value of brown
is 1, value of red is 2 And value of black is 1. Let’s make a table to understand .
Examples of color coding

1st value 2nd value 3rd multiplier 4th tolerance

1 0 1 5%
Step 1: 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎Ω
𝟓
Step2: × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Step3: 𝟏𝟎 ± 𝟎. 𝟓Ω = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓Ω 𝐨𝐫 𝟗. 𝟓
Total resistance of the resistor may vary from 10.5Ω or 9.5Ω

1st value 2nd value 3rd multiplier 4th tolerance

2 2 10 5%

step 1: 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎Ω
𝟓
step 2: × 𝟐𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Step3: 𝟐𝟐𝟎 ± 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟑𝟏 𝐨𝐫 𝟐𝟎𝟗 Ω
Total resistance of the resistor may vary from 231Ω to 209Ω

1st value 2nd value 3rd multiplier 4th tolerance

4 2 100 10%

Step 1: 𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎Ω

𝟏𝟎
Step 2: × 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Step 3: 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 ± 𝟒𝟐𝟎 = 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟎Ω 𝐨𝐫 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟎Ω (4.62kΩ or 3.78kΩ)
Total resistance of the resistor may vary from 4.620k Ω to 3.780 kΩ

1st value 2nd value 3rd multiplier 4th tolerance

1 2 10000 10%

Step 1: 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎Ω

𝟏𝟎
Step 2 :𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎Ω
Step 3: 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 ± 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 (13.2kΩ or 10.8 kΩ)
Total resistance of the resister may vary from 13.2kΩ to 10.8kΩ
 Point to note:
If there is no 4th color band treat it as tolerance band of 20%.

We can write resistor values

1000Ω=1kΩ , 2000Ω=2kΩ ,10000Ω=10kΩ
simple hint to remember the color code B.B ROY of Great Britain has Very Good Wife
or if you are Banglorian you can use B.B.ROY Goes to Basavanagudi Via Gandhibazar to buy Washingmachine in Girias
Showroom
 Chapter

Bread Board

Bread board is a construction base for prototype of electronic circuit. Originally

it was literally a bred board, a polished piece of wood used for slicing bread. People who
are crazy about electronics grab the bread board from their kitchen and start to connect
the components to the nails on that bread board. Components used to solder
to the to the nails on the board. In the figure () we can see that a radio manufactured on the wooden bread
board.

figure 11 figure 10

In past, wire wrapping method was used to construct electronic circuits, it was too complicated and complex to analyze the
mistakes.in figure () we can see the wire wrapping method on a insulated board in figure (). Since the size of the electronic
component have decreased and technology facing towards solder less bread board.
Bread board is used to build, test and analyze the electronic circuit. For the beginners in electronics breadboard are the
best places to learn. If the beginner wants to test their circuit performance, it’s better to go through prototype and test the
performance by using bread board.
Let’s bring bread board to mechanical operation theater…….
If you remove the adhesive backing of the bread board we can see that lots of
horizontal interconnected metal strips. And also along vertical direction we can see
the few interconnected metal strips. The metal rows in the bread board