1 Communication

“Communication may be defined as a process concerning exchange of facts or ideas between

persons holding different positions.”

1.1 Effective Communication

Effective communication is to convey you message in such a way that your point gets across.

 showing respect
 active listening
 being considerate of their feelings

For being an effective communicator, we need to be understood in our conversations.

1.1.1 Communication Process

Seven (7) major elements of this continuous interaction are:

1. Sender: Person who intends to convey the message.

2. Ideas: The subject matter of the message (facts, information, views or opinions).
3. Encoding: Conversion of subject matter into words, pictures, gestures, etc.
4. Communication Channel: The ‘method’ used to convey or transmit a message.
5. Receiver: Person for whom the message was intended by the sender.
6. Decoding: Interpretation of the words, pictures, or gestures by the receiver.
7. Feedback: Process of letting sender know that their message has been received and
understood the way sender intended.

1.1.2 Types of Communication

1. One-Way Communication (message-centred):

a. Focuses only on getting the message to the receiver.
b. You cannot tell if the receiver understood the meaning.
2. Two-Way Communication (message-centred):
a. Focuses on whether the message got to the receiver.
b. Feedback lets senders know if the message got across.
3. Transaction (meaning-centred):
a. Communication process continues until the meaning perceived at the receiver
end is the same as the one sender intended.

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1.1.3 Barriers

Barriers keep us from understanding sender’s message. There are two types of barriers:

1. Internal
 Emotional barriers and taboos
o Difficulty in expressing emotions
o Voicing some topics may be off-limits or considered a taboo
 Attitude, attention, interest, etc.
o Physical or mental fatigue
o Lack of interest or irrelevance of message
o Pre-occupation of receiver, receiver’s attitude towards the sender
o Close mindedness, etc.
 Biasness, prejudices or other expectations
o Hearing what you want to hear instead of what is actually being said
o Incorrect conclusions, false assumptions or stereotyping

2. External

 The use of jargon

o Complicated word-selection, too many technical words or unfamiliar terms.
 Physical barriers
o Not seeing the person speaking or not seeing the non-verbal cues
o Outside distractions, noise, and faulty communication channel.
 Language and culture differences
o Some words might be offensive in one culture but considered fine in another
o Unfamiliar accents, inappropriate word-selection
o Lack of understanding of a new language

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2 Tailoring Message
Presentations and reports are the two most critical and widely used methods of formal
communication be it with clients, senior management or with project team.

2.1 Written Communication

Effectiveness of written communication is often measured by the two main elements, the
quality of message and the standard of writing.

2.1.1 Crafting the Message

The Rhetorical Triangle represents the three areas that needs

to be considered to craft a good message. These are:

1. The Reason/Purpose for Writing

Be clear about your purpose. Your purpose could be asking

someone to take an action, to provide information, or to educate about something.

2. The Audience’s Needs

 Who am I writing this report for?
 What do they expect from it?
 Why do they need to read it?
 How can they use this report?
 What do I want them to learn and how to emphasize it?
3. Context of the Message

State the conclusion upfront and then follow the position you took in your conclusion with
detailed arguments that preceded it. Starting with the detail might make the reader lose interest
before your actual message has gotten across.

 What is it that I am asking for, suggesting, or conveying?

 How do I strengthen my position? (supporting data, facts and figures, arguments)
 What tone do I need to use? (formal or informal)
 What information do the audience need to fully understand your report?
 What possible arguments and objections do I have to address?

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2.1.1.1 A Few More Tips

1. Powerful, Attention-grabbing Introduction

Cover everything without getting into too much detail.

 What would you say if you had only 30 seconds to explain your report?
 What must be conveyed if your reader were to read just the introduction?
2. Body of the Document

Start by creating an outline first keep in mind the important points, and main ideas. State your
main ideas and arguments clearly, and include supporting details (factual data, object and
unbiased) without cluttering your document. When you’re done writing your document, check
it for following:

 Are all the points addressed in the introduction?

 Are the key points or ideas arranged in a logical sequence?
 Is there any redundancy or overlap in ideas? Can they be combined?
 Is the detail sufficient and supports your arguments and conclusion?
 Can the conclusion relate back to the introduction and main body?

2.1.2 The Writing

Make sure that your writing style isn’t distracting the reader from your message.

1. Tone: Reading written messages out loud helps in understanding the tone reader
might perceive while reading.
2. Jargon: Assume your audience doesn’t know the meaning of highly specific terms.
3. Coherence: Start with the main idea, write a separate paragraph for every idea or
point that follows. First sentence of every paragraph should describe what it’s going
to be about.
4. Sentence Structure: Contain a single thought in one sentence. Keep sentences easy
and small to maximize readability.
5. Readability: Use:
 Headings/subheadings to make your document look consistent and polished.
 Bullet points and lists to organize multiple items if it’s suitable.
 Aids like tables, charts, and graphs to communicate the information visually.

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 6. Punctuation: Using too many or no commas, wrong use of semicolons, wrong use
of en- and em-dashes, and hyphen.
7. Political Correctness: Eliminate gender-biased, offensive, or discriminatory terms.
8. Word Usage: Watch out for homonyms.

2.2 Acquiring Great Presentation Skills

When preparing for a presentation, keep in mind following principles:

1. Understanding your Audience

Presentation should be according to the needs and expectations of your audience. Know who
is your audience and what they will be looking for in your presentation.

A game development company wants to start developing games on a new platform. Ahmed, a
developer for Virtual Reality games, is asked to give a presentation to his fellow developers
and to the company’s game publishing and marketing people.

His presentation to the developers is a hit. He describes the properties of the new platform,
how it is different from other platforms, how to develop games for it, code and architecture,
and other subjects like that. Ahmed gives the same presentation to the marketing people, but it
goes flop. Some marketing people are bored and yawning, while some others leave the room
to chat. Some seem upset on the totally unusable information Ahmed is providing them. It does
not help them in achieving their main goal of marketing the new product.

Here, Ahmed overlooked the very first principle of understanding what his audience’s needs.

a. Audience Profile

How can I describe the people in my audiences? Ahmed has two different audiences,
developers and marketing people.

b. Audience Needs and Wants

Why are they attending the presentation? How to develop games for this platform
vs. how to market the game of new platform.

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 What do they need to take away from my presentation? Technical specifications,
coding techniques and architecture details vs. the new platform’s features and how
games of this platform are going to be different.

What do they want out of my presentation? Developers want to add to their

knowledge about the product. Marketing people want to know how best to market the
games developed for it.

How can their interests be connected with my message? Technical details vs.
features that can help them sell.

c. Audience Expectations

What do members of my audience expect in terms of content and length? In-depth

knowledge and whatever length of time it takes to cover it vs. short yet effective
presentation.

d. Audience Knowledge

To what extent do you need to explain? As much detail as possible vs. selected
technical details that would blend well with marketing points.

2. Preparing your Content

a. Don't try to Cover Everything: Cover the key points and ideas yet leave some space
for the audience to fill by apply the imparted knowledge to their own circumstances.
b. Start with a Great Hook:
a. Avoid unnecessary background information.
b. Engage the audience by interesting them in your topic.
c. Tell them in advance how it is relevant for them, and
d. What purpose you’re trying to achieve.
c. Prepare Short, Easy-to-Follow Points: If using visual aids, keep following points
in mind:
 Introduce new concepts using titles.
 Lists and bullet points should be of no more than five items.
 Use tables, columns, pictures, and other visuals to aid understanding.
 Use aids like pictures, charts, and graphs for better understanding.
 If you’re giving instructions, use a step by step approach.

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 d. Present your Ideas with Supporting Evidence: Be precise and logical, and give
supporting evidence for your arguments.
e. Develop a Strong Close, including a Summary: End with a clear message, and give
a summary to put emphasis on your main points again.
3. Delivering Confidently

Practicing gives you confidence while presenting as you become totally familiar and
comfortable with your content, visual aids, and your delivery.

a. Visual Aids: They’re just an aid that is there to complement your actual
presentation. Keep slides simple and readable.
b. Delivery and Style
 Use gestures for meaning, for example, pointing at visual aid to draw attention
of the audience.
 Pause to let the audience absorb the main points, or after you point at a visual
aid to let them see it.
 Make sure everyone can hear you clearly. Talk loudly, or use an audio aid.
 Use a blank or low-content slide between every few slides to keep their attention
on yourself.
4. Controlling your Environment
a. Practice, Practice, Practice: Rehearse again and again so that you can deliver it
smoothly without any awkwardness of delivery. It should be effortless.
b. Keep the Lights on: Lights should be kept on to make you stand out and keep the
audience alert and attentive.
c. Always Have Back-ups and a Back-up Plan: Murphy’s Law states “if a thing can
go wrong, it will”. Be prepared for as many contingencies as possible.
 Keep a time cushion.
 Familiarize yourself with the tools you’ll be using.
 Use the right equipment for the environment. PowerPoint for bigger rooms vs.
flipcharts for smaller ones.
 Be well-prepared. Even if all goes wrong, be confident in your abilities.
d. Dress Appropriately: Know the dress code beforehand formal vs. informal.
e. Have a Policy for Answering Questions: Let the audience know when you will take
questions.

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3 Networking and Relationships
How to start and maintain good working relationships in professional setting:

3.1 Good Relationships

3.1.1 Why Have Good Relationships?

 Pleasant work experience

 Ease in implementing change
 Increased productivity
 Innovative and creative ideas
 To advance in our careers

Be it customers, suppliers, or key stakeholders, good relationships are essential to your success.

3.1.2 Defining a Good Relationship

Good and healthy work relationships consist of several characteristics like:

 Trust – Be open, truthful and honest in your thoughts and actions.

 Mutual Respect – Value other’s opinion, input and ideas, and they value yours.
 Mindfulness – Take responsibility for your words and actions.
 Welcoming Diversity – Accept and welcome diverse people and opinions.

3.1.3 Where to Build Good Relationships

Find out with whom you need to form a good bond by doing a Stakeholder Analysis. Here is
how you can do that:

1. Identify your stakeholders

2. Prioritize your stakeholders (Power-Interest Grid)
3. Understand your key stakeholders

3.1.4 How to Build Good Work Relationships

 Have good people skills

 Listen actively
 Know your relationship needs
 Devote time to build relationships

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  Be considerate and positive, and appreciate others
 Know your boundaries
 Avoid back-biting and gossiping, and do not participate in rumours

3.2 Networking

Before making new contacts, look into whom you need and what for. Have people in your
network before you need them for something.

3.2.1 Networking Objectives

Networking objectives depend on your career level, and your aims and goals that you have set
for your future. Develop a relationship of reciprocity (give-and-take).

Activity: Think about a very resourceful contact you are about to make, and write a few lines
on who this contact might be, what you would say to them, what your networking objective
would be.

1. Network Map

Every person you meet is a potential network contact. Look for the ones who can contribute to
your objectives. Networking is not about the number of contacts you have but how resourceful
they are. Start mapping your network by grouping people into categories/groups. This may be
family, friends, teachers, professional associates, etc. Pen down the names of people you know
from each category, and build a directory of your professional network. Stay in contact and
keep a look out for other potential contacts they can introduce you to.

2. Elevator Pitch

Elevator Pitch revolves around two things, what you need from your contact, and what is in it
for them. Depending on the contacts, and your objectives for contacting them, elevator pitches
will change, but it typically includes:

1. your introduction (who you are and what you do),

2. your reason for approaching them (why you are here), and
3. what is in it for them (why should they be listening to you).

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To engage the other person, ask them about something (advice, information, about a mutual
contact, anything) to get them talking and give you something back. It gives you a reason to
contact them again.

While talking to a potential contact, look for the non-verbal cues to measure their interest. If
they are losing interest, politely excuse yourself. You cannot risk losing the contact. End the
talk by offering help in some way (offer the kind you can actually provide).

3.2.2 Networking Activities

When all is ready and you are well-prepared, get out there and look for chances to up your
networking game. Some events that might add to your network can be:

 Trade shows, and exhibitions

 Job fairs, and expositions
 Professional development events
 Conferences, and conventions
 Blogs, social media, and online forums

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4 Ethical Communication
Ethical communication is the moral aspect of group interaction.

4.1 Principals of Ethical Communication

Some of the principals to be followed to engage in ethical communication include:
 Honesty, understanding, and respect
 Discourage comm. that is offensive/derogatory, or promotes intolerance or bullying.
 Respecting privacy and confidentiality.
 Avoid offensive language, discriminatory/gender-biased terms, hate speech, etc.
 Pass on the information that has credible, and reputable source with reference.
 Avoid passing on inaccurate statements and speculation.

4.2 Political Correctness

Political correctness refers to the use of words which are not offensive for anyone. Some words
that are in use but are offending/discriminatory for some people, like:

 They/their – he/she or his/her

 Chairperson/police officer/IT personnel – chairman, policeman, IT guys
 People with diabetes – diabetics

There are other words that stereotype, and insult individuals. When working with a diverse
workforce, you should be sensitive to how others might feel. For example, use:
 Physically challenged, visually impaired, and senior – instead of using handicapped,
blind, and elderly.
Make sure that replacing certain words is not making it harder for you to communicate
accurately. For example, replacing:
 Death, garbage, quotas, and women with negative patient outcome, postconsumer
waste materials, educational equity, and people of gender.

4.3 Grapevine Communication

Grapevine is an informal channel for communication. It is unofficial, word-of-mouth

communication that has basis in rumour and gossip. It usually starts when some news or
development is expected and it is not yet announced officially. Due to the restlessness and

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insecurity of the members of an organization, rumours start to circulate. Only facts can counter
these rumours.

In organizations, Grapevine communication is sometimes introduced by the management to

assess the reaction employees will have to a certain change or information before it is officially
brought about. Whether feeding of false information is ethical or not, it is still an answered
question.

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5 Conflicts, and Negotiation
This topic explains the concept of Conflicts, and Negotiation, and details step-by-step a model
for each topic on how to approach the situation.

5.1 Conflicts

Conflicts are typically long duration disagreements or arguments between two parties over
varying or contradicting views about something.

5.1.1 Causes of Conflict

Some common things that can cause workplace conflict include, resources, personality and
attitude, perceptions, goals, pressures, and personal values.

5.1.2 The Interest-Based Relational Approach

The Interest-Based Relational (IBR) approach can be used to avoid that by resolving or
managing conflicts in a cooperative, civil way with mutual respect and understanding.

Six elements that come into play when conflicting parties use the IBR approach for effective
conflict resolution:

1. Good relationships should be kept a priority. Show respect, and be considerate.

2. Keep people and problems separate. It leads you to go deep into the issues without
damaging good relationships.
3. Listen carefully to different interests. Why the person in conflict with you has taken
a different position. Get a better understanding of their point of view.
4. Listen first, talk later. Before jumping to your defence, hear out what the other party
is saying. There might be something you missed out that would change your mind.
5. Lay out the facts. Set out the facts that might impact the decision.
6. Explore options together. Weigh the position of both parties and be open to the idea
that there might possibly be a third position. Reach the decision jointly.

5.1.2.1 Employing the IBR Approach

For this scenario, imagine that you are working in a software solutions company and two
managers, Zain and Nadia work closely with you. Zain works in software development
department and Nadia works in procurement department. Zain is excited to order new
processors that will increase the work efficiency of his department, whereas Nadia is keen to

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cut costs of the company. She can understand Zain's reasons behind it, but is unwilling to make
any new purchases. This has caused conflict between them and the tension is spreading among
the two departments.

1. Good relationships should be kept a priority

In this situation, you are playing a role of facilitator between Zain and Nadia. Encourage
them to respect each other’s points of view, and cooperate.

2. Keep people and problems separate

Nadia thinks that Zain is being demanding. Focus should be on the problem. The
problem is the affordability of the new processors for the company.

3. Listen carefully to different interests

Zain has assumed that Nadia is being unfair when she actually had a mandate to cut
costs. Nadia doesn't realize that Zain is under pressure to meet his targets.

4. Listen first, talk later

Both Nadia and Zain can only understand the situation better once they listen to the
other person.

5. Lay out the facts

On one hand the new processors will improve the work efficiency of the department,
which in turn will help meet the demands of customer, on the other hand its high cost
will affect the profitability.

6. Explore options together

Encourage both parties to weigh their existing options, and look for new ones together.

5.2 The Conflict Layer Model

To explore and be clear about your needs and position in a negotiation, The Conflict Layer
Model can be used.

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5.2.1 How to Apply the Model

Following steps are used to prepare for and do the negotiation.

5.2.1.1 Know your Interest and your Position

Saba is a coordinator for a hospitality company that plans to build a hotel in a famous tourist
attraction. She has to negotiate for this with the Ministry of Tourism officials. The officials are
opposing the idea of building a new hotel but keen to attract more tourists to the area.

To prepares for the negotiation, Saba needs to start by looking at her position and her interests.

1. Saba's Position (what she wants)

Saba's company wants a to build a hotel in the tourist attraction.

2. Saba's Interests (why she wants it)

The company wants the hotel in this area so that it can benefit from high levels of tourist traffic,
and profit by getting involved in festivals and events of local populace.

5.2.1.2 Know your Needs

1. Saba's Needs

The company needs a good profit, and a good location to do that. Company also needs to
acquire a good repute among the local community so that their new hotel is viable in the long
term.

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5.2.1.3 Negotiate

Saba explains the true needs of her hospitality company to Ministry officials. The officials do
the same showing that their needs overlap with the company’s. Both sides want to attract more
tourists to the area.

The Ministry officials are, however, concerned that the hotel might have a negative impact on
natural beauty of the area, and it might compete with local motels.

Both parties commence a more formal discussion. Focus should be on their shared needs and
interests to get the maximum out of the discussion. Officials agree that they will grant the
company permission to open their hotel if they agree on competitive pricing and cause minimal
interference in natural beauty of the area.

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6 Specific Contexts in Communication
6.1 Delivering the Bad News
Delivering bad news can be exhausting and draining. You feel bad yourself. When you have to
deliver bad news, you try to cushion the blow. Bad news often taints the image of the person
delivering it. To avoid this, you try to shift some of the blame. By letting your emotions guide
the way you deliver the news, you risk not sending the right message. Its side effects can be:

 Deliberate damage to office property and information

 Insecurity among the co-workers
 Losing a promising and capable rehire if circumstances improves

Be direct and honest, no matter who made the decision under what circumstances.

1. Things to do before the Termination Meeting

Things to do before the occasion arises:

 Hold regular appraisals and performance reviews

 Inform people what is expected of them
 Establish clear company policies about what can be the grounds for termination
 Keep workers informed about the state of the company

Things to do when the occasion has risen:

 Keep their data backed up in case the disgruntled employee attempts to destroy it.
 Keep the time between the decision and meeting minimum to keep yourself from
second guessing.
2. Things to do during the Termination Meeting
 Immediate boss should be the one to break the bad news.
 Time and location should be free of interruptions and should give some privacy.
 Be direct and concise, and give honest reason for the termination.
 Avoid getting into details to keep them from arguing or trying to change your mind.
 Allow them to express themselves, but don’t let their emotions affect your decision.
 Do not need to be sorry for the decision. Be sure that you have a strong reason for this.
 Go through the HR policies about their severance package and pending dues.

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 3. Things to do after the Termination Meeting

Devise a plan on how to handle the remaining employees. In case this is a lay-off, you might
be doing this multiple times.

 Make sure they do not have the chance to damage your property or business.
 Assess the impact the termination might have on other workers
 Plan for a replacement of the former incumbent, or handing out their duties to others.
 Show a sign of goodwill by offering them to place recommendation calls.
 Be available and open for communication for the remaining workers.
 Talk about the reason (market condition, redundancy, workers’ performance, violation
of company policy).

6.2 Communicating Bad News to Customers

Even though you try your best to satisfy your clients, things go wrong. Things may go wrong
can be:

 External issues (problems on subcontractor’s or suppliers end, or natural disaster, etc.)

 Internal issues (problems at your end, mistake of an employee, critical data loss,
scheduling error, etc.)
 Turning down a request (can’t get some particular specifications, can’t meet the
timeline, etc.)
 Negative policy changes (price hike, no-return policy, etc.)

If this is a huge opportunity, a big client, or the issue might affect your multiple clients, it can
be very difficult to deliver the news, and it might have big repercussions.

1. Focus on the Outcome Customer Wants: Show them that you are on their side and you
get their wants and needs. Not communicating this effectively might make you look
like an obstacle standing between them and what they want.
2. Take Responsibility, Avoid Blame Shifting: Take responsibility. Shifting blame and
making excuses puts you in a bad light. It might make you look as incompetent and
unable to manage your business.
3. Tell Them What to Expect Now: Clearly lay out the what’s and when’s of what they
can expect so that they know they can depend on you.

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 4. Reaffirm the Customer about Your Commitment: Tell them about what you value in
them and why you value it and that you are looking forward to have a long business
relationship with them.
5. Make Clear What You’re Doing to Make It Better: Give them some overview of how
the issues are being fixed and what measures are being taken to avoid it in the future.

Optionally, offer a gift in the form of a discount, or some other thing that shows you can do
over and above what is asked for.

6.3 Apology

An apology is expression of regret and acknowledgement of the distress caused to someone.

6.3.1 Why Apologize?

To start the rebuilding of trust and relationship with the other person.

6.3.2 Cost of Not Apologizing

 It can damage your relationships,

 It can destroy your reputation,
 It might come in the way of your career advancement, and
 It affects your other workplace connections.

6.3.3 Why Apologies Are Difficult?

Admitting mistakes leaves you exposed to attacks and blames that makes it difficult to gather
courage for apologizing. Being embarrassment and mortified over your mistakes also makes it
hard for you to face the other person.

6.3.4 How to Apologize Appropriately?

Follow a four-step framework to come about admitting your mistake.

1. Show Remorse

Start with the actual apology expressing remorse.

For example, "I'm sorry, I shouted at you the day before. I feel bad about the way I treated
you."

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 2. Take Responsibility

Admit responsibility. Show that you understand what they went through due to your mistake.

For example, "I realize that I hurt you the other day when I shouted at you. I must have caused
you embarrassment in front of the whole team. I shouldn’t have treated you like that."

3. Make Amends

Try to make the situation better by offering something you can do for them. Offer only if you
can actually go through with it.

For example, "If I can do anything to make up for this, please do ask."

4. It won’t Happen Again

End your apology with a reassurance that you will not repeat what you did.

For example, "From now on, I'll try to avoid this from happening. Please do point out if
something like this happens again."

6.3.5 More Approaches for Effective Apologies:

Some other points should also be kept in mind while delivering an apology.

1. Don't Offer Excuses

Offering explanations might serve as an excuse for your behaviour.

For example, "I'm sorry that I shouted at you the other day. I have been under a lot of stress
due to my office workload and I am having troubles at my home."

Here, the other person might feel that he was at fault by disturbing you at the wrong time.

2. Don't Expect Instant Forgiveness

Apologize but be accepting of the fact that the other person might not be ready to forgive you
yet.

For example, "I understand, you might not be prepared to forgive me right away. I just want to
say sorry for the way I treated you."

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 3. Be Aware of Legal Ramifications

Before apologizing on behalf of your organization, keep in mind the law and policies of the
regions. An apology may be taken as an admission of liability or guilt. Talking with your
higher-ups and getting guidance from your legal counsel before apologizing is advisable.

6.4 Saying No

Saying “no” is not very hard but very few people can do it assertively. To do it well, “no” can
be said in three easy steps.

1. Start by saying something thoughtful and considerate like:

 It is nice of you to offer, but…
 Thank you for asking, but…
2. Then refuse by simply saying:
 No, sorry.
 No, thank you.
3. And finally, state the decision you have made, like:
 I would rather…
 I have decided/decided not to…
4. An optional step can be suggesting an alternative, like:
 Would you like to…?
 Why not … instead?

Giving a reason is not necessary, but you can state your reason if you know and trust them not
to try and change your mind. If they still insist, be as firm on your decision. If the situation is
getting awkward, you can make a light joke by saying something like: “I don’t give up easily”
or “I’m getting better at saying no.”

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