PHYS 114 – Lecture Notes

What is Physics?
Physics is the study of matter and energy and their relationships.

CHAPTER 1: Unit Systems

Fundamental Dimensions
Physics is a science based upon exact measurement of physical quantities that are dependent upon three
fundamental dimensions. The three fundamental or primary dimensions are mass, length, and time. These three
fundamental units must be understood in order to lay the foundation for the many concepts and principles presented
in this material.

Mass
Mass is the amount of material present in an object. This measurement describes "how much" material makes up an
object. Often, mass and weight are confused as being the same because the units used to describe them are similar.
Weight (a derived unit, not a fundamental unit) is a measurement that describes the force of gravity on the "mass"
of an object.

Length
Length is the distance between two points. The concept of length is needed to locate the position of a point in space
and thereby describe the size of a physical object or system. When measuring a length of pipe, the ends of the pipe
are the two points and the distance between the two points is the length. A typical unit used to describe length is the
"foot."

Time
Time is the duration between two instants. The measurement of time is described in units of seconds, minutes, or
hours.

Units
A number alone is not sufficient to describe a physical quantity. For example, to say that "a pipe must be 4 long to
fit" has no meaning unless a unit of measurement for length is also specified. By adding units to the number, it
becomes clear, "a pipe must be 4 feet long to fit."

The unit defines the magnitude of a measurement. If we have a measurement of length, the unit used to describe the
length could be a foot or yard, each of which describes a different magnitude of length. The importance of
specifying the units of a measurement for a number used to describe a physical quantity is doubly emphasized when
it is noted that the same physical quantity may be measured using a variety of different units. For example, length
may be measured in meters, inches, miles, furlongs, fathoms, kilometers, or a variety of other units.

Units of measurement have been established for use with each of the fundamental dimensions mentioned previously.
The following section describes the unit systems in use today and provides examples of units that are used in each
system.

Unit Systems
There are two unit systems in use at the present time, English units and International System of Units (SI). In the
United States, the English system is currently used. This system consists of various units for each of the
fundamental dimensions or measurements. These units are shown in Table 1.

* Standard unit of measure

The English system is presently used in the field of engineering and throughout the United States. The foot-pound-
second (FPS) system is the usual unit system used in the U.S. when dealing with physics.

Over the years there have been movements to standardize units so that all countries, including the United States,
will adopt the SI system. The SI system is made up of two related systems, the meter-kilogram-second (MKS)
system and the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system.

The MKS and CGS systems are much simpler to use than the English system because they use a decimal-based
system in which prefixes are used to denote powers of ten. For example, one kilometer is 1000 meters, and one
centimeter is one one-hundredth of a meter. The English system has odd units of conversion. For example, a mile is
5280 feet, and an inch is one twelfth of a foot.

The MKS system is used primarily for calculations in the field of physics while both the MKS and CGS systems
are used in the field of chemistry. The units for each of these systems are shown in Tables 2 and 3 below.

The following tables show approximate lengths, masses, and times for some familiar objects or events.
Derived Measurements
Most physical quantities have units that are combinations of the three fundamental dimensions of length, mass, and
time. When these dimensions or measurements are combined, they produce what are referred to as derived units.
This means that they have been "derived" from one or more fundamental measurements. These combinations of
fundamental measurements can be the combination of the same or different units. The following are examples of
various derived units.

Area
Area is the product of two lengths (e.g., width x length for a rectangle); thus, it has the units of length squared, such
as square inches (in.2) or square meters (m2).
1 m x 1 m= 1 m2
4 in. x 2 in. = 8 in.2

Volume
Volume is the product of three lengths (e.g., length x width x depth for a rectangular solid); thus, it has the units of
length cubed, such as cubic inches (in.3) or cubic meters (m3). The MKS and CGS unit systems have a specific unit
for volume called the liter (l). One liter is equal to 1000 cubic centimeters (1 l = 1000 cm3).
2 in. x 3 in. x 5 in. = 30 in.3

Density
Density is a measure of the mass of an object per unit volume; thus, it has units of mass divided by length cubed
such as kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) or pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3).
15 lbs/5 ft3 = 3 lbs/ft3

Velocity
Velocity is the change in length per unit time; thus, it has units such as kilometers per hour (km/h) or feet per
second (ft/s).

Acceleration
Acceleration is a measure of the change in velocity or velocity per unit time; thus, it has units such as centimeters
per second per second (cm/s2) or feet per second per second (ft/s2).

Scientific Notation
Sometimes, quantities take up much space and are difficult to use in calculations. In such cases, we express decimal
places as powers of ten. This method is called exponential notation. Scientific notation is based on exponential
notation. In Scientific notation, the numerical part of a measurement is expressed as a number between 1 and 10
multiplied by a whole-number power of 10..

For example, 5000 meters can be written as 5 x 103m.

The mass of a car can is about 1,000kg 1 x 103 kg.
The mass of a softball is about 180 or 1.8 x 10-1 kg.

To write measurement using scientific notation, move the decimal point until only one non-zero digit remains on
the left. Then count the number of places the decimal point was moved and use that number as the exponent of ten.
In Scientific notation, the numerical part of a measurement is expressed as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied
by a whole-number power of 10.
M x 10n

The mass of the earth may be written as 6 x 1024 kg.

The mass of an electron may be written as 9 x 10-31 kg.
The mass of a typical Filipino may be written as 6 x 101 kg.

Problems:
1) 5800 meters
2) 450,000 meters
3) 302,000,000 meters
4) 86,000,000,000 meters
5) 0.000508 kg
6) 0.00000045 kg
7) 0.003600 kg
8) 0.004 kg
9) 300,000,000 seconds
10) 186,000 seconds
11) What is the equivalent of 500 millimeters in meters? (Scientific notation)
12) What is the equivalent of 30 grams in kilograms?
Arithmetic Operations in Scientific Notation

1) To add or subtract numbers with the same exponent, simply add or subtract the values of M and keep the same n.
4 × 108 m + 3 × 108 m =

2) If the powers of ten are not the same, they must be made the same before the numbers are added or subtracted.
Move the decimal points until the exponents are the same.
4 × 106 m + 3 × 105 m =
4 × 10−6 kg − 3 × 10−7 kg =

3) If the units are not the same (e.g. meters to kilometers). First, convert the measurements to a common unit, then
make the power of ten the same. Finally, add or subtract.
4.1 m + 1.5468 km =
2.31 × 10−2 g + 6.1 mg =

4) To multiply quantities expressed in exponential notation, multiply the values of M, then add the exponents. The
units are multiplied.
(3 × 106 m) (2 × 103 m) =

5) To divide the quantities expressed in exponential notation, divide the values of M, then subtract the exponent of
the divisor from the exponent of the dividend.

8 ×106 m
=
2 × 103 s

Problems:
1) 5 × 10−7 kg + 3 × 10−7 kg =
2) 6 × 10−8 m2 − 4 × 10−8 m2 =
3) (2 x 104 m)(4 x 108 m) =
(3 × 104 kg)(4 × 104 m)
4)
(6 × 104 s)
=

Unit Conversions

Conversion Factors
Conversion factors are based on relationships of equivalents from different measurement systems. These
conversion factors are then applied to the given measurement in order to convert it to the units that are required.
The equivalent relationships between different units of measurement are defined in conversion tables. Some
examples from conversion tables are given below.
1 yard = .9144 meters
1 kilogram = 2.205 pounds mass (lbm)
1 hour = 3600 seconds

A typical conversion table is shown in Table 7.

Unit Conversion
To convert from one measurement unit to another measurement unit (for example, to convert 5 feet to inches), first
select the appropriate equivalent relationship from the conversion table (for this example, 1 foot = 12 inches).
Conversion is basically a multiplication by 1. We can divide both sides of the equation 1 ft = 12 inches by 1 foot to
obtain the following.

1 ft 12inches 12inches
Then  or 1 
1 ft 1 ft 1 ft

12inches
The relationship is a conversion factor which we can use in our example to convert 5 feet to inches.
1 ft

Using the example, 5 feet is to be converted to inches. Start with the obvious equation
12inches
5 ft = 5 ft, and multiply the right hand side by 1 .
1 ft
5 feet = 5 feet x 1

12inches
5 feet = 5 feet × = 5 × 12 inches = 60 inches.
ft
Thus, 5 feet is equivalent to 60 inches.

Using the following example, we will step through the process for converting from a given set of units to a desired
set of units.

Convert 795 m to ft.

If an equivalent relationship between the given units and the desired units cannot be found in the conversion tables,
multiple conversion factors must be used. The conversion is performed in several steps until the measurement is in
the desired units. The given measurement must be multiplied by each conversion factor (ratio). After the common
units have been canceled out, the answer will be in the desired units.
It is possible to perform all of the conversions in a single equation as long as all of the appropriate conversion
factors are included.

BRING CONVERSION TABLE (TIME, MASS, LENGTH, ETC.)

Strategy for Unit Conversion Problems

* identify the destination, including units.
* choose a starting point.
* list the connecting conversion factors.
* multiply starting measurement by conversion factors.
* does the answer make sense?

Question: How many french fries, placed end to end, would it take to reach the moon?

Additional material:

Length
Distance Length (m)
Radius of Visible Universe 1 x 1026
Earth to Sun 1.5 x 1011
Radius of Earth 6.4 x 106
Sears Tower 4.5 x 102
Football Field 1.0 x 102
Tall Person 2.0 x 100
Thickness of paper 1.0 x 10-4
Diameter of hydrogen atom 1.0 x 10-10
Diameter of proton 1.0 x 10-15
Time
Interval Time (s)
Age of universe 5 x 1017
Age of college student 6.3 x 108
One year 3.2 x 107
One hour 3.6 x 103
Light travel from earth to moon 1.3 x 100

Mass
Object Mass (kg)
Visible universe ~ 1052
Sun 2.0 x 1030
Earth 6.0 x 1024
Car 1.0 x 103
You 7.0 x 101
Dust Particle 1.0 x 10-9
Proton 2.0 x 10-27
Electron 9.0 x 10-31

Uncertainties of Measurements
Measurements, whether made by students or professionals, are subject to uncertainty

Factors contributing to uncertainty:

1) Temperature
2) Magnetic Fields
3) Other External influences
4) Human factors (angle of measurement; parallax)
- Gas gauges and laboratory instruments must be read at eye level and straight on.

Parallax: is the apparent change in the position of an object when the person looking at the object changes position.

Significant Digits:
1) Non-zero digits are always significant.
2) All final zeros after the decimal point are significant.
3) Zeros between two other significant digits are always significant.
4) Zeros used solely for spacing the decimal point are not significant.

Problems:
State the number of significant digits in each measurement
1) 2804 m
2) 2.84 m
3) 0.0029 m
4) 0.003068 m
5) 4.6 x 105 m
6) 4.06 x 105 m
7) 75m
8) 75.00m
9) 0.007060 kg
10) 1.87 x 106 ml
11) 1.008 x 108 m
12) 1.20 x 10-4 m

Operations using Significant Digits

The result of any mathematical operation with measurements can never be more precise than the least precise
measurement.

Addition and Subtraction

The sum or difference of two values is as precise as the least precise value.
Add 6.48 meters + 18.2 meters = 24.68 meters
* The correct value is 24.7 meters.
Multiplication and Division
After performing multiplication or division, note the factor with the least number of “significant digits”. Round the
product or quotient to this number of digits.

Multiply 3.22 cm by 2.1 cm = 6.762

*This is correctly stated as 6.8cm2

Divide 36.5 m by 3.414 s = 10.69

*This is correctly stated as 10.7m/s

Problems:
1) Add 6.201 cm, 7.4cm, 0.68cm, and 12.0 cm.

2) Subtract
a) 8.264 g from 10.8 g

b) 0.4168 m from 475 m

3) Perform the following multiplications:

a) 131 cm x 2.3 cm

b) 3.2145 km x 4.23 km

4) Perform the following divisions:

a) 20.2 cm / 7.41 s

b) 3.1416 cm / 12.4 s

Graphing Data
Plotting Graphs
1) Identify the independent and dependent variables. The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal, or x-axis.
The dependent variable is plotted on the vertical, or y-axis.
2) Determine the range of the independent variable to be plotted.
3) Decide if the origin (0, 0) is a valid data point. Spread out the data as much as possible. Let each space on the
graph paper stand for a convenient unit.
4) Number and label the horizontal axis.
5) Repeat steps 2-4 for the independent variable.
6) Plot your data points on the graph.
7) Draw the best straight line or smooth curve that passes through as many data points as possible. Do not use a
series of straight line segments that “connect the dots”.
8) Give the graph a title that clearly tells what the graph represents.

Manipulating Equations:
- When solving an equation for a quantity, you should add, subtract, multiply, or divide in order to put that
quantity alone on the left side of the equation.
- Units must be included when solving problems. The units must be the same on both sides of the equation. If
this is not true, the equation is wrong.
CHAPTER 2 VECTORS

Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantities
Most of the physical quantities encountered in physics are either scalar or vector quantities. A scalar quantity is
defined as a quantity that has magnitude only. Typical examples of scalar quantities are time, speed, temperature,
and volume. A scalar quantity or parameter has no directional component, only magnitude. For example, the units
for time (minutes, days, hours, etc.) represent an amount of time only and tell nothing of direction. Additional
examples of scalar quantities are density, mass, and energy.

Vector Quantities
A vector quantity is defined as a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. To work with vector quantities,
one must know the method for representing these quantities.

Magnitude, or "size" of a vector, is also referred to as the vector's "displacement." It can be thought of as the scalar
portion of the vector and is represented by the length of the vector. By definition, a vector has both magnitude and
direction. Direction indicates how the vector is oriented relative to some reference axis, as shown in Figure 1.

Using north/south and east/west reference axes, vector "A" is oriented in the NE quadrant with a direction of 45
north of the EW axis. Giving direction to scalar "A" makes it a vector. The length of "A" is representative of its
magnitude or displacement.

To help distinguish between a scalar and a vector, let's look at an example where the only information known is that
a car is moving at 50 miles per hour. The information given (50 mph) only refers to the car's speed, which is a
scalar quantity. It does not indicate the direction the car is moving. However, the same car traveling at 50 mph due
east indicates the velocity of the car because it has magnitude (50 mph) and direction (due east); therefore, a vector
is indicated.

When a vector is diagrammed, a straight line is drawn to show the unit of length. An arrow is drawn on one end of
the line. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the vector, and the arrow represents the direction of the
vector.

Description of a Simple Vector

Vectors are simple straight lines used to illustrate the direction and magnitude of certain quantities. Vectors have a
starting point at one end (tail) and an arrow at the opposite end (head), as shown in Figure 2.
Examples of Vector Quantities
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force are examples of vector quantities. Momentum and magnetic field
strength are also good examples of vector quantities, although somewhat more difficult to understand. In each of
these examples, the main ingredients of magnitude and direction are present.

Scalar and Vector Quantities Summary

The important aspects of scalar and vector quantities are summarized below.

Vector Identification
Vector quantities are often represented by simply using a boldfaced letter (A, B, C, R).

Particular quantities are predefined (F - force, V - velocity, and A - acceleration). Vector quantities are sometimes
represented by . Regardless of the convention used, specific vector quantities must include magnitude
and direction (for example, 50 mph due north, or 50 lbf at 90 ).

Vector quantities are graphically represented using the

rectangular coordinate system, a two-dimensional
system that uses an x-axis and a y-axis. The x-axis is a
horizonal straight line. The y-axis is a vertical straight
line, perpendicular to the x-axis. An example of a
rectangular system is shown in Figure 3.

The intersection of the axes is called the point of

origin. Each axis is marked off in equal divisions in all
four directions from the point of origin. On the
horizonal axis (x), values to the right of the origin are
positive (+). Values to the left of the origin are
negative (-). On the vertical axis (y), values above the
point of origin are positive (+). Values below the
origin are negative (-). It is very important to use the
same units (divisions) on both axes.

The rectangular coordinate system creates four infinite quadrants. Quadrant I is located above and to the right of the
origin. Quadrant II is located above and to the left of the origin. Quadrant III is situated to the left and below the
origin, and quadrant IV is located below and to the right of the origin (see Figure 3).
Graphic Representation of Vectors
With the coordinate system defined, the following explanation will illustrate how to locate vectors in
that system.
First, using a ruler and graph
paper, a rectangular coordinate
system is laid out as described in
the previous section. The x- and y-
axes are labeled. Equal divisions
are marked off in all four
directions. Those to the right and
above the point of origin are
labeled positive (+). Those to the
left and below the point of origin
are labeled negative (-).

Beginning at the point of origin

(intersection of the axes), a line
segment of the proper length is
shown along the x-axis, in the
positive direction. This line
segment represents the vector
magnitude, or displacement. An
arrow is placed at the "head" of the
vector to indicate direction. The
"tail" of the vector is located at the
point of origin (see Figure 4).
When vectors are drawn that do not fall on the x- or y-axes, the tail is located at the point of origin. Depending on
the vector description, there are two methods of locating the head of the vector. If coordinates (x,y) are given, these
values can be plotted to locate the vector head. If the vector is described in degrees, the line segment can be rotated
counterclockwise from the x-axis to the proper orientation, as shown in Figure 5.
Because the x- and y-axes define direction, conventional directional coordinates and degrees may also
be used to identify the x- and y-axes (see Figures 6 and 7).

Summary
The main points covered in this chapter are summarized below.
VECTORS: RESULTANTS AND COMPONENTS

Resultant

When two or more vectors are added they yield

the sum or resultant vector. A resultant vector is
the result or sum of vector addition. Vector
addition is somewhat different from addition of
pure numbers unless the addition takes place
along a straight line. In the latter case, it reduces
to the number line of standards or scale addition.
For example, if one walks five miles east and
then three miles east, he is eight miles from his
starting point. On a graph (Figure 8), the sum of
the two vectors, i.e., the sum of the five miles
plus the three mile displacement, is the total or
resultant displacement of eight miles.

Similarly, if one walks five miles east and then

three miles west, the resultant displacement is
two miles east (Figure 9).

The vector diagrams of Figure 8 and Figure 9 are

basically scale diagrams of what is happening in
the real world of addition of vector quantities.

Consider next the addition of vector quantities which are not in a straight line. For example, consider the resultant
displacement when a person travels four miles east and then three miles north. Again a scale drawing (Figure 10) is
in order. Use a scale of 1 inch = 1 mile.

When drawing a scale drawing, one draws a straight line from the origin C to the final position B to represent the
net or resultant displacement. Drawing the straight line CB and measuring its length, one should obtain about 5
inches. Then, since the scale of the drawing is 1 inch = 1 mile, this is used as a conversion factor giving

as the displacement.

Using a protractor or trigonometry, the acute angle ACB can be determined to be about 37. Thus, the resultant (or
vector sum) of traveling 4 miles east plus 3 miles north is a displacement of 5 miles at 37 degrees north of east.
 Exercise: Show that vector addition is commutative, using the above example. Specifically, make a scale drawing
showing that traveling 3 miles north and then 4 miles east yields the same resultant as above.

It is also reasonably obvious that more than two vectors can be added. One can travel three miles east and then
three miles north and then three miles west and arrive at a point three miles north of the starting point. The sum of
these three displacements is a resultant displacement of three miles north. (If this is not immediately apparent,
sketch it.)

Exercise: Find the net or resultant displacement if a person travels 9 miles south and then 12 miles east and then 25
miles north. Make a scale drawing and determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant displacement. A scale
of 2 miles per centimeter or 4 miles per inch will fit the drawing on standard paper.

Vector Components
Components of a vector are vectors, which when added, yield the vector. For example, as shown in the previous
section (Figure 10), traveling 3 miles north and then 4 miles east yields a resultant displacement of 5 miles, 37
north of east. This example demonstrates that component vectors of any two non-parallel directions can be obtained
for any resultant vector in the same plane.

One could write an alternate problem: "If I am 5 miles from where I started northeast along a line 37 N of east,
how far north and how far east am I from my original position?" Drawing this on a scale drawing, the vector
components in the east and north directions can be measured to be about 4 miles east and 3 miles north. These two
vectors are the components of the resultant vector of 5 miles, 37 north of east.

Component vectors can be determined by plotting them on a rectangular coordinate system. For example, a
resultant vector of 5 units at 53 can be broken down into its respective x and y magnitudes. The x value of 3 and
the y value of 4 can be determined using trigonometry or graphically. Their magnitudes and position can be
expressed by one of several conventions including: (3,4), (x=3, y=4), (3 at 0, 4 at 90), and (5 at 53). In the first
expression, the first term is the x-component (Fx), and the second term is the y-component (Fy) of the associated
resultant vector.

As in the previous example, if only the

resultant is given, instead of component
coordinates, one can determine the
vector components as illustrated in
Figure 11. First, plot the resultant on
rectangular coordinates and then
project the vector coordinates to the
axis. The length along the x-axis is Fx,
and the length along the y-axis is Fy.
This method is demonstrated in the
following example.

Exercise: For the resultant vector shown in

Figure 12, determine the component vectors
given FR = 50 lbf at 53.

First, project a perpendicular line from the

head of FR to the x-axis and a similar line to
the y-axis. Where the projected lines meet, the
axes determine the magnitude size of the
component vectors. In this example, the
component vectors are 30 lbf at 0 (Fx) and 40
lbf at 90 (Fy). If FR had not already been
drawn, the first step would have been to draw
the vector.
Exercise: Graphically find the easterly and northerly components of a 13 mile displacement at 22.6 north of east.
The correct answer is 5 miles east and 12 miles north.

Trigonometry may also be used to determine vector components. Before explaining this method, it may be helpful
to review the fundamental trigonometric functions. Recall that trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals
with the relationships between angles and the length of the sides of triangles. The relationship between an acute
angle of a right triangle, shown in Figure 13, and its sides is given by three ratios.

Before attempting to calculate vector components, first make a rough sketch that shows the approximate location of
the resultant vector in an x-y coordinate system. It is helpful to form a visual picture before selecting the correct
trigonometric function to be used. Consider the example of Figure 12, that was used previously. This time the
component vectors will be calculated.
Exercise: Determine the component vectors, Fx and Fy , for FR = 50 lbf at 53 in Figure 14. Use trigonometric
functions.

Therefore, the components for FR are Fx = 30 lbf at 0 and F = 40 lbf at 90 . Note that this result is identical to the
result obtained using the graphic method.
Example: What are the component vectors, given FR = 80 lbf at 220? See Figure 15.

Therefore, the components for FR are Fx = 61 at 180 and Fy = 51 lbf at 270.

Summary

Vector terminology is summarized below.

GRAPHIC METHOD OF VECTOR ADDITION

Vector Addition
Component vectors are added to determine the resultant vector. For example, when two or more forces are acting
on a single object, vector addition is used to determine the direction and magnitude of the net (resultant) force on
the object.
Methods Used to Add Vectors
The Graphic Method and Component Addition Methods have
been developed to add vectors. Either one of these methods
will provide fairly accurate results. If a high degree of
accuracy is required, an analytical method using geometric
and trigonometric functions is required.
Using the Graphic Method
Before attempting to use this method, the following
equipment is needed: standard linear (nonlog) graph paper,
ruler, protractor, and pencil.

The graphic method utilizes a five-step process.

Step 1. Plot the first vector on the rectangular (x-y) axes.

a. Ensure that the same scale is used on both axes.
b. Place the tail (beginning) of the first vector at the
origin of the axes as shown in Figure 16.
Step 2. Draw the second vector connected to the end of the first
vector.
a. Start the tail of the second vector at the head of the
first vector.
b. Ensure that the second vector is also drawn to scale.
c. Ensure proper angular orientation of the second vector
with respect to the axes of the graph (see Figure 17).
Step 3. Add other vectors sequentially.
a. Add one vector at a time.
b. Always start the tail of the new vector at the head of
the previous vector.
c. Draw all vectors to scale and with proper angular
orientation.
Step 4. When all given vectors have been drawn, draw and label
a resultant vector, FR, from the point of origin R of the axes to
the head of the final vector.
a. The tail of the resultant is the tail of the first vector
drawn as shown in Figure 18.
b. The head of the resultant is at the head of the last
vector drawn.
Step 5. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant.
a. Measure the displacement and angle directly from the
graph using a ruler and a protractor.
b. Determine the components of the resultant by
projection onto the x- and y-axes.

Exercise: What are the magnitude and direction of the resultant

for the following: F1 = 3 units at 300, F2 = 4 units at 60, and
F3 = 8 units at 180?

Graphic Method Summary

 Draw rectangular coordinates.
 Draw first vector.
 Draw second vector connected to the end (head) of first vector with proper angular orientation.
 Draw remaining vectors, starting at the head of the preceding vector.
 Draw resultant vector from the origin of axes to head of final vector.
 Measure length of resultant.
 Measure angle of resultant vector addition.
COMPONENT ADDITION METHOD

The component addition method refers to the addition of vector coordinates on a rectangular (x,y) coordinate
system. Coordinates, as seen in previous examples, locate a specific point in the system. Relative to vectors,
that specific point is the head of the vector.

To add vectors using the component addition method, use the following four step method.
Step 1. Determine x- and y-axes components of all original vectors.
Step 2. Mathematically combine all x-axis components.
Note: When combining, recognize that positive x components at 180 are equivalent to negative x
components at 0 (+x at 180 = -x at 0).
Step 3. Mathematically combine all y-axis components (+y at 270 = -y at 90).
Step 4. Resulting (x,y) components are the (x,y) components of the resulting vector.

Exercise: Given the following vectors what are the coordinates of the resultant vector, that is, the sum of the
vectors?
F1 = (4,10), F2 = (-6,4), F3 = (2,-4), and F4 = (10,-2)

Exercise: Determine the resultant, FR.

Given: F = 30 lbf at 0 , 10 lbf at 90
F = 50 lbf at 0, 50 lbf at 90
F = 45 lbf at 180, 30 lbf at 90
F = 15 lbf at 0, 50 lbf at 270

Component Addition Method Summary

 Determine the x- and y- axes of all original vectors.
 Mathematically combine all x-axis components.
 Mathematically combine all y-axis components.
 The results are the components of the resultant vector.

ANALYTICAL METHOD OF VECTOR ADDITION

The graphic and components addition methods of obtaining the resultant of several vectors described in the
previous chapters can be hard to use and time consuming. In addition, accuracy is a function of the scale used in
making the diagram and how carefully the vectors are drawn. The analytical method can be simpler and far more
accurate than these previous methods. In the analytical method, vector components are added to determine the
magnitude and direction of the resultant. Calculations using trigonometric functions are the most accurate method
for making this determination.

Review of Mathematical Functions

Using the Analytical Method
To illustrate this method, consider this example: a man walks 3 miles in one direction, then turns 90 and continues
to walk for an additional 4 miles. In what direction and how far is he from his starting point? The first step in
solving this problem is to draw a simple sketch as shown in Figure 24.

His net displacement is found using the Pythagorean Theorem.

His direction (angle of displacement) is found using the tangent function.

Therefore, his new location is 5 miles at 53 from his starting point.
By carrying this approach a step further, a model has been developed for finding the resultant of several vectors.
For the purpose of developing the model, consider three forces (F1, F2, and F3) acting on an object as shown in
Figure 25. The goal is to find the resultant force (FR).
Step 1: Draw x and y coordinates and the three forces from the point of origin or the center of the object, as
shown in Figure 26. Component vectors and angles have been added to the drawing to aid in the discussion.

Step 2: Resolve each vector into its rectangular components.

Step 3: Sum the x and y components.

Step 4: Calculate the magnitude of FR.

Step 5: Calculate the angle of displacement.
Summary
Analytical Method of Adding Vectors
 Draw x and y coordinate axes.
 Draw component vectors from point of
origin.
 Resolve each vector into rectangular
components.
 Sum x and y components.
 Calculate magnitude of FR.
 Calculate angle of displacement.
Review of Kinematics

How far? (Distance or displacement ?)

Distance: the length of the path traveled. It is not defined by the direction, it is a scalar quantity.
Displacement: the length and direction of a line from the starting point to the ending point. It is a vector quantity
and must include direction.

Speed and Velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity. If an object takes a time interval t to travel a distance d, then

total distance traveled

Average speed 
time taken
or
d
vav  (1)
t

Here, d is the total length traveled.

Velocity
- The velocity of a body is a vector quantity that describes both how fast it is moving and the direction in which it is
headed.

- The average velocity, v , of a body when it covers a distance s in time t is

 s
vav  (2)
t
- Instantaneous velocity: the velocity of a body at any given moment, and is given by

 s
vinst  (3)
t

Here, s is the distance the body has gone in the very short time interval t at the specified moment. Instantaneous
velocity is what a car’s speedometer indicates.

When the instantaneous velocity of a body does not change, it is moving in a constant velocity.

Acceleration
Acceleration - the rate of change in velocity. [moving faster (+ acceleration), slower (- acceleration
“deceleration”)].
• Units include one unit for length and two units of time. ie. m/s/s (m/s2)
• constant acceleration - the change in velocity remains the same during each successive time interval

A body whose velocity is changing is accelerated. A body is accelerated when its velocity is increasing, decreasing,
or changing its direction. The acceleration of a body is the rate at which its velocity is changing. If a body moving
in a straight line has a velocity of vo at the start of a certain time interval t and of v at the end, its acceleration is

velocity change
Acceleration 
time
or
v  v0
a (4)
t

[moving faster (+ acceleration), slower (- acceleration “deceleration”)].

The defining formula for acceleration can be rewritten to give the final velocity v of an accelerated body:
v  v0  at (5)
Final velocity = initial velocity + (acceleration) (time)

We can also solve for time t in terms of v0, v and a:

 v  v0
t (6)
a

velocity change
Time 
acceleration

The average velocity v of the body is

vO  v
v (7 )
2

The distance s it covers in time t is s  v t or

vO  v
s t (8)
2
vO  v vO  vO  at 
Substituting v  vO  at from (5) into (8), s  t t
2 2

1
or s  vO t  at 2 (9)
2

v  v0  vO  v   v  vO  v  vO
2 2
from (6), t  , substituting into (8), s     
a  2  a  2a

or v 2  vO2  2as (10)

When the body starts from rest, the initial velocity vO  0 and equations (5), (9) and (10) become respectively
1
v  at , s  at 2 , v 2  2as
2

Acceleration due to gravity

The acceleration of a freely falling body (air resistance neglected) is constant for any one place, and varies but
slightly over the earth’s surface. It’s approximate value is
g  9.8 m / s 2 or 32 ft / s 2

The presence of air affects the motion of falling bodies partly through buoyancy and partly through air resistance.
Thus two different objects falling in air from the same height will not, in general, reach the ground at exactly the
same time. Because air resistance increases with velocity, eventually a falling body reaches a terminal velocity that
depends on its mass, size and shape, and it cannot fall any faster than that.

Exercise 1: A car starts from rest and reaches a final velocity of 40m/s in 10s. a) What is its acceleration? B) If its
acceleration remains the same, what will its velocity be 5s later?
Exercise 2: A body moves from rest with constant acceleration of 8m/s2. Find a) the instantaneous speed v at the
end of 5 s, b) the average speed v for the 5s interval, c) the distance s covered in 5s from rest.
Exercise 3: A bus moving at 15m/s is increasing its speed at the rate of 2m/s each second. 1) Find the distance
covered in 6s. b) If its speed is decreasing at the rate of 2m/s each second, find the distance traversed in 6s and the
time it takes to come to rest.
Exercise 4: A steel ball dropped from a tower strikes the ground in 3s. Find the velocity v with which the ball
strikes the ground and the height s of the tower.
Exercise 5: A body falls freely from rest for 6s. Find the distance s traveled in the last 2s.

SW
1) How far can a bicycle travel in 2.5h along a straight road if its average speed is 18km/h? (45km)
2) How long does it take a car to cross a 30.0-m wide intersection after the light turns green, if it accelerates from
rest at a constant 2.00 m/s2? (5.48s)
3) Suppose that a ball is dropped from a tower 70m high. How far will it have fallen after 1s, 2s and 3s? Assume y
is positive downward. Neglect air resistance. a) 4.9m, b) 19.6m, c) 44.1m
CHAPTER 3 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Force can be defined as a push or a pull.

Four kinds of Force:

1) Gravitational Force: is an attractive force that exists between all objects. The gravitational force of Earth on the
moon holds the moon in its orbit. The gravitational force of the moon on Earth causes tides. Gravitational force is
the weakest of the four forces.
2) Electromagnetic Force: is the force that gives materials their strength, their ability to bend, squeeze stretch or
shatter.
3) Strong nuclear force: this force holds the particles in the nucleus together. It is the strongest of the four forces.
But it only acts over distances the size of the nucleus.
4) Weak Force: is a form of electromagnetic force, and is involved in the radioactive decay of some nuclei.

Newton's 1st law

"An object remains at rest (if originally at rest) or moves in a straight line with constant velocity if the net (resultant)
force on it is zero." A force is any influence that can change the velocity of a body. Two or more forces act on a
body without affecting its velocity if the forces cancel one another out. Every acceleration is due to the action of
a net force.

Mass
Inertia – the property a body has of resisting any change in its state of rest or uniform motion. The inertia of a body
is related to what we think of as the amount of matter it contains.
Mass: a quantitative measure of inertia. The more mass a body has, the less its acceleration when a given net force
acts on it. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)

Newton's 2nd law

“The net force acting on a body equals the product of the mass and the acceleration of the body”. The direction of
the force is the same as that of the acceleration. This law establishes the relationship between force, mass, and
acceleration and can be written mathematically as shown in:
F = ma

The second law of motion is the key to understating the behavior of moving bodies since it links cause (force) and
effect (acceleration) in a definite way.
In the SI system, the unit of force is the Newton (N): A Newton is that net force which when applied to a 1-kg mass,
gives it an acceleration of 1m/s2.

Exercise: A 10-kg body has an acceleration of 5m/s2. What is the net force acting on it? Ans. 50N

Weight
The weight of a body is the gravitational force with which the earth attracts the body.
Weight (a vector quantity), is a measure of the response of a body to an applied force. The weight of a body varies
with its location near the earth (or other astronomical body), whereas its mass is the same everywhere in the
universe.

The weight of a body is the force that causes it to be accelerated downward with the acceleration of gravity, g.
Hence from the second law of motion, F = w and a = g,
w = mg
Weight = (mass) (acceleration of gravity)
British System:
Unit of mass: slug
Unit of force: pound (lb)
A net force of 1 lb acting on a mass of 1 slug gives it an acceleration of 1 ft/s2.
System of units To find mass m given weight w To find weight w given mass m
SI wN w ( N )  (m kg) (9.8m / s 2 )
m (kg) 
9.8 m / s 2
British w lb w (lb)  (m slugs )(32 ft / s 2 )
m ( slugs ) 
32 ft / s 2
Free-Body Diagram

Free-body diagram: is a vector diagram that shows all of the forces that act on the body whose motion is being
studied. Forces that the body exerts on anything else should not be included, since such forces do not affect the
body’s motion.

Newton's 3rd law

"When one body exerts a force on another body, the second body exerts on the first an equal force in the opposite
direction."

The third law of motion applies to two different forces on two different bodies: the action force one body exerts on
the other, and the equal but opposite reaction force the second body exerts on the first. Action and reaction forces
never cancel each other out because they act on different bodies.

Exercise: A book rests on a table. a) Show the forces acting on the table and the corresponding reaction forces. B)
Why do the forces acting on the table not cause it to move?

Solution:

a)

b) The forces that act on the table have a vector sum of zero, so there is no net force acting on it.
Law of Universal Gravitation

"Each and every mass in the universe exerts a mutual, attractive gravitational force on every other mass in the
universe. For any two masses, the force is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them."

Newton expressed the universal law of gravitation using:

mm
Force  G
r2

F = force of attraction (Newton = 1Kg-m/sec2 or lbf)

lbm  ft 2
G = universal constant of gravitation (6.673 x 10-11 m3/kg-sec2 or 3.44 x 10-8 slug 2 )

m = mass of the first object (Kg or lbm)

m’ = mass of the second object (Kg or lbm)
r = distance between the centers of the two objects (m or ft)

Force of Friction
Friction: is a tangential force on a body which opposes any tendency for its surface to move relative to another
surface. Tangential forces are parallel to the surfaces which are in contact.

Kinetic or sliding force is the tangential force between two surfaces when one surface is sliding over another.

Static friction is the tangential force between two surfaces when the two surfaces are not sliding relative to each
other. The tangential force between two surfaces just before one surface begins to slide over the other is called the
maximum force of static friction.

Coefficient of kinetic or sliding friction (k) between two solid surfaces is the ratio of the force necessary to move
one surface over the other with uniform velocity to the normal force pressing the two surfaces together. The
coefficient of sliding friction is a ratio of two forces; hence it is a pure number having no unit.

force required to balance kinetic friction f

k   k
normal force pressing the two surfaces together N
Force of kinetic friction   k  normal force pressing the two surfaces together
f k  k N

Coefficient of static friction (s) is the ratio of the maximum force of static friction to the normal force pressing
the two surfaces together. The coefficient of static friction is greater that that of kinetic friction.

maximum force of static friction f

s   s
normal force pressing the two surfaces together N
Maximum force of static friction   s  normal force pressing the two surfaces together
f s  s N

Sample Problems:
1) Find the weight w of a body whose mass is a) 1kg, b) 1 gram.
2) Find the mass m of a body whose weight is 19.6N.
3) A body of mass 2kg is acted upon by a force of 6N. Find the acceleration.
4) Find the force required to give a block of mass 6kg an acceleration of 4m/s2.
5) A block of weight 200N hangs at the end of a rope. Find the acceleration of the block if the tension in the rope is
a) 200N, b) 150N, c) 300N.

Universal Gravitation
1) Compute the mass of the earth, assuming it to be a sphere of radius 6.37 x 106 m.

Friction

1) A 50-kg block rests on a horizontal floor. A minimum horizontal force of 147N is required to start it in motion,
and a minimum horizontal force of 98N will keep the block moving with constant velocity once it has started. A)
Find the coefficient of static friction s and the coefficient of sliding or kinetic friction s .
CHAPTER 4 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

WORK
Work, (a scalar quantity because it has no direction), is a measure of the amount of change (in general sense) that a
force produces when it acts on a body. The change may be in the velocity of the body, in its position, or in its size
or shape.

By definition, the work done by a force on a body is equal to the product of the force and the distance through
which the force acts, provided that F and s are in the same direction. Thus,
W  Fs
Work  ( force)( distance)
If F and s are not parallel but F is at the angle  with respect to s, then

W  Fs cos 

Since cos 0 = 1, this formula becomes W =

Fs when F is parallel to s. When F is
perpendicular to s,  = 90 and cos 90 = 0.
No work is done in this case.

Sample Problems:
1) You push a large box for three minutes. During that time, you exert a constant force of 200 lbf to the box,
but it does not move. How much work has been accomplished?

2) You push the same box as mentioned above. You apply a horizontal force of 200 lbf to the box, and the box
moves five feet horizontally. How much work have you done?

3) A horizontal force of 420N is used to push a 100-kg crate for 5m across a level warehouse floor. How
much work is done?

ENERGY
Energy is defined as the measure of the ability to do work. The more energy something has, the more work it can
perform.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is defined as the energy stored in an object because of its position.
When discussing mechanical potential energy, we look at the position of an object. The measure of an object's
position is its vertical distance above a reference point. The reference point is normally the earth's surface, but can it
be any point. The potential energy of the object represents the work required to elevate the object to that position
from the reference point. Potential energy is mathematically represented by

Gravitational potential energy  PE  mgh

PE ( J )  m (kg)  g (m / s 2 )  h (m)
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Sample Problem: A 1.5kg book is held 60cm above a desk whose top is 70cm above the floor. Find the potential
energy of the book a) with respect to the desk, and b) with respect to the floor.
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is defined as the energy stored in an object because of its motion.

If you have a baseball in your hand, it has no kinetic energy because it is not moving. But if you throw the ball,
your hand has provided energy to give the ball motion. When you release the ball, it leaves your hand at some
velocity. The energy you have given the ball will determine the velocity of the ball. Because the kinetic energy is
due to the motion of the object, and motion is measured by velocity, kinetic energy can be calculated in terms of its
velocity, as shown below.
1
Kinetic Energy  KE  mv 2
2

The kinetic energy of an object represents the amount of energy required to increase the velocity of the object from
rest (v = 0) to its final velocity, or the work it can do as it pushes against something in slowing down (waterwheel
or turbine, for example.)

Sample problem: Find the kinetic energy of a 1000kg car whose velocity is 20m/s.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

According to the law of conservation of energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it can be
transformed from one kind to another. The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. A falling stone
provides a simple example. More and more of its potential energy turns to kinetic energy as its velocity increases,
until finally all its PE has become KE when it strikes the ground. The KE of stone is then transferred to the ground
as work by the impact.

In general,
Work done on an object = change in object’s KE + change in objects PE + work done by the object
Work done by an object against friction becomes heat.

POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done by a force. Or, Power is defined as the amount of energy used per unit time
or rate of doing work. Thus
W
P
t
work done
Power 
time
The more power something has, the more work it can perform in a given time.

Two special units of power are in wide use, the watt and the horsepower, where
1 watt (W ) 1 J / s 1.34 10 3 hp
1 horsepower (hp)  550 ft  lb / s  746W
Btu and ft-lbf/sec are also being used .

When a constant force F does work on a body that is moving at the constant velocity v, if F is parallel to v, the
power involved is
W Fs
P   Fv
t t
s
because  v; that is
t
P  Fv
Power  force  velocity
Sample problems:
1) A 40-kg woman runs up a staircase 4m high in 5s. Find her minimum power output.
2) A pump provides a flow rate of 10,000 gallons per minute. The pump does 1.5 x108 ft-lbf of work every
100mins. What is the power of the pump in hp?
3) A boy rolls a ball with a steady force of 1lbf, giving the ball a constant velocity of 5 ft/s. What is the power
used by the boy in rolling the ball?
4) A race car travelling at a constant velocity can go one quarter mile (1455 ft) in 5 seconds. If the motor is
generating a force of 1890 lbf pushing the car, what is the power of the motor in hp? Assume the car is
already at full speed at t=0.
 5)
Chapter 5 Momentum and Impulse

Linear momentum
Work and energy are scalar quantities that have no directions associated with them. When two or more bodies
interact with one another, or a single body breaks up into two or more new bodies, the various directions of motion
cannot be related by energy considerations alone. The vector quantities, called linear momentum and impulse, are
important in analyzing such events.

The linear momentum (usually called simply momentum) of a body of mass m and velocity v is the product of m
and v:
Momentum = mv

The units of momentum are kilogram-meters per second and slug-feet per second. The direction of the momentum
of a body is the same as the direction in which it is moving.

The greater the momentum of a body, the greater is its tendency to continue in motion. Thus, a baseball that is
solidly struck by a bat (v large) is harder to stop than a baseball thrown by hand (v small), and an iron shot (m large)
is harder to stop than a baseball (m small) of the same velocity.

Sample Problem:
Find the momentum of a 50-kg boy running at 6m/s.
Momentum  mv (50kg) (6m / s)  300kg  m / s

Impulse
A force F that acts on a body during time t provides the body with an impulse of Ft:
Impulse = ft = (force) (time interval)

The units of impulse are newton-seconds and pound-seconds.

When a force acts on a body to produce a change in its momentum, the momentum change m(v2 – v1) is equal to the
impulse provided by the force. Thus
Ft  m(v2  v1 )
Impulse = Momentum Change

Sample problem:
A 46-g golf ball is struck by a club and flies off at 70m/s. If the head of the club was in contact with the ball for
0.5ms, what was the average force on the ball during the impact?

The ball started from rest, so v1 = 0 and its momentum change is:
Ft  m(v2  v1 )  mv2  (0.046kg) (70m / s)  3.22 kg  m / s
Since1ms 1milli sec ond 10 3 s, here t  0.5ms  510 4 s and
mv2  v1  3.22 kg  m / s
F  4
 6.4 10 3 N  6.4kN
t 510 s

Conservation of Linear Momentum

According to the law of conservation of linear momentum, when the vector sum of the external forces that act on a
system of bodies equals zero, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant no matter what momentum
changes occur within the system.

Although interactions within the system may change the distribution of the total momentum among the various
bodies in the system, the total momentum does not change. Such interactions can give rise to two general classes of
events: explosions, in which an original single body flies apart into separate bodies, and collisions, in which two or
more bodies collide and either stick together or move apart, in each case with a redistribution of the original total
momentum.

Sample problem: A rocket explodes in midair. How does this affect (a) its total momentum and (b) its total kinetic
energy?

Solution:
a) The total momentum remains the same because no external forces acted on the rocket.
b) The total kinetic energy increases because the rocket fragments received additional KE from the explosion.
Collisions
Momentum is also conserved in collisions. If a moving billiard ball strikes a stationary one, the two move off in
such a way that the vector sum of their momenta is the same as the initial momentum of the first ball (see Fig.) This
is true even if the balls move off in different directions.

A perfectly elastic collision is one in which the bodies involved move apart in such a way that kinetic energy as
well as momentum is conserved. In a perfectly inelastic collision, the bodies stick together and the kinetic energy
loss is the maximum possible consistent with momentum conservation. Most collisions are intermediate between
these two extremes.

Sample Problem
A 2000-lb car is moving at 50mi/hr collides head-on with a 3000-lb car moving at 20mi/h, and the two cars stick
together. Which way does the wreckage move?

Solution:
The 2000-lb car had the greater initial momentum, so the wreckage moves in the same direction it had.

Coefficient of Restitution
For any direct central impact or collision between two bodies, the coefficient of restitution e is the pure number
expressing the ratio of the relative velocity of separation after impact to the relative velocity of approach before
impact.

v2  v1
e
u1  u 2

u1,u2 = velocities of bodies 1 and 2 respectively before impact.

v1,v2 = velocities of bodies 1 and 2 respectively after impact.

For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1. For a completely inelastic collision (the bodies are stuck together), e = 0. For
all other types of collision e is a number between 0 and 1.

Problems:
1) Calculate the momentum for a 16 lbm bowling ball rolling down a lane at 22 ft/sec.
2) The velocity of a rocket must be increased by 110 ft/sec to achieve proper orbit around the earth. If the rocket
has a mass of 5 tons and it takes 9 sec. to reach orbit, calculate the required thrust (force) to achieve this orbit.
Chapter 6 Rotational Motion

Angular Measure
In everyday life, angles are measured in degrees, where 360 equals a full turn. A more suitable unit for technical
purposes is the radian (rad). If a circle is drawn whose center is at the vertex of a particular angle, the angle  in
radians is equal to the ratio between the arc s cut by the angle and the radius r of the circle:
s

r
arc length
Angle in radians 
radius

Because the circumference of a circle of radius r is 2πr, there are 2π rad

in a complete revolution (rev). Hence,

1rev  360  2 rad

And so,

1  0.01745 rad 1 rad  57.30

Angular Velocity
The angular velocity of a body describes how fast it is turning about an axis. If a body turns through the angle  in
the time t, its angular velocity  is



t
angular displaceme nt
Angular velocity 
time

Angular velocity is usually expressed in radians per second (rad/s), revolutions per second (rev/s or rps), and
revolutions per minute (rev/min or rpm), where

1 rev / s  2 rad / s  6.28rad / s

2
1 rev / min  rad / s  0.105 rad / s
60
2
1 rev / min  rad / s  0.105 rad / s
60

The linear velocity  of a particle that moves in a circle of radius r with the uniform angular velocity  is given by

v  r
linear velocity  angular velocityradius of circle 

This formula is valid only when  is expressed in radian measure.

Sample Problem:
A flywheel makes 300rpm. Find the angular speed  of any point on the wheel.
(Ans. 10π rad/s)

Angular Acceleration
A rotating body whose angular velocity changes from o to f in the time interval t has the angular acceleration α
of
w f  wo

t
angular velocity change
Angular acceleration 
time
A positive value of α means that the angular velocity is increasing; a negative value means that it is decreasing.
Only constant angular acceleration are considered here.

The formulas relating the angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a rotating body under constant angular
acceleration are analogous to the formulas relating linear displacement, velocity, and acceleration. If a body has the
initial angular velocity o, its angular velocity f after time t during which its angular acceleration α will be
 f   o  t

and, in this time, it will have turned through an angular displacement of

1
  o t  t 2
2

A relationship that does not involve the time t directly is sometimes useful:
 2f  o2  2
o

Sample problem:
A phonograph turntable initially rotating at 3.5 rad/s makes three complete turns before coming to a stop. (a) What
is its angular acceleration? (b) How much time does it take to come to stop?
a) -0.325 rad/s2
b) 10.8s

Moment of Inertia
The rotational analog of mass is a quantity called moment of inertia. The greater the moment of inertia of a body,
the greater its resistance to a change in its angular velocity.

The value of the moment of inertia I of a body about a particular axis of rotation depends not only upon the body’s
mass but also upon how the mass is distributed about the axis.

Let us imagine a rigid body divided into a great many small particles whose masses are m1, m2, m3, … and whose
distances from the axis of rotation are respectively r1, r2, r3, …

The moment of inertia of this body is given by

I  m1 r12  m2 r22  m3 r32  ...   mr 2

The farther a particle is from the axis of rotation, the more it contributes to the moment of inertia. The units of I are
kg-m2 and slug-ft2. Some examples of moments of inertia of bodies of mass M are shown below.

The radius of gyration of a body is the distance from its axis of rotation to a point at which the total mass of the
body might be concentrated without changing its moment of inertia. The moment of inertia I of a body of mass m
and radius of gyration k is
I  mk 2

Sample Problem:
A wheel of mass 6kg and radius of gyration of 0.40m, is rotating at 300rpm. Find its moment of inertia.
(Ans. 0.96kg-m2)
Torque

The torque  (Greek letter tau) exerted by a force on a body is a measure of its effectiveness in turning the body
about a certain pivot point. The moment arm of a force F about a pivot point O is the perpendicular distance L
between the line of action of the force O. The torque exerted by the force about O has the magnitude

  FL

Torque  ( force) (moment arm)

The torque exerted by a force is also known as the moment of the force. A force whose line of action passes
through O produces no torque about O because its moment arm is zero.

Torque plays the same role in rotational motion that force play in linear motion. A net force F acting on a body of
mass m causes it to undergo the linear acceleration a in accordance with Newton’s second law of motion F=ma.
Similarly, a net torque  acting on a body of moment of inertia I causes it to undergo the angular acceleration α
(rad/s2) in accordance with the formula

  I

Torque  (moment of inertia ) (angle of acceleration)

In the SI system, the unit of torque is Newton-meter (N-m); in the British system, it is pound-foot (lb-ft).

Sample problem:
A force of 80N acts tangentially at the rim of a wheel of diameter 24 cm. Determine the torque. (Ans. 9.6N-m)
Chapter 7 Equilibrium

Translational Equilibrium

A body is in translational equilibrium when no net force acts on it. Such a body is not accelerated, and it remains
either at rest or in motion at constant velocity along a straight line, whichever its initial state was.

A body in translational equilibrium may have forces acting on it, but they must be such that their vector sum is zero.
Thus the condition for the translational equilibrium may be written

F  0
Where the symbol  (Greek capital letter sigma) mean “sum of” and F refers to the various forces that act on the
body. The procedure for working out a problem that involves translational equilibrium has three steps:

1) Draw a diagram of the forces that act on the body. This is called a free-body diagram
2) Choose a set of coordinate axes and resolve the various forces into their components along the axes.
3) Set the sum of the force components along each axis equal to zero so that

Sum of x force components = Fx = 0

Sum of x force components = Fy = 0
Sum of x force components = Fz = 0

In this way, the vector equation Fz = 0 is replaced by three scalar equations. Then solve the resulting equations for
the unknown quantities. A proper choice of directions for the axes often implies the calculations. When all the
forces lie in a plane, for instance, the coordinate system can be chosen so that the x and y axes lie in the plane; then
the two equations Fx = 0 and Fx = 0 are enough to express the condition for translational equilibrium.

Solved problem
A 100-N box is suspended from two ropes that each make an angle of 40 with the vertical. Find the tension in each
rope.
Rotational Equilibrium

When the lines of action of the forces that act on a body in translational equilibrium intersect at a common point,
they have no tendency to turn the body. Such forces are said to be concurrent. When the lines of action do not
intersect, the forces are nonconcurrent and exert a net torque that acts to turn the body even though the resultant of
the forces is zero.

A body is in rotational equilibrium when no net torque acts on it. Such a body remains in its initial rotational state,
either not spinning at all or spinning at constant rate. The condition for the rotational equilibrium of a body may
therefore be written

  0
Where  refers to the sum of the torques acting on the body about any point.

A torque that tends to cause a counterclockwise rotation when it is viewed from a given direction is considered
positive; a torque that tends to cause a clockwise rotation is considered negative.
To investigate the rotational equilibrium of a body, any convenient point may be used as a pivot point for
calculating torques; if the sum of the torques on a body in translational equilibrium is zero about some point, it is
zero about any other point.