Robin Kinross I want to start by asking you
Paul Mijksenaar:
a conversation
and a lecture
Robin Kinross
The first text printed here is
the lightly edited transcript of a
conversation with Paul Mijks-
enaar, recorded at his office in
October 1 9 9 1 . After training
as a product designer, Mijks-
enaar started in 1966 to work
in industrial & graphic design.
In the 1980s he was with Total
Design in Amsterdam. In 1986
he set up his own office; its
principal area of work, and the
main subject of this conversa­
tion, is the design of public
information. In 1 9 9 1 the office
took on the job of revising the
signing at Schiphol airport.
Mijksenaar has written arti­
cles and published booklets
and calendars about design;
for a time ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 8 ) he also
taught part-time at the Tech­
nische Hogeschool (now Univ­
ersiteit) at Delft. In January
1993, Paul Mijksenaar was
appointed professor in the
Industrial Design faculty there,
with special responsibility for
visual information design. His
inaugural lecture summarized
several current strands of
interest in information design,
and an account of it follows
the conversation.
Information Design Journal 7:2 (1993), 105–114. DOI 10.1075/idj.7.2.02kin
ISSN 0142–5471 / E-ISSN 1569–979X © John Benjamins Publishing Company
about the relation between academic research
and practical design. You are someone who has
done both, and tried to relate research to prac-
tice.
Paul Mijksenaar And that is the most interest-
ing thing - to use research. Most clients cannot
be interested in this, because of time and
money: they just want a solution., drawn from
their own and the designer's experience. We
emphasize research., and sometimes the client is
interested and has the money to do something.
I always like to try to make a step forward.
K You have had a long connection with the
industrial design department at the Delft Tech-
nische Universiteit. Has this fed back into your
design work?
M Yes, for example we did tests for the road-
side signs at Schiphol. We made slides for dif-
ferent signs, and placed them electronically in
an existing situation. We did this - with Theo
Boersema, an ergonomist and psychologist,
who works at Delft. We were interested to see
if there was a difference between the existing
road-sign system and a new system, with new
colours, and in other respects different. Some
people were afraid that if we introduced a new
system for the airport only, then drivers would
be confused. That was tested in Delft.
Before this, we tested the names of destina-
Robin Kinross is a typographer and
tions that we put on the airport signs. For exam- small publisher. He writes about the
ple, for the departures hall we tested what were theory and history of graphic design.
the best descriptive terms: 'passengers', 'depart-
Authors' addresses
ing passengers', 'departing flights' - about ten
Robin Kinross
of them. And we had to differentiate between 5 1 Grafton Road
visitors who are going to catch a flight, and London NW5 3DX
England
those who come just to look at the aeroplanes.
Paul Mijksenaar
At Heathrow they have a good solution: the Bureau Paul Mijksenaar
second group is called 'spectators'. We tried Dreeftoren
Haaksbergweg 15
to find a Dutch equivalent for that.
1 1 0 1 BP Amsterdam Bullewijk
K You tested the signs in situ? The Netherlands
M N o , that was another kind of test. You
can't show people ten signs on the same occa-
105
 Robin Kinross ■ Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture
sion. We made words on plastic cards. Each
expression, with about six to eight alternatives.
People were told what the goal of the message
was, and then they had to rank the alternatives,
from least good to best. T h e important thing
was that they were not asked what they found
best, but what they thought other people would
find best (or what would result in the least mis-
takes) . This gets round the fact that, for exam-
ple, some people may be too familiar with the
airport. We did this also with pictograms. It is
an indirect approach to the problem. People
were also able to suggest their own solutions
too, though only a very few did this. There
were some interesting findings. Especially for
the signs about people coming to meet trav-
ellers. Sometimes it seems that English is
more appropriate for many purposes.
K On public signs?
M Yes. Sometimes it's not even shorter,
which is crazy, because, compared with Dutch,
German, or French, English text is usually the
shortest in length. But, for example 'departing
flights' (16 characters and a space). We would
call it 'vertrekvluchten' (15 characters) in just
one word. Sometimes the English is even longer
than this, comparatively. But I'm not a linguist.
T h e n there is the problem of 'British English' or
'American English'. At the moment Schiphol
prefers British English, because most passen-
gers have that as their version of the language.
In design, I always like to get to the informa-
tion itself: to do research, to clarify the informa-
tion, sometimes to work with others - such as
the people who write the information.
K Then is there another stage of testing, of
the design proposal?
M Well, with pictograms, you know there is
an ISO standard on testing, which is very com-
plicated: a ranking test, an appropriateness test
- two tests - and, if you do it well, you have to
do it in different continents. It's expensive to
do; just now the English representative on the
Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114
106
ISO committee is thinking about a shorter pro-
cess. 1 Most of the symbols that we use are ISO
symbols. But, for example, for 'transfer passen-
gers', we designed a new one, and tested it in
printed booklets with information about Schip-
hol - and saw how people reacted. It depends:
I don't think you have to test everything. Some-
times you just have to test if people understand
it; not if they like it, or think it's beautiful.
K That raises another matter I wanted to ask
about: what one might call 'pleasure'. How do
you regard the element, of pleasure, say, in
looking, at a sign?
M Sometimes there's a tendency to be just a
functional or ergonomic designer, which is dif-
ferent from design for pleasure. Sometimes I'm
so busy with the underlying aspects - function-
al, ergonomic - that I have no time to 'design'.
That's sometimes a problem. In this respect we
are completely the opposite to Gert Dumbar,
for example. Sometimes I look for more 'plea-
sure', more time for 'designing'. I like a lot of
Gert Dumbar's work, because it has something
open: he is able to spend time on finding nice
solutions. 2 We never permit ourselves that
time. There must be a link between these two
areas.
K But, what is this 'pleasure'? Can you pin
it down?
M Sometimes you can come to a solution by
just a functional approach. You narrow down
all the possibilities systematically. There are
perhaps two different approaches.
One is if, at the final stage, there is more than
one way to do something, and each is function-
ally OK, then as a designer I think 'do I like it?'
or 'maybe we can do something new with this?'
1 Jeremy Foster: his proposal for a new ISO procedure for
the development of public information symbols was pub-
lished in IDJ 6/2, as 'Standardising public information
symbols'.
2 Gert Dumbar is a Dutch graphic designer, working with
Studio Dumbar in The Hague; he is one of the most wide-
ly noticed post-modernist designers of the 1980s.
 Robin Kinross ■ Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture
or I make a visual appeal so that people are
attracted. Like the 'AIDA' formula., used in the
sales and marketing world: Attraction., Interest,
Desire, Action. That's nothing to do with ergo-
nomics as such, which then becomes just a side-
line. I think that when you are designing things
you have to let people feel comfortable and
happy with something, even though this is not
'functional'. But if people like signs - though
which madman actually likes signs? - I think it's
because they are aware of a sign as part of a sys-
tem. They are attracted by that aspect: which is
a 'functional' one. But this is one way: a func-
tional approach, and then you add the 'plea-
sure' (perhaps colour, or, some other element)
at the last moment.
Then you could approach 'function' from
another direction. For example, yesterday in a
car park I noticed this problem: how to code the
floors so that people can remember where they
left their car, perhaps after several days. You
can do it 'functionally', by numbers, or by
colour. People who are not very familiar with
design often want to do this: but it can be diffi-
cult, because there are so many different colour
coding systems already in this area. And, for
example, if you are in the 'red section' you may
not be aware that there are other colours or sec-
tions, so that information has to be stated too,
perhaps on the ticket. They do this at Orly air-
port. But it can be very abstract. You see four
colours, and one is accented, with an arrow or
something. Many people are not aware that this
is telling them something. They just think 'oh
that's nice'. Another approach is what they do
at Disneyland: one part is called 'Pluto', anoth-
er is 'Mickey Mouse', and so on. When you
leave, you are told to remember that your car is
in 'Pluto', and this is repeated many times by
different means, perhaps even by little Plutos.
There is no typographic or abstract coding here.
It's a very different approach for a designer. It
has to do with pleasure, and also with function.
Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114
107
Another example is grids. They can be bor-
ing: always the same grid. Jock Kinneir3 said to
me once that a grid - or a manual - is a tool for
the designer. I've always remembered that. He
meant that the designer must always be allowed
to change the grid or the manual: that is only
where you start from. Within a visual identity,
you can make exceptions, which, in a way,
emphasize the grid - because they don't fit it.
K It sounds a bit dangerous: if you have a
large group of designers, all changing the grid
as they wish ...
M Of course. But, take the IBM identity.
There is really only one element that you are
never allowed to change - the logo - and I'm
not even sure about that. IBM's strategy is to
hire top-quality designers, architects, and then
they are sure that they always have design
quality, and they can rely on the house style -
sometimes it is just winked at. For example, an
advertisement for the company that had a row-
ing oar painted with blue and white stripes, as
the only element of the house style. That is one
level of 'quality'. You cannot prescribe that.
A manual serves, let's say, 80 or 90 per cent of
normal business, especially design on paper.
But for a sign system and how you put signs on
a building, or for the annual report, you need
something more than a manual. You know the
booklet that London Transport have just
issued?4 It's not a real manual, more a set of
recommendations. There are rules and guide-
lines. I like this combination.
K Have you changed over the years in this?
Is this an approach that comes with learning
from experience?
M Yes, I think so. Especially in corporate
identity, there's been a lot of thinking and writ-
ing over the years. We don't do much corporate
3 British graphic designer: his practice, Kinneir/Calvert,
was responsible for a series of major public signing systems
in the 1960s and 1970s.
4 'How to use the London Transport corporate identity',
London Transport internal document [no date; 1990/91?]
 Robin Kinross • Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture
identity work, so this is more a theoretical point.
K You have been involved in the new PTT
identity. 5
M We structured the manual. I was the editor
of the design manual, and produced the con-
cept of the different parts, and so on. T h e inter-
esting thing is that it is not a real 'manual'. It
doesn't give measurements; there are hardly any
rules in it. It is only a kind of appetizer, giving
the spirit of the house style. I like that approach.
For anything to be designed - a business card,
or booklet, or building - you have to follow a
kind of logistical route, by numbers, through
contact addresses. You are never allowed to do
things on your own. It's more like a catalogue.
'What do I need? How can I get it?' Well, you
phone someone.
K And the books were designed and produced
to support this, with a lot of colour and complex
printing.
M Yes. T h e corporate identity scheme itself
was largely designed by Dawn Barrett, who
introduced the principle of 'levels'. A business
card is on the lowest level: the unique informa-
tion on it is just a person's name. At the highest
level, work must be done by qualified designers,
in collaboration with a qualified advisor at the
P T T . At that level the designer has a lot of free-
dom: only the logo should be there. Just now
we are working on a manual for brochures and
booklets - on the first or second levels - which
really is a tool for people to make their own
booklets, without a designer. For example, this
might be a leaflet of telephone instructions.
K What about the relation between signs and
architecture? It seems that all the time you have
to fight the architecture.
M I think this is true. I have given talks about
it to interior designers and architects. I think
5 With its privatization in 1989, a new 'corporate image'
for the Dutch postal and telecommunications service - the
PTT - was introduced. The principal designers were Studio
Dumbar, for whom Dawn Barrett was working.
Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114
108
there is a lack of awareness about these prob-
lems. It is always that a new building is made -
and there is no place to fix a sign on it. And then
there has to be a large construction just to put a
sign on a building. But architects don't like let-
ters on their buildings: neither inside nor out.
It seems they do everything to put difficulties in
the way. T h e n if the firm has letters as part of
the building - which can be marvellous - they
will eventually move (as with the McGraw-Hill
building in New York). It's a problem of mod-
ern commercial life, but architects hardly con-
sider it. And then there is the problem of
entrances. I've seen many buildings where you
can't find the entrance. So you have to put a
sign pointing to the entrance - crazy.
K It's not changing?
M Yes, a little. Thanks to postmodernism,
you have Greek entrances. At least it is an
entrance, and you don't have to put a sign to
show where it is.
Then in the interior there are strange things.
Where corridors cross, I could in theory point
out, beforehand, all the possibilities for placing
signs. There are not so many: on the ceiling or
the wall. But you never find a ceiling that can
easily carry a sign, although now they are all
designed to take lighting systems. Doors some-
times have a 'service panel' for lighting or tele-
phone wires, but no place for a sign. It amazes
me! It is only when the building is finished that
the architects or designers think about it, and
then we have to find solutions. I think in their
hearts they don't even like people in buildings.
K Yes, and they never photograph their new
buildings with people in them.
M Nor after a year of use, when people have
begun to modify their rooms, with holiday post-
cards stuck on the walls! I once wrote a little
article about difficult relations with architects.
K Can I ask you about your archive of infor-
mation design. It seems a remarkable thing.
M It's not so much an archive, more a docu-
 Robin Kinross ■ Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture

mentation centre. It has current resources, like

manuals for sign systems or surveys of trade
marks. There are no Blaeu atlases. It's not a
museum, but a resource to consult while we are
designing, here in the office. It became a formal
thing, because I found I had covered some fields
rather completely - pictograms, symbols, trade
marks, cartography, typography. And for pic-
tograms, there are not just books about the sub-
ject, but specimens too - for example on pack-
aging. This is something that is not done by
many other people: to collect the real things.
Then I've always collected interesting work by
colleagues - Jan van Toorn, Wim Crouwel,
Anthon Beeke, Gert Dumbar - just as it came
to me, not looking for it especially or buying it.
All the calendars I made for Mart. Spruijt are
based on the collection.
K And it's now established as a 'Stichting',
a foundation.
M Yes, that was done to get government
funds, which we didn't get in the end. But there
are discussions about a design institute here in
the Netherlands, and where it should be estab-
lished: Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam,
Eindhoven .. . 6 But, of course, it's a matter of
money, and nothing is sure yet. T h e people I
asked about this said 'wait until the institute is
established, and then you can get your own
affiliation to that, for the documentation cen-
tre'. At the moment, I know everything that's in
the collection, but it is very difficult to make it
accessible to anyone who might want to use it.
We would have to make our own classification
system and apply it: an enormous job. So at the
moment it's a private collection: open to profes-
sional colleagues to come here and use, if they
pay for it. For students or researchers, it's free,
apart, from expenses such as photocopying.

6 In February 1993 a director for this Vormgevingsinstituut

was appointed: the British journalist and soi-disant 'cultur-
al engineer' John Thackera. In 1994 it will open officially in
Amsterdam, with a budget of three million guilders.

Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114

109
 Robin Kinross • Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture
Paul Mijksenaar's Delft lecture
As a professor in the Faculty of Industrial
Design at the Technische Universiteit Delft,
Paul Mijksenaar is preceded by two other
graphic designers: R. D . E. Oxenaar and Wim
Crouwel. But where they have seen themselves
as just 'graphic designers', Mijksenaar has for
many years chosen to identify himself as an
information designer. He has published and lec-
tured widely on the subject, and has been an
editorial advisor to IDJ since its inception. Thus
although the job at Delft involves attendance
just one day a week, his professorship is a mat-
ter of significance for the public recognition of
information design.
Paul Mijksenaar's inaugural lecture at Delft,
delivered on 20 January 1993, was a summary
and explanation of the scope of information
design. It opened with a set of examples of the
failure of certain designed objects in everyday
life, which can often be seen as failures of infor-
mation design. For example: public transport
maps in Amsterdam and in New York that have
had to be withdrawn, because of users' inability
to understand them.
Mijksenaar went on to consider the issue of
'form and function', as it has been theorized
especially by architects over many years. These
formulations seem continually to rehearse the
three conditions of good building, as put for-
ward by the Roman architect Vitruvius: 'com-
modity, firmness, and delight'. He proposed a
specifically Dutch adaptation of the triad: a '3-B
formula' of betrouwbaarheid (reliability), bruik-
baarheid (usefulness), bevrediging (pleasure).
This could be shown visually by a kind of three-
part thermometer, shown as an inverted Y.
Products then receive a more complex evalua-
tion than one that relies on a single-factor
description. For example, in Mijksenaar's view,
the Dutch road-signs surpass the British ones in
usefulness, but are noticeably less pleasurable;
Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114
110
in reliability the two are about equal. He sug-
gested that the openness of this way of looking
at things also had the advantage of avoiding
dogma in design.
Two instances of design dogma are now
being tackled in the work that Bureau
Mijksenaar is doing at Schiphol airport. Text
set without capital letters was one of the ideals
of the New Typography movement, which grew
up in Germany in the 1920s. The idea was
adopted in the Netherlands, and was still in
vogue when in 1967 Total Design worked on
the signing for Schiphol, which does without
capitals. But even at that time there was enough
evidence to support the view that initial capitals
help recognition of words in signs, especially
words of importance. 7 Another dogma also had
its effect on the new Schiphol of 1967: that pic-
tograms in signing are inferior to verbal state-
ment, and lead to noise rather than commun-
ication. But meanwhile they have entered com-
mon use, especially in the instructions provided
with globally distributed consumer goods.
From May 1993, signs that use initial capital
letters will be installed at Schiphol, and picto-
grams will be introduced too.
This brought the discussion back to the
Vitruvian conditions and to Mijksenaar's 3-B
adaptation of them. Referring to Donald
Norman's The psychology of everyday things, he
attempted to sum it all up. 'Information must
be as simple, clear and unambiguous as possi-
ble, but rich in details and preferably imparted
in discrete parts or levels, through which each
user can find what they particularly want: "for
everyone what they desire".' But then he added
an unfashionable qualification: 'The challenge
to researchers and students is to further eluci-
date these basic principles of design and to
7 Around that time Mijksenaar himself wrote an article
about 'typography in signing: or the struggle between aes-
thetics and the slide-rule': 'Typografie bij bewegwijzering:
of de strijd tussen esthetiek en rekenliniaal', Graficus
Revue, vol. 53, no. 3, 1971.
 Robin Kinross . Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture

Signing at
Schipol airport
before Bureau
Mijksenaar's
redesign.

Schipol in July
1993, with the
new signing
and informa­
tion system in
operation.

Configuration
of a public
information
display screen:
text under the
headings alter­
nates between
Dutch and
English.

Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114

111
 Robin Kinross ■ Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture
investigate the possibilities of a social., collective
grammar for conveying information through
image and text'.
T h e next part of the lecture resumed the his-
tory of visual information or data graphics, from
Nicolas Oresme through Descartes, William
Playfair, Charles Joseph Minard, and Otto
Neurath: unknown perhaps to students of
industrial design, but familiar territory to read-
ers of IDJ. T o this history Mijksenaar appended
graphic representations of the disaster at
Amsterdam Bijlmermeer in October 1992,
when an El Al aircraft crashed into a council
housing block. He showed a computer anima-
tion reconstructing the events, and also an
'infographic' shown on television news. In its
conjunction of different kinds of information to
build a total picture, the latter recalled Minard's
celebrated diagram of Napoleon's retreat from
Moscow. This led Mijksenaar to consider the
factors in chosing the means of graphic presen-
tation - drawing or photography, abstraction or
realism - and to conclude that pragmatic and
contextual considerations would always be
decisive. Nevertheless, as against purely verbal
or textual means, 'images allow an alternative
perception and they motivate the user'.
This discussion of images was then taken fur-
ther by Mijksenaar. Jacques Bertin in his Sémi-
ologie graphique (1967) had proposed a taxono-
my of 'graphic variables': size, tone, texture,
direction, colour and form. Although taken up
by some cartographers, the theory remains
unknown to graphic designers: and even if they
have heard of it, it doesn't lend itself to practical
application.
Over the years, Mijksenaar has tried to make
a variant taxonomy that would be more man-
ageable and practically relevant. He outlined
this as follows. First one can make a two-part
division between those variables that make a
difference in importance or hierarchy, from oth-
ers that make a difference in kind or category.
Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114
112
Examples of the first are size and tone-value;
examples of the second are colour and form.
Then there are supporting elements that serve
to accentuate or help bring order: for example,
lines or rules, areas of colour, overall frame-
works. Differences both in importance and in
kind can be expressed by these means too. This
division of visual elements allows and encour-
ages an analysis of the content of whatever is
being designed. One would start with a matrix
analysis of content or function, which also
includes the possible appearing elements in an
artefact. Interactive media allow the testing of
items in development: he gave an example of a
photocopier control panel.
The ergonomic approach to design, especially
to typography, can be salutary. For example, it
suggests that priority lies with the large factors
of intelligibility, of spatial sequence and direc-
tion. Type size and line-length follow. Less
important still is typeface design. And yet
choice of typeface is where many designers
start, sometimes even adding a new one to the
60,000 or so that already exist. In Mijksenaar's
ergonomically influenced view, 'time' is the
most important element. This is well known to
architects, exhibition designers and film direc-
tors; but graphic designers often don't recog-
nize it. With a book or a screen, 'time' means
the sequence and also the direction of reading
or use. Although the visionary New Typograph-
ers of the 1920s spoke of the 'bioscopic book',
graphic designers have forgotten this. They may
use devices such as transparent paper, emboss-
ing, or fold-outs on booklets, but for no pur-
pose: it just seems false.
Turning away from contemplation of all this
designerism, Paul Mijksenaar took up a
favourite theme: homage to the everyday. The
traditional assumption that design is a branch of
the visual arts needs to be questioned. Certainly
designers can also find rich inspiration in music,
nature or technics. And the everyday world is a
 Robin Kinross . Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture

source of richness, even those objects consid-

ered banal, ordinary, ugly. The study of such
things [like those shown on this page] for inspi-
ration rather than imitation, can encourage
fresh and surprising work. 8
Between the worlds of research and practice,
there is a gap. In Mijksenaar's own words, it is
as follows. 'On the one hand, the results of sci-
entific research are overwhelming; on the other
hand, it is distressing to see how little research
finds its way back into the design of visual infor-
mation. For this we must first blame the
researchers. The average research report is
absolutely inaccessible to lay people. And with
its conclusions and recommendations - which is
what all the talk is about - the practically mind-
ed designer is almost made ill by the many
'reservations', which would not be out of place
in the small print of an insurance policy. So
designers find other priorities. Self-expression,
creativity, experiment, and 'boundary-breaking'
are what motivate them. All this is to the detri-
ment of their profession, and of any under-
standing of the communicative task of a
product: usefulness and reliability. T h e perpe-
trators or victims of this distorted view are
becoming teachers now. So it will take time and
struggle before some balance can be restored
between content and form, a balance that
allows recognition for 'pleasurable function'.
T h e application of microelectronics is making
products ever more multi-functioning. Instruct-
ional manuals get ever thicker, control panels
more complex. The time has come to reverse
the usual priorities: to start the design process
8 Among the calendars that Mijksenaar compiled and
designed for the printer Mart. Spruijt, two were devoted to
this idea. 'Gebruiksaanwijzingen' ('Instructions for use'), 1. Need the biggest (or the smallest) drive
of 1981/82, showed greatly enlarged details of visual r i v e t s made? Southco h a s them on the shefl
Plus plenty in between . . . f r o m ⅛", to ½"
instructions for a razor, a tooth-brush, toys, etc. In 'Nooit diameter. Only Southco stocks a l l of these
bij stil gestaan...'. ('Never thought about it...') of 1985/86,
everyday items - spoon, sugar-lump, coat-hanger, etc -
were shown in detail-revealing black & white photographs.
(See the illustration on page 109.)

Information design journal 7/2 (1993) 105-114

113
 Robin Kinross ■ Paul Mijksenaar: a conversation and a lecture

with the control panel, the manual, the captions

or the sign-system. We should take our bearings
from users, their limits and possibilities. And
only then design the product. For example,
we could pick up the work that the industrial
designer Henry Dreyfuss carried out in his
Symbol sourcebook (1972), which in turn carried
on previous work by Otto Neurath and others.
A particular instance, now being affected by
new means of communication, is the safety
instructions given to air passengers. In place of
the familiar plan-with-illustrations, could one
do better with photographs or videos? Or
should the life-belts first be redesigned?
Paul Mijksenaar closed his lecture with
another quotation about form and function.
T h e debate over design theory has been domi-
nated by the sayings of American and German
architects, but we could do better with a credo
formulated in around 1873 by a great Dutch
writer, Multatuli. 'Seek - through very diligent
work, you experts in art! - to empower content.
T h e n form will be delivered to you.'

Bertin, J. 1967. Sémiologie graphique, Paris: Mouton.

Dreyfuss, H. 1972. Symbol source book, New York:
McGraw-Hill
Norman, D. 1988 The psychology of everyday things, New
York: Basic Books.

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