MAHATMA GANDHI CHITRAKOOT

GRAMODAYA VISHWAVIDYALAYA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

INSTITUTE OF PEOPLE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
CHITRAKOOT SATNA (M.P.)-485334

PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT

ON

“BUILDING CONSTRUCTION”

TAKEN AT

“SHIV NARAYAN CONSTRUCTION COMPANY” GWALIOR(M.P.)

Submitted in Partial fulfillment for the Award Bachelor of Technology

In Civil Engineering

Submitted to:- Submitted by:-

Head of Department of B.Tech.(CERE) Ashutosh Rajak(154811)

Rajat Sharma(154829)

Rajeev Dwivedi(154830)

Rishabh Pandey(154831)
INTRODUCTION:- Construction of residential building is in process at
“Airport road”, Gwalior(M.P.) under Private company & contract of this
building is taken by “Shiv Narayan Construction Co., Gwalior(M.P.)

Details of site are as follows:-

Land use details:-

Land use Area (sq.m) Percent(%)

Residential
Open
Commercial
Circulation
Total

Statement of Dwelling Units:-

LIG Area of 45.08 sq.m/unit Nos.

EWS Area of 26.04 sq.m/unit Nos.
Total Nos.

Initial Steps Taken In Site:-

SURVEYING OF SITE:- We depend on Surveying to ensure order in the

physical world around us. Surveyors play an integral role in land
development, from the planning & design of subdivisions through to the
final construction of roads, utilities & landscaping.

Surveyors are among good company, working closely with their peers in
the fields of engineering, architecture, geology & planning. Their role
underpins these industries. Surveyors are the first people on any
construction site, measuring & mapping the land. These primary
measurements are then used by architects to understand and make the
most of the unique landscape when designing & engineers to plan
structures accurately and safely, ensuring buildings not only fit with the
landscape but are able to be constructed.
INSPECTION OF SOIL:-
How to calculate safe bearing capacity of soil on site?
This simple and quick field test will give you a rough idea of bearing capacity
of soil.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Excavate a pit of required depth (preferably equal to the depth of

foundation).
2. Take a solid ball or square cube of known weight and dimension.
3. Drop the ball or square cube several times, from a known height on
to the bottom surface of excavated pit.
4. Calculate the average depth of impression made several times on the
bottom surface of the excavated pit. Let “d” is the average depth of
impression.

Calculation:-
Calculate the ultimate resistance of soil (R) using the formula
given below.
R= (w*h)/d
Where,
R= Ultimate resistance of soil (in kg)
d= Average depth of impression (in cm)
w= Weight of the solid ball or square cube (in kg)
h= Height of fall f solid ball o cube (in cm)
If “A” is the cross sectional area of the solid steel ball or cube,
then resistance of soil per unit area is calculated using following
formula.
Resistance of soil per unit area (in kg/cm²)= R/A
Safe bearing capacity (in kg/cm ²)= R/(A*F.O.S.)
Where,
F.O.S.= Factor of safety

Notes To Remember:-
1. F.O.S. varies from 2 o 3 depending upon the type of the structure &
site condition.
2. In order to get reliable test result, perform this test on different types
of soil & then use your judgment to reach at any conclusion.
3. Instead of using solid steel ball or square cube, we can also use CBR
test plunger, or cone (used for cone penetration test).

Presumptive Bearing Capacity:-

The table given below shows the presumptive bearing capacity values
for different types of soils. This table will guide you to reach at any
conclusion after conducting the test.

Type of soil/rock Safe/Allowable Bearing

Capacity (kg/cm²)
Rock 32.40

Soft Rock 4.40

Coarse Sand 4.40

Medium Sand 2.45

Fine Sand 4.40

Soft Shell/ Stiff Clay 1.00

Soft Clay 1.00

Very Soft Clay 0.50

Notes To Remember:-
1. For non-cohesive soils the values should be reduced by 50% if the
water table is above or near base of footing.
2. These values should be used only for preliminary design. The actual
bearing capacity of soil should be calculated as per the standard
codes.

Excavation Of Land
Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or other materials with
tools, equipments or explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall
shafts, tunneling & underground. Excavation has a number of
important applications including exploration, environmental
restoration, mining & construction. Among these, construction is one
of the most common applications for excavation. Excavation is used in
construction to create building foundations, reservoirs & roads. Some of
the different processes used in excavation include trenching, digging,
dredging & site development. Each of these process requires unique
techniques, tools & machinery to get the job done right. The processes
used upon the structure that will result from the construction process.
Before the excavation process can begin, the site must be carefully
examined to make sure the natural habitat & artifacts surrounding it are
preserved throughout excavation. Next, the plans for the size & depth of the
site are made & the excavation company makes drawings from them to
clearly mark the excavation site’s boundaries. Once these two important
steps have been taken, the excavation work can begin. The entire
excavation process includes:-

· Setting out corner benchmark.

· Surveying ground & top levels.
· Excavation to the approved depth.
· Dressing the loose soil.
· Making up to cut off level.
· The construction of dewatering wells & interconnecting trenches.
 · Making boundaries of the building.
· The construction of protection bunds & drains.

Where is excavation construction used?

· Excavation construction is used during the construction process of
almost every structure we encounter throughout our lives. It is used to
build the foundation for the construction of homes, roadways & buildings &
create reservoirs like lakes & pools that house some of our favorite summer
activities. It is also relied upon for the mining of precious metals &
minerals. Excavation facilitates the construction process & helps our
important structures be built to their fullest potential by providing
increased control over the job location.
 Who performs excavation?
· Construction excavation requires experience, skill & close attention
to detail as it deals with large structures & creates the foundation for
the entire project. Heavy industrial contractors use advanced
techniques, tools & heavy machineries to make sure that the job is
done right. Hiring a heavy industrial contractor to complete large
excavation projects will yield the best results. Get to project started
by looking into the heavy industrial contractors that service to area.
We will want to take note of their reputations & values on safety to
narrow down your list to the top in the industry. You can find this
information by conducting a quick Google search, asking around in
the construction industry &/or reviewing their Website. Selecting a
heavy industrial contractor who values safety, is known for
quality work & has experience in excavation construction will
yield the best results for our large excavation project.
 PCC work in Foundation:-
Foundation trench of size (4*4) sq.ft is dug with spade and hoe.PCC stands
for plane cement concrete, which is defined as the concreting of the
foundation in excavation. Generally cement concrete of mix ratio 1:4:8 or
1:5:10 (cement: sand: coarse aggregates) is used. The size of coarse
aggregate is limited to 40mm. Lime concrete can also be used for this
purpose.

For important works, mixing of concrete should be done in mechanical

mixers. Concrete should be laid in layers not exceeding 15cm & well
compacted.
The concrete should be protected by moist gunny bags after about one or
two hours of lying. Regular curing should be started after 24 hours & be
continued for 10 days.

It is assumed from practical point of view that dimensions of the PCC

should be 10cm more than that of footings.

 Excavation levels & dimensions to be checked as per drawings.

Remove all the loose earth from the pits. Do water sprinkling & ramming
the cleaned surface of pit by mechanical rammer. Do the shuttering by
planks & runners wherever if necessary. Mix the concrete with required
proportion & water cement ratio by mechanical mixer machine & place the
same in to pits. Poured surface to be rammed& finished smoothly.Then RCC
mat of size (4*4) sq.ft with 16 no. 10mm bars is laid.

Construction of Footing
Footings are an important part of foundation construction. They are
typically made of purpose of footings is to support the foundation &
prevent setting. Footings are especially important in areas with
troublesome soils.

The construction of footings is best left to the pros that can assess the soil
conditions & decide on the proper depth & width for the footings as well as
the proper placement. The dimensions of footings also depend on the size &
type of structure that will be built. Placement of footings is crucial to
provide the proper support for the foundation & ultimately the structure.

Concrete footings also may also be needed for projects such as deck,
pergola, retaining wall or other types of construction.Footing of cross
section(9*9) sq.inch is generally provided with 18 inch tapered and
concrete mix of 1:1.5:3 is used.
.

Types of Footing:-
There are different types of footings which are used on the basic of soil &
type of structure.

1. Spread or isolated or pad footing

2. Strap footing
3. Combined footing
4. Strip or continuous footing
5. Mat or raft footing
Spread footing:- It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform
thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped to spread the load over a large area.
When footing is provided to support an individual column, it is called
“isolated footing”.

Strap footing:- It consists of two isolated footing connected with

structural strap or a lever, as shown in figure below. The strap connects the
footing such that they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as a
connecting beam. A strap footing is more economical than a combined
footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high & distance
between the column is large.
Combined footing:- It supports two columns as shpwn in figure below. It
is used when the two column are so close to each other that their individual
footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the
property line is so close to one column that a spread footing would be
eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By
combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed.
A combine footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Trapezoidal
footing is provided when the load on one of the column is larger than the
other column.

Strip or continuous footing:- A strip footing is another of spread footing

which is provided for a loaded bearing wall. Strip footing can also be
provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced footings overlap
or nearly touch each other. In cases, it is more economical to provide a strip
footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip
footing is also known as continuous footing.
Mat or raft footing:- It is a large slab supporting a number of columns &
walls under entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is
required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns &
walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch
each other. Mat foundation are useful in reducing the differential
settlements on non-homogeneous soils or where there is large variation in
the loads on the individual columns.
 Introduction to Foundations
The foundations of the building transfer the weight of the building to the
ground. While ‘foundation’ is a general word, normally, every building has a
number of individual foundations. Most buildings have some kind of
foundation structure directly below every major column, so as to transfer
the column loads directly to the ground.

There are many different kinds of foundations, see our page on types of
foundations for more information.

Since the weight of the building rests on the soil (or rock), engineers have
to study the properties of the soil very carefully to ensure that it can carry
the loads imposed by the building. It is common for engineers to determine
the safe bearing capacity of the soil after such study. As the name
suggests, this is the amount of weight per unit area the soil can bear. For
example, the safe bearing capacity (SBC) at a location could be 20T/m², or
tones per square meter. This figure is the maximum the soil can bear, so an
engineer will take pains to see that her design does not exceed this figure in
any part of the building.

This capacity also changes at different depths of soil. In general, the deeper
one digs, the greater the SBC, unless there are pockets of weak soil in the
earth. To properly support a building, the soil must be very firm & strong. It
is common for the soil near sink into the earth like a ship in water. Building
contractors will usually dig until they reach very firm, string, soil that
cannot be dug up easily before constructing a foundation.

Types of Foundations:-
Broadly speaking, all foundations are divided into two categories:-

‘Shallow Foundation’ & ‘Deep Foundation’. The words shallow & deep
foundation refer to the depth of soil in which the foundation is made.
Shallow foundations can be made in depth of as little as 3ft(1m), while deep
foundations can be made at depths of 60-200ft(20-65m). Shallow
foundations are used for small, light buildings, while deep foundations ones
are for large, heavy buildings.
1. Shallow Foundation:- Shallow foundations are also called spread
footings or open footings. The ‘open’ refers to the fact that the
foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom
of the footing, & then constructing the footing. During the early stages
of work, the entire footing is visible to the eye, & is therefore called
an open foundation. The idea is that each footing is visible to the eye,
& is therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each footing
is takes the concentrated load of the column & spread it out over a
large area, so that the actual weight on the soil does not exceed the
SBC of the soil.

There are of several kind of shallow footings:

· Individual footing
· Strip footing
· Raft footing
In cold climates, shallow foundations must be protected from freezing.
This is because water in the soil around the foundation can freeze &
expand, thereby damaging the foundation. These foundations should be
built below the frost line, which is the level in the ground above which
freezing occurs. If they cannot be built below the frost line, they should
be protected by insulation: normally a little heat from the building will
permit to the soil & prevent freezing.
Individual footings are usually connected by a plinth beam, a horizontal
beam that is built at ground or below ground level.

Strip footing:- Strip footing are commonly found in load-bearing masonry

construction, & act as a long strip that weight of the entire wall. These are
used where the buiding loads are carried by entire walls rather than
isolated columns, such as in older buildings made of masonry

Raft foundation:- It is also known as Mat footing, are most often used
when basement are to be constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor
slab acts as the foundation, the weight of the building is spread evenly over
the entire footprint of the building. It is caled a raft because the building is
like a vessel that ‘floats’ in a sea of soil.

Mat foundations are used where the soil is week, & therefore building loads
have to be spread over a large area, or where columns are closely space,
which means that if individual footings were used, they would touch each
other.
· Backfilling of Soil:-The ground over which the filling has to be
done should be cleaned off all grass, loose stones, rubbish of all kinds
etc. If there is water in the area, it should be pumped or bailed out.
· If the plinth depth doesn’t exceed 45cm above ground level & if the
exposed ground is B.C. soil, then remove the B.C. soil completely to
avoid uneven settlement of the flooring.
· Select the refiling in the plinth & ijn pits. Judge the quantity of
material available.
· Place the order fornany further refilling material required.
· Engage laborers for refilling.
· Keep all tools for refilling & compaction ready.
Filling, consolidation & compaction:-
· The sides of concrete & masonry in foundation trenches or in the
column pits should be filled with suitable excavated material. Filling
should be done in layers, & compacted with steel rammer or wooden
logs.
· The approved excavated material, which has been stocked, shall be
cleaned of all rubbish, large size stone, vegetation etc.
· Filling should be layers each layer being of 15-20cm.
· Each layer is watered & compacted with heavy rammers of wooden
logs or steel.
· If the area of refilling is large then either electric operated or fuel
operated compactors are used to compact the filling material.
· The process of filling in plinth, watering & compaction shall be
carried out till the required level is reached so as to form a
thoroughly compacted base.
· While compacting due care is taken to protect the foundation
columns, pinth walls, etc., which are already constructed.
· If the depth of filling exceeds more than 1m then for economicy
purpose building rabbit may be allowed as a filling material for
further depth, the procedure being the same.
· Under no circumstances black cotton soil shall be used for filing in
plinth & footing pits.

Plinth of structure:-
The foundation & plinth are the primary elements to safe guard a
building.

Beam is placed over the foundation i.e. at plinth level. The beam is built
up at ground level. The condensed soil is used to fill the empty space
between the foundation & plinth level.Brick or stone masonry is
generally developed under the plinth beam.

The plinth shoud be substantial. Now-a-days RCC plinths are mostly

casted in various constructions.

In RCC frame structure, plinth function as a tie, as a beam at ground

level itself. RCC plinth beams are mostly recommeded to develop any
buiding.

For boulder-packed foundation in loose soil, rcc plith is suitabe to

transmit load perfectly.
Reinforcement of beam in plinth
The process of design involves finding out the sizes of the structural
member (beam) & the proper combination of steel & concrete requird to
resist the intended load safely & economically.

To properly design a structural system first we have to envisage the kind of

loading that the structure has to resist & design them accordingly. In case
of plinth beam the beam is subjected to following loads.

Once the beam has been analysed for the envisaged loading conditon it is
designed following the guidlines of beam design. The general steps are
listed below:-

Step1. Finding out the crosss-sectional dimension of the required

section.
This is generally governed by the deflection requirements of the code & the
actual load coming on the structure. For the case of plinth beams, the width
of the beam is chosen based on the width of the wall it has to support or the
width of the supporting column. Width of the beam should be less than the
width of the supporting column. The value of width of the beam may be
fixed at 200mm, 250mm, 300mm, etc & the value of effective depth of the
section could be calculated from the formula:

d= (factored moment)/(Rb)

Step2. Determination of area of tensile steel required

The reinforcement to be calculated should be such that the section should
have an ultimate moment of resistance equal to or more than the applied
factored moment. This implies,

Ast = fck/(2fy)*(1-1-4.598R/fck)bd

From the above equation we would get the area of tension steel.

Step3. Determination of shear reinforcement required

First the section is checked for its ultimate capacity in shear. The shear
acting on the section not be more than the maximum permissible shear
stress for the given grade of concrete(Table 20 of IS456:2000). Then, the
spacing of the shear stirrup required is computed using the formula.

Spacing of stirrups= 0.87fy Asv/(b*(shear stress on beam- shear strength of

concrete)).

The spacing calculated should not be more than 300mm.

NOTE: Providing Lshape joint in beam to reduce the stress produced at the
joint T of beam.
L shape bars
Mainly L shape bars are connected to resist the earthquake. In case of
Cantilever beam extra bars are provided on upper side because tension
acts on upper side.

In lower base 16mm extra bar is provided & on slab beam 16mm upper &
lower bars are provided.

Double rods are provided on upper side are provided on upper side
when point load act on beam & parallel balancing beams are provided on
lower side.
BEAMS:- Plinth beams are similar to roof beams except that in designing
the plinth beam only the wall load has to be considered as there is no other
live load acting over it. For roof 10 mm main bars are used in long direction
with spacing of 6 inch centre to centre and 10 mm distributed bars are
used in short direction with spacing of 8 inch.Main bars are kept bigger
than short wall of room and crank is formed on L/4 length.Cranks are
formed to distribute point load uniformly over large area.Beams of cross
section 9inch*9inch is used with a length of 10ft -12ft, 1ft*9inch is used
with a length of 12ft-16ft,15inch*9inch is used with a length of 18ft.

Construction of column:-
RCC is the acronym of Reinforced Cement Concrete which is known as
structural member of RCC framestructured building. Generally it is a
verticalmember that transmits load from slab& beamright away posterior
soil.

We all know that column is the main backbone of a building. If any kind of
column failure happens then the entire buiding collapses.

Basically this failure takes place not because of the design fault; actually it
happens owing to the inferior construction practice. That is why it is
mandatory to have the proper knowledge of the construction method of
RCC column.

RCC column construction process comprises of the four steps that are
described below briefly:

1. Column layout work: This is the very first step of the RCC column
construction method. The placements of thee columns are considered
substantially in the worksite. It is perfomed by laying rope in
accordance with grids as shown in the drawing & finally note the
location of the columns with respect to rope
2. Column Reinforcement work: After column location marking task,
then the next step that comes is the placement of reinforcement as
per the structural drawing.
· The drawing description is as follows:
C1- 12#16mmø & stirrup- 10mmø@4”c/c.
This indicates that column C1 will consists of 12 numbers of 16mm
diameter bar as vertical bar & 10mm diameter steel should be located
4inch center to center as stirrup.

There is an alternate way too.

C2 – 8#20mmø + 10#16mmø & stirrup- 10mmø(4”+6”)c/c.

This C2 column reinforcement condition sugest that it will contain 8

numbers of 20mm diameter bar along with 10 numbers of 16mm diameter

bar as vertical reinforcement & (4”+6”) center to center of stirrups

positioning indicates middle-half section of clear height of column will

consist of 6” center to center spacing of stirrups & upper one-fourth along

with bottom one-fourth height of columns clear height will hold stirrups at

4” center to center spacong.

Column is constructed with the help of steel bars & cement concrete. In

case of multi-storey & frame structure building constructions, the entire

load is born by columns & the floor area/ internal space of building is freely

adjusted according to the requirement.For circular columns 6 no. 12mm

bars are used for less than 10 ft centre to centre distance.Above 10 ft centre

to centre distance 4 no. 16 mm bars and 2 no. 12 mm bars and 8 mm tie

rings are used.The spacing of ring is 6 inch centre to centre.About 1 inch

cover is provided.Middle bar and end bars spacing distance is 3.5 inch and

1 inch cover is provided.

The cement concrete ratio & numbers of steel bars with their diameter are
available in structural drawings which are designed according to the

column & factor of safety.

Construction of wall:-

Methods for constructing walls for buildings. Walls are constructed in

different forms & of various materials to serve several functions. Exterior

walls protect the building interior from external environmental effects such

as heat & cold, sunlight, ultravoilet radiation, rain, snow & sound whie

connecting desirable interior environmental conditions. Walls are also

designed to provide resistance to pasage of fire for some defined period of

time, such as a one hour wall. Walls often contain doors a& windows, which

rovide for controlled passage of environmental factors & people through

the wall line.

Walls are designed to be strong enough to safely resist the horizontal &

vertical forces imposed upon them, as defined by building codes. Such loads

include wind forces, self-weight, possibly the weights of walls & floors from

above, the effects of expansion & contraction as generated by temperature

& humidity variations as well as by certain impacts, & the wear & tear of

interior occupancy.

Modern building walls may be designed to serve as either bearing walls or

curtain walls or as a combination of both in response to the design

requirements of the building as a whole. Both types may appear similar

when complete, but their sequence of construction is usually different.

Bearing wall construction may be masonry, cast-in-place or precast

reinforced concrete, studs & sheating & composite types. The design loads

in bearing walls are the vertical loading from above, plus horizontal loads,

both perpendicular & parallel to the wall plane. Bearing walls must be

erected before supported building components above can be erected.

Curtain wall construction takes several forms, including lighter versions of

those used for bearing walls. These walls can also compromise assemblies

of corrugated metal sheets, glass, panes, or ceramics coated metal panels,

each laterally supported by light subfaming members. The curtain wall can

be erected after the building frame is completed, since it recieves vertical

support by the spandrel beams, or relieving angles, at the wall line.

Masonry walls are a traditional, common & durable form of wall

construction used in both bearing & curtain walls. They are designed in

accordance with building codes & are constructed by individual placements

of bricks, blocks of stone, cinder concrete, cut stone or combinations of

these. The units are bonded together by mortar.

Reinforced concrete walls are used for both strength & esthetic purposes.

Such walls may be cast in place or precast, & they may be bearing or curtain
walls. Some precast concrete walls. Some precast concrete walls are

constructed of T-shaped or rectangular prestressed concrete beams, which

are more commonly used for floor or roof deck construction. They are

placed vertically, side by side & caulked at adjacent edges.

Stud & sheating walls are a light type of wall construction, commonly used

in residentia or other light construction where they usually serve as light

bearing walls. They usually consist of wood sheat hing nailed to wood or

steel studs, usually with the dimensions 2×4in. (5×10cm)or 2×6in.

(5×15cm) & spaced at 16in. (40cm) or 24in. (60cm) on center all common

building module dimensions. The interior sides of the studs are usually

covered with an attachedfacing material. This is often sheet rock, which is a

sandwich of gypsum between cardboard facings. Composite walls are

essentially a more substantialform of stud walls. They are constructed of

cementitious materials, such as weather proof sheet rockor precast

concrete as an exterior sheeting, & sheet rock as interior surface finish.

Prefabricated walls are commonly used for curtain wall construction & are

frequently known as prefabricated walls are usually made of corrugated

steel or aluminium sheets, although they are sometimes constructed of

fiber reinforced plastic sheets, fastened to light horizontal beams(girts)

spaced severa feet apart. Prefab walls are often made of sandwich

construction: outside corrugated sheets, an inside iner of fat or corrugated

sheet, & an enclosed insulation are fastened together by screws to form a

thin, effective sandwich construction; outside corrugated sheets, an inside

linear of flat or corrugated sheets, an inside liner of flat or corrugated sheet,

& an enclosed insulation are fastened together by screws to form a thin,

effective sandwhich wal. These usually have tongue & groove vertical edges

to permit sealed joints whenthe units are erected at the building site by

being fastened to framing girts.

Glass, metal or ceremic coated metal panel walls are a common type of

curtain wal used in high rise construction. They are typically assembled as

a sandwich by using glass, formed metal or ceremic coated metal sheets on

the outside, & some form of liner, including possibly masonry, on the

inside; insulation is eclosed.

Tilt up walls are sometimes used for construction efficiency. Here, a wall of

the various ypes is fabricated in a horizontal position at ground leve, & it is

then tilted up & connected at its edges to adjacenttilt up wall sections.

Interio partitions are a lighter form of wall used to separated interior areas

in buildings. They are usually non-bearing, constructed as thinner versions

of the standard wall types; & they are often designned for some resistance

to fire & sound. Retaining walls are used as exterior walls of basements to

resists out side soil pressure. They are usually of reinforced concrete;
however, where the basement depth or evterior soil height is low, the wall

may be constructed as a masonry wall.

MASONRY:-

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often

laid in & bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the

units themselves. The common materias of masonry construction are brick,

building stone such as marble, granite, travertine & limestone, cast stone,

concrete block, glass block & adobe. Masonry is generally a highly durable

form of construction. However, the materias used, the quality of the mortar

& workmanship, & the pattern in which the units are asembled can

substaintially affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A

person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer.

Masonry is commonly used for walls & buildings. Brick & concrete block

are the most common types of masonry in use in industriaised nations &

may be either weight bearing or a veneer. Concrete blocks, especially those

with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They

generally provide great compressive strength, & are best suited to

structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled.

Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel

reinforcement (typically rebar) offers much greater tensile & lateral

strength to structures.For 9 inch wall cement plaster of mix 1:8 is used and

for 4 inch wall plaster of mix 1:5 is used.

BRICKWORK:- Solid brick work is made of two or more Wythes of bricks

with the units running horizontally (called stretcher bricks) bound

together with bricks running transverse to the wall (called “header”

bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of headers &

stretchers employed gives rise to different ‘bonds’ such as the common

bond (with every sixth course composed of headers), the english bond, &

the flemish bond (with alternating stretcher & header bricks present on

every course). Bonds can differ in strength & in insulating ability. Vertically

staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger & less prone to major

cracking than a non-staggered bond.

Uniformity & rusticity:-

The wide selection of brick styles & ypes generally available in

industrialized nations allow much variety in the appearance of the final

product. A high degree of uniformity of brick & accuracy in masonry was

typical. In the periosd since then this style was thought to be too sterile, so

attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work. Some brick surfaces

are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt bricks, which have a

darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks,

or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface

treatments, such as tumbling.

Concrete blocks:- Blocks of cinder concrete (cinder blocks or

breezeblocks), ordinary concrete(concrete blocks), or hollow tiles are

generally known as CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS(CMUs). They usually are

much larger than ordinary bricks & so are much larger than ordinary bricks

& so are much faster to lay for a wall of given size. Cinder & concrete blocks
typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick. They often

are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry, or are used

alone for the walls of factories, garages & other industrial sttyle buildings

where such appearance is acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often

receive a stucco surface for decoration. Surface bonding cement, which

contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement, is sometimes used in this

application & can impart extra strength to a block wall. Surface bonding

cement is often pre-coloured & can be stained or painted thus resulting in a

finished stucco like surface.

SLABS

A concrete slab is a common structral element of modern buildings.

Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4& 20in.

(100 & 500mm) thick, are most often used to construct floors & ceilings,

while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving. Sometimes these

thinner slabs, ranging from 2in. (51mm) to 6in. (150mm) thick, are called

mud slabs, particularly when used under the main floor slabs. In many

domestic & industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on

foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground

floor of a buiding. These can either be “ground bearing” or “suspended”

slabs. In high rise building & sky scrapper, thinner, precast concrete
slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors & ceilings on

each level.

Reinforcement design:

· A one-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its

short direction because the moment along long axes is so small that it

can be neglected. When the ratio of the length of long direction to

 short direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a

one way slab.

Long direction= Iyshort direction=Ix

One way slab if Iy/Ix>2.

· A two way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement in both

directions. If the ratio of the lengths of long & short side is less than

two then moment in both direction should be considered in design.

Two way slab if Iy/Ix<2

· Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated

steel tray. This improves strength & prevents the slab from bending

under its own weight. The corrugations run across the short

dimension, from side to side.

· A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strengh on one direction.

· A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions & it looks

holow from bottom.

Construction:- A concrete slab may be on site. Prefabricated concrete

slabs are built in a factory & transported to the site, ready to be lowered

into place between steel or concrete beams. They may be pre-stressed

(in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. It is vital that the

wall supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions or the slabs

may not fit.

In site concrete slabs are built on the building site using form work- a

type of boxing into which the wet concrete is poured. If the slab is to be

reinforced, the rebars are positioned within the form work before the

concrete is poured in. Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used

to hold the rebar away from the bottom & sides of the form work, so that

when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement. For a

ground slab, the form work may consist only of sidewalls pushed into

the ground. For a suspended slab, the forrm work is shaped like a tray,

often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

The form work is commonly built from wooden planks & boards,

plastics, or steel. On commercial building sites today, plastic & steel are

more common as they save labour. On low budget sites, for intance

when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very common.

After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there

permanently.

Thermal performance:-

There are two main thermal considerations. The first is the question of

insulating a floor slab. In older buildings, concrete slabs cast directly on

the ground and drain heat from a room. In modern construction,

concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of insulation such as

expanded polystrene & the slab may contain under floor heating pipes.

However, there are still uses for a slab that is not insulated, typically in

out buildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature. In

those cases, casting the slab directly onto a rocky substrate will

maintain the slab at or near the temperature of the substrate throughout

the year, & can prevent both freezing & overheating.

 The second consideration is the high thermal mass, which applies to

walls & floors, or wherever the concrete is used within the thermal

envelope. It is a disadvantage where the rooms are heated

intermittently & require a quick response, as the concrete takes time

to warm up, causing a delay in warming the building. But it is an

advatage in climates with large daily temperature swings, where the

slab acts as a regulator, keeping the building cool by day & warm by

night.

Concrete slab thicknesss:-

· Driveways: 6-8in. (0.15-0.m)

· Side walks, barn & granny foors: 5-6in. (0.125-0.15m)

· Porches, Home garage floors: 4-5in. (0.1-0.125m)

· Farm building floors, Home basement floors: 4in. (0.1m)

Normal slab thickness- Standard concrete floor slab thickness in

residential construction is 4in. 5-6in. Is recommended if the concrete

wil recieve occassional heavy loads, such as motor homes or garbage

trucks. To prepare the base, cut the ground level to the proper depth

to allow for the slab thickness.

How thick is the slab of a house?

Around the edge of theslab, the concrete forms a beam that is

perhaps 2feet deep. The rest of the slab is 4 or 6in. Thick. A 4 or 6in.

Layer of gravel lies beneath the sab. A 4mm sheet of plastic lies

between the concrete & the gravel to keep moisture out.

What is meant by suspended slab?

Suspended slabs are above ground level slabs which are not

directly in contact with the earth. They are commonly used to create

floors for the upper storeys of houses, but can alo be sat on top

preconstructed walls to form a ground floor.

CURING

Days is the curing of concrete:

Allow proper time to water cure. After concrete is placed, the

concrete increases in strength very very quickly for a period of 3-7

days. Concrete which is moist cured for 7 days is about 50% stronger

than uncured concrete.

Curing of concrete is defined as the process of maintaining the

moistue & temperature conditions of concrete for hydration reaction

to normally so that concrete develops hardened properties over time.

The main components which needs to be taken care are moisture,

heat & time during curing process.

Duration of concrete curing:

Curing of concrete for longer duration increases the strength &

durability of concrete structural member. The following figure

explains how the compressive strength of concrete increases with

time when it is cured for longer duration.

Initial Curing- Bleeding of concrete:-

When the concrete is placed & compacted, bleeding of water occurs & rises

through the surface of concrete due to settlement of concrete. The rate &

duration of bleeding depends on many factors including concrete mix

properties, depth or thickness of concrete, mehod of compaction of

concreteetc.

How long does it take for the concrete to set?

Generally, concrete sets in 24 to 48hrs. Allowing for you to walk on it

partially cured within a week (keep the cement free & clear of heavy

equipment of heavy equipment during this period) at which you can

continue building/construction. Most mixes fully cures at 28 days.

Methods:-

· Shading concrete work

· Covering concrete surfaces with hessian or gunny bags

· Sprinkling of water

· Ponding method

· Steam curing

Sprinkling of water:-

Sprinkling of water continously on the concrete surface provides an

efficient curing. It is mostly used for curing floor slabs. The concrete

should be allowed to set sufficiently before sprinkling is started. The

spray can be obtained from a perforated plastic box. On small jobs

sprinkling of water may be done by hand. Vertical & sloping surfaces can

be kept continuously wet by sprinkling water on top surfaces & allowing

it to rundown betwen the forms & the concrete. For this method of

curing the water requirement is higher.

Membrane Curing:-

The method of curing described above come under the category of moist

curing. Another method of curing is to cover the wetted concrete surface

by a layer of water proof material, which is kept in contact with the

concrete surface of 7 days. This method of curing is termed as

membrane curing. The membrane can be either in solid or liquid form.

They are also known as sealing compounds. Bituminised water proof

papers, wax emulsions, bitumen emulsions & plastic films are the

common types of membrane used.

Plasterwork:- It refers to construction or ornamentation done with

paster, such as a layer of plaster on an interior or exterior wall structure,

or plaster decorative moldings on ceilings or walls. This is also known as

pargeting. The process of creating plaster work, called plastering or

rendering, has been used in building construction for centuries.

Tools & materials:- It include trowels, floats, hammers, screeds, a hawk,

scratching tools, utility knives, lath nails, lime, sand hair, plaster of

paris(P.O.P.), a variety of cements & various ingredients to form color

washes.
 LATHS:- Traditionally, plaster waslaid onto laths, rather than

plasterboard as is more common place now-a-days.

Wooden Laths are narrow strips of straight grained wooden

depending on availabilities of species in lengths of from two to four or

five feet to suit the distance at which the timbers of a floor or partittion

are set. Laths are about an inch wide & are made in three thickness;
1 3 1
single ( 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘), lath & a half ( 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘) & double
8 16 4

3 1
( 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘).
8 2

The thicker laths should be used in ceilings, to stand the extra strain

(somtimes they were doubled for extra strength) & the thinner variety

in vertical work such as rough usage, in which case thicker laths become

necessary. Laths are usually nailed with a space of about 3/8 of an inch

between them to form a key for the plaster.

Laths were formerly all made by hand. Most are now made by

machinery & are known as sawn laths, those made by hand being called

rent or riven laths. Rent laths give the best results, as they split in a line

wth the grain of the wood & are stronger & not so liable to twist as

machine-made laths, some of the fibers of which are usually cut in the

process of sawing.
Lime plastering:- It is composed of lime, sand, hair & water in

proportions varying according to the nature of the work to be done. The

lime mortar principally used for internal plastering is that calcined from

chalk, oyster shells or other nearly pure limestone, & is known as fat,

pure, chalk or rich lime. Hydraulic limes are also used by the plasterer,

but chiefly for external work. Perfect slaking of the calcined lime before

being used is very important as, if used in a partially slaked condition, it

will “blow” when in position & blister the work. Lime should therefore

be run as soon as the building is begun, & at least three weeks should

elapse between the operation of running the lime & its use.

Cheefon:- Hair is used in plaster a a binding medium, & gives tenacity to

the material. Traditionally horsehair was the most commonly used

binder, as it was easily available before the development of the motor-

car. Hair functions in much the same way as the strands in fiberglass

resin, by controlling & containing any small cracks within the mortar

while it dries or when it is subject to flexing.

CONCLUSION:-

The chemical reactions between cement & water produces C-S-H gel

which bonds the ingredients of concrete, viz. Coarse & fine aggregates,

mineral admixtures etc. & converts these fragments into a rock solid

mass. This is possible only if contionuos curing is done for atleast 14

days, irrespective of the type of cement used.

It has been observed that at several sites in India curing of concrete is

left to the decision & comfort of the unskilled laborer. Site engineers &

supervisiors should put an extra effort to ensure that curing is not

ignored at site & they should provide the necessary resources to

maintain satisfactory levels of curing, by using the best technique

available at site. Just as anew born baby, when it comes into this world

needs the outmost care for its development & protection from this new

environment, in the similar manner, a freshly placed concrete requires

proper protection & care from the aggressive environment. Strictly

adopting good curing practices at site will help concrete to achieve the

properties of designed strength, enhanced durability, improved

microstructure & a long lasting serviceability.

 LAB TEST:-

1. Crushing strength testness of bricks:

Specimens:

Three numbers of whole bricks from sample collected should be taken. The

dimensions should be measured to the nearest 1mm.

Sampling:

Remove uneveness observed the bed faces to provide two smooth

parallel faces by grinding. Immerse in water at room temperature for

24hours. Remove the frog & all voids in the bed faces flush with

cement mortar (1 cement, 1 clean coarse sand of grade 3mm & down).

Store it under the damp jute bags for 24 hours filled by immersion in

clean water for 3 days. Remove & wipe out any traces of moisture.

CALCULATIONS

The average of result shall be reported.

(𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁))

Compressive strength=
(𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒(𝑚𝑚²)
RESULT:-
Average compressive strength of the given bricks= .

2. Crushing strength capacity of cube:-

“The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the
characteristic compressive strength of 150mm size cubes tested at 28
days (fck). The characteristicstrength is defined as the strength of the
concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected
to fall.
In very simple words, compressive strength is caculated by dividing
the failure load with the area of application of load, usually after 28
days of curing. The strengrth of concrete is controlled by the
poportioning of cement, coarse & fine aggregates, water, & various
admixtures. The ratio of the water to cement is the chief factor for
determinin concrete strength. The lower the water cement ratio, the
higher is the compressive strength.

Compressive strength of concrete cubes:-

1. Compression testing mould.
2. The test resukts of the sample shal be the average if the strength of
three specimen.
3. The individual varaition should not be more than 15% of the average.
4. If more, the test results of the sample are invalid Concrete shall be
deemed to comply with the strength required.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
1. Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate
2. Weight of sample= 15456gm.

The apparatus used are-

i.) A set of IS Sieve of size- 80mm, 63m, 50mm, 40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm,
20mm, 16mm, 12.5m, 10mm, 6.3mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm,
600µm, 300µm, 150µm & 75µm.
ii.) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1% of the test
weight.
Procedure to determine particle size distribution of aggregates:

i. The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of

110+5°C & weighed.
ii. The sample is sieved by using a set of IS Sieves.
iii. On completionof sieving, the material on each seive is weighed.
iv. Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a
percentage of the total sample weight.
v. Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of
aggregates retained on each sieve & dividing the sum by 100.