Radiation Safety

POINTS IN DISCUSSIONCUSSION
• Definition and understanding Radiation
• Types of Radiations
• Units of Measurement of Radiation
• Units of Measurement of Absorbed Radiation-Dose
• Hazards/Effects of Radiation on human body
• Basis of using Radiation for treatment
• Protection against Radiation/controlling Dose
• Regulatory body-AERB
• Functions of AERB
• Dose Limits
• Radiation safety on field-Diagnostic Radiology
• Radiation safety on field- Molecular imaging
• Responsibility on field as FE, SM & RSO
• Treatment/ First AID
 Definition- WHAT is Radiation

Radiation is energy that travels in the form of waves, or high speed particles.
Radiation around US !!!!!
 TYPES OF RADIATION

Radiation can be classified as of two types

• NON- IONISING Radiation
Radiation that does not have sufficient energy to dislodge
orbital electrons
• IONISING Radiation
Radiation that has sufficient energy to dislodge
orbital electrons
1.Non Ionizing Radiation
We take advantage of the properties of non-ionizing radiation for
common tasks:

• Microwave radiation

• Telecommunications

• Heating food

• Infrared radiation --infrared lamps to keep food warm in restaurants

• Radio waves– broadcasting

• LASER
2. Ionizing Radiation

Any radiation capable of displacing electrons from atoms or molecules,

thereby producing ions.

Types:
1. Alpha particles
2. Beta particles
3. Gamma rays, and X-rays
4. Neutrons
 2. Ionizing Radiation…….contd.
Alpha particles

An alpha particle consists of two protons & two neutrons, the

equivalent of the nucleus of a helium atom. Alpha particles readily ionize
material they contact and transfer energy to that material’s electrons. An
alpha particle can travel several millimeters in air, but in general its range
decreases with increasing density of the medium. For example, alpha
particles do not penetrate the outer layer of human skin, but if inhaled,
alpha particles can damage lung tissue.
Beta Particles

A beta particle is an electron or a positron and is much lighter than an

alpha particle. Thus, it takes beta particles a longer distance than alpha
particles to lose energy. A medium-energy beta particle travels about one
meter in air and one millimeter in body tissue.
2. Ionizing Radiation…….contd.
Gamma rays
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation. A radioactive element may emit
gamma rays (in discrete bundles, or quanta, called photons) if the nucleus
remaining after alpha or beta decay is in an excited state. Gamma rays can
penetrate much more deeply than alpha or beta particles; a high-energy gamma
ray photon may pass through a person without interacting with tissue at all. When
gamma rays interact with tissue, they ionize atoms. The term “X rays” is also
sometimes used for the gamma rays emitted in the process of radioactive decay
that are at the lower end of the energy spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
resulting from radioactive decay.
Neutrons
Neutrons are neutral particles that have no electric charge. Unlike alpha and
beta particles, they do not interact with electrons or cause ionization directly.
Neutrons can, however, ionize indirectly in a variety of ways: elastic collisions,
inelastic scattering, nonelastic scattering, capture reactions, or spallation
processes. These processes variously result in the emission of gamma rays, beta
radiation, and, in the case of spallation, more neutrons
IONISING RADIATION…..contd.

alpha particle He++

beta particle e-

gamma ray
photon

x-ray
e-

paper plastic lead

e-
 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION……..Electron Volt
• Ionizing radiation can be measured using units of electron volts, ergs,
and joules. An electron is “tightly bound” in a hydrogen atom (one
proton and one electron). It takes energy to move this electron away
from the proton. It takes 13.6 electron-volts of energy to move this
electron completely away from the proton. Then the Atom becomes
Ionized and energy of electron in Hydrogen is 13.6 ev.
• One electron-volt = 1.6 x 10-19 joules of energy.
• One joule (abbreviated J) is equivalent to the amount of energy used
by a one-watt light bulb lit for one second.
• The energy associated with the radioactive decay ranges from
thousands to millions of electron-volts per nucleus, which is why the
decay of a single nucleus typically leads to a large number of
ionizations.
 MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION……..Bequeral & Curie
• The radioactivity of a substance is measured in the number of nuclei
that decay per unit time. The standard international unit or
radioactivity is called a becquerel (abbreviated Bq), which is equal to
one disintegration per second (dps). When measured in minutes, it is
dpm (1/60 Bq)
• Radioactivity is also measured in curies, a historical unit based on the
number of disintegration per second in one gram of radium-226 (37
billion). Hence 1 curie = 37 billion Bq.
• Measuring the disintegration of different materials allows us to
compare whether a substance is more or less radioactive than
another. The specific activity of a radionuclide is inversely
proportional to its atomic weight and its half-life.
 MEASUREMENT OF ABSORBED RADIATION-DOSE

Placing your body near a radioactive source results in exposure. To

evaluate the hazard from this exposure one must compute
the Absorbed Dose.

This is defined as the energy imparted to a defined mass of tissue.

Dose is generally not uniform over the body. A radioactive substance

can be selectively taken up by different organs or tissue.
 MEASUREMENT OF ABSORBED RADIATION-DOSE
• Radiation doses are calculated in the units of
rad (radiation absorbed dose).
1 rad= 100 ergs/gram ie 100 ergs of energy absorbed by one gram of a given
body tissue.
100 rad = 1 Joule/kilogram (J/kg), which also equals one Gray (Gy), the
standard international unit for measuring radiation dose.
When we calculate the same over a period of time, it becomes dose rate (or
dose per unit time). Eg: millirad/hour.
• The roentgen measures the amount of ionization in the air caused by
radioactive decay of nuclei. Absorbed dose of radiation which takes into
account the relative biological effectiveness of different forms of ionizing
radiation, or the varying ways in which they transfer their energy to human
tissue. The dose in rem equals the dose in rad multiplied by the quality
factor (Q).
 MEASUREMENT OF ABSORBED RADIATION-DOSE
• rad or radiation absorbed dose
The amount of radiant energy absorbed in a certain amount of tissue.
• gray (Gy)
A unit of absorbed radiation equal to the dose of one joule of energy absorbed per
kilogram of matter, or 100 rad. The unit is named for the British physician L. Harold Gray
(1905-1965)
• milligray (mGy)
A unit of absorbed radiation equal to one thousandth of a gray, or 0.1 rad.
• rem or roentgen-equivalent-man
A unit of measurement that takes into account different biological responses to different
kinds of radiation. The radiation quantity measured by the rem is called equivalent dose.
• millirem
One thousandth of a rem, the unit for measuring equivalent dose.
• roentgen (R, r) (rent-gen, rent-chen)
The international unit of exposure dose for x-rays or gamma rays. Roentgens are named
after Professor Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen, the man who discovered x-rays in 1895.
• sievert (Sv) (see-vert)
The unit for measuring ionizing radiation effective dose, which accounts for relative
sensitivities of different tissues and organs exposed to radiation. The radiation quantity
measured by the sievert is called effective dose.
 EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON BODY
• Radiation may…
• Deposit Energy in Body
• Cause DNA Damage
• Create Ionizations in Body
• Leading to Free Radicals
Which may lead to biological damage
Response to radiation depends on….
• Total dose
• Dose rate
• Radiation quality
• Stage of development at the time of exposure
EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON BODY…….contd.

• Acute or Nonstochastic
• Occur when the radiation dose is large enough to cause extensive biological
damage to cells so that large numbers of cells die off.
• Evident hours to a few months after exposure (Early).
• Late or Stochastic (Delayed)
• Exhibit themselves over years after acute exposure.
• Genetic
• Somatic
• Teratogenic
 EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON BODY….contd.
Mature red blood cells
LOW SENSITIVITY Muscle cells
Ganglion cells
Mature connective tissues

Gastric mucosa
HIGH SENSITIVITY Mucous membranes
Esophageal epithelium
Urinary bladder epithelium

Primitive blood cells

VERY HIGH SENSITIVITY Intestinal epithelium
Spermatogonia
Ovarian follicular cells
Lymphocytes
 Partial body effect Whole body effect
Rad or Rem
Molecular Death (> 100,000 rad)

100% of People Die,

Ulcers on the Skin CNS Syndrome

Skin Reddening
Gastrointestinal Syndrome

Cataract Formation 50% of People Die (450 – 500 rad)

Permanent Infertility Nausea & Vomiting (10% of People)

Loss of Hair Decreased White Blood Cell Count

Extremities Regulatory Limit (50 rem/yr)

No Clinical Symptoms Seen Below 10 rem

Eye Regulatory Limit (15 rem/yr) Whole Body Regulatory Limit (5 rem/yr)

Extremities UTHSCH Administrative

Limit (1.275 rem/month) Whole Body UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (0.125 rem/month)

Eye UTHSCH Administrative General Public Whole Body Regulatory

Limit (0.375 rem/month) Limit (0.100 rem/yr)
HOW RADIATION USAGE IS DECIDED

Radiation is capable of creating abnormalities in the human body.

However the usage of radiation for its uses is necessary for the
diagnosis and treatment of the humans.
Hence a practice involving radiation exposure should produce sufficient
benefit to the individual or the society
• In case of individuals , the diagnostic benefit should outweigh the
risk.
• In occupational exposure, the effect should be added & compared to
other risks in workplace
• Incase of no benefit to individual, the society should be benefitted.
 PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION/ CONTROLLING RADIATION DOSE

BASIC FACTOR FOR RADIATION PROTECTION INCLUDES

• TIME
Resulting dose to the individual is small, if exposure time is kept short
i.e. Exposure = Exposure rate x Time.

“LESS TIME SPENT= LESS EXPOSURE”

 PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION/ CONTROLLING RADIATION DOSE
• DISTANCE

Inverse square law: Intensity of radiation is inversely proportional to square

of distance.
When the distance is doubled, the exposure is reduced by a factor of 4
1 m - 1.00 R/hr
2 m - 0.25 R/hr
10 m - 0.01 R/hr
“HIGHER THE DISTANCE, LESSER THE EXPOSURE”
PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION/ CONTROLLING RADIATION DOSE
• SHEILDING
• Use proper shielding for ionizing radiation sources/ radioactive materials
• Ensure barrication using appropriate material with adequate thickness
• Wear lab coats & disposable gloves
• Use volatile radioactive material in Radiation Safety approved fume hood
• Use absorbent paper to cover work surfaces

“USE SHIELDING EFFCTIVELY”

 PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION/ CONTROLLING RADIATION DOSE

• OPERATIONAL SAFETY
• Handling of equipment by qualified personnel
• Usage of protective accessories
• Use of personal monitoring devices
• Preventive maintenance and periodic QA of equipment
• Updating with current regulatory requirements
• Planning the work in advance properly
• Estimate the presence time
• Determine the position of hands, body and head
• Estimate the dose rate in areas
• Calculate the exposure rate & then commence work
 REGULATORY BODY- AERB

In India, the sale and the use of DIAGNOSTIC Radiology and NUCLEAR MEDICINE
equipment's are governed by ATOMIC ENERGY REGULATORY BOARD (AERB).

The AERB was constituted on November 15, 1983, by the President of

India by exercising the powers conferred by the Atomic Energy Act,
1962 to carry out certain regulatory and safety functions under the Act.
The regulatory authority of AERB is derived from the rules and
notifications promulgated under the Atomic Energy Act and the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 FUNCTIONS OF AERB
• Develop safety policies in nuclear, radiation and industrial safety areas for facilities under its purview.
• Develop Safety Codes, Guides and Standards for siting, design, construction, commissioning, operation and
decommissioning of different types of nuclear and radiation facilities.
• Grant consents for siting, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning, after an
appropriate safety review and assessment, for establishment of nuclear and radiation facilities.
• Ensure compliance with the regulatory requirements prescribed by AERB during all stages of consenting
through a system of review and assessment, regulatory inspection and enforcement.
• Prescribe the acceptance limits of radiation exposure to occupational workers and members of the public
and acceptable limits of environmental releases of radioactive substances.
• Review the emergency preparedness plans for nuclear and radiation facilities and during transport of large
radioactive sources, irradiated fuel and fissile material.
• Review the training program, qualifications and licensing policies for personnel of nuclear and radiation
facilities and prescribe the syllabi for training of personnel in safety aspects at all levels.
• Take such steps as necessary to keep the public informed on major issues of radiological safety significance.
• Maintain liaison with statutory bodies in the country as well as abroad regarding safety matters.
• Promote research and development efforts in the areas of safety.
• Review the nuclear and industrial safety aspects in nuclear facilities under its purview.
• Review the safety related nuclear security aspects in nuclear facilities under its purview.
• Notifying to the public, the 'nuclear incident', occurring in the nuclear installations in India, as mandated by
the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010.
Dose limits prescribed by AERB
Dose limits within region for GE
 RADIATION SAFETY IN DIAGNOSTIC RADIOLOGY

The equipment in the category are covered by AERB Safety Code No.
AERB/RF/SC/MED-2 (Rev. 2).
The following x-ray equipment are covered in this Code:
• Radiography (Fixed, Mobile, Portable)
• Interventional Radiology, C-Arm
• Computed Tomography
• Dental radiography [ Dental (intra-oral), OPG, Dental CBCT]
• Mammography
• Bone Mineral Densitometer
• Any of the above x-ray equipment mounted on vehicles
 Radiation safety in Diagnostic Radiology on field

• X-ray Room Layout and Shielding Requirements

• Ensure that the site layout is complaint with AERB norms. The walls have to
be of 9” brick and the doors should be 2mm lead lined. Minimum area of 18,
25 & 10 sqm is needed for X-ray, CT & Mammo resp.The lead glass should be
properly fixed with no leakage from sides
• Stay clear of the area if not needed to minimize stray radiation
• Proper Signage and pictorials to be clearly visible and adhered to
 Radiation safety in Diagnostic Radiology on field

• Typical room requirements

 Radiation safety in Diagnostic Radiology on field

Radiation protection devices

Use appropriate and proper radiation protection devices and apparatus such as
barriers, apron, goggles, and thyroid & gonad shields with right lead equivalent.
• Mobile Protective Barrier (MPB)- 1.5 mm Lead Eqv
• Lead Aprons - 0.25 mm Lead Eva
• Thyroid Shield -0.25 mm Lead Eqv
• Gonads Shield- 0.25 mm Lead Eqv
• Eye Wear (Shield)- 0.25 mm Lead Eqv
• Rubber hanging Flaps (In IR )-0.5 mm Lead Eqv
• Hand Gloves -0.25 mm Lead Eqv
• Lead Glass window- 1.5 mm Lead Eqv
• Door (Lead Lined)-1.7 mm Lead Eqv
 Radiation safety in Diagnostic Radiology on field

Radiation Monitoring Devices

There are two types of radiation exposure monitoring:

1) Area Monitoring by Survey Instruments: Done by using scintillation

detectors, gas detectors, energy discriminators etc
• To measure the exposure rate within the range 2 mR/hr to 1000
mR/hr
• Used for Workplace monitoring

2) Personnel Monitoring: Thermo luminescent dosimeter ( TLD), Film

dosimetre, Optically stimulated Dosimetre (OSL), Hand.Finger
Dosimetre, Alarm dosimetre
a) Measures accumulated exposure in the range 10 mR-10000 R
b) Used for Personnel exposure monitoring
c) TLD badges can measure min. dose of 0.1 mSv
(1mSv=100mRem)
d) Annual effective dose in any calendar year shall not exceed 30mSv
 Radiation safety in Diagnostic Radiology on field

Radiation Monitoring Devices

 Radiation safety in Diagnostic Radiology on field

Quality Assurance
• The equipment has to be in proper specs during operation to prevent
unwanted and over/under exposure to patient, operator and service
personnel.
• The equipment should ideally be checked for QA after every part in
the path of Radiation is repaired/replaced/re-calibrated
• AERB mandates it to be done once every 2 years.
• QA should be done in presence of site RSO ( Radiation safety officer)
• QA to also cover the leakage from walls, doors and lead glass edges.
• Apart from QA regular and proper servicing should be done.
• All reports should be properly stored.
 Radiation safety in Molecular Imaging on field
• Nuclear medicine site layout is different from the Radiological equipment & more
active. TDS concept to be remembered & utilized strongly .
• Designated areas for Radiation isotopes and injected patients are separate from
general public/movement area.
• Signage and restrictions of movement to be followed strictly.
• Isotope handling and movement to be done by site technologist and in presence
of RSO.
• Storage of isotope and related material to be done in designated areas and not to
be left in equipment periphery. Discarding of irradiated items to be done in LEAD
bins
• Area radiation monitoring devices to be used for deciding to move into Irradiated
zones.
• Incase of prolonged work like NEMA, vault work in cyclotron etc., work to be
planned( Dose, tools etc) & shared( buddy system).
• Use aprons and all proper tools always while handling isotope if needed.
Radiation safety in Molecular Imaging on field
 RESPOSIBILITY AS FIELD PERSONNEL

Employee -basic responsibilities:

• Each TLD user MUST complete the annual Radiation training -575. If training hasn’t been assigned
or is not appearing in your GE learning Plan, escalate it to EHS Manager/ RSO.
• TLD badge needs to be worn at ALL Times without exception while you are in radiation
environment.
• Ensure you have the TLD for the current Month/Quarter (Except Kolkata, Delhi and Lucknow LCT’s,
all are monthly) CTC team will NOT assign the calls if you do not have the current month
/Quarter TLD.
• TLD badges for the month or Quarter Must be replaced by 2nd of every month . Failed to do so,
will result in Disciplinary actions and employee is not allowed to work in radiation environment
till TLD badge is replaced.
• While undertaking Air travel, ensure TLD is stored in the Carry-on Baggage.
• In case of mishandling of the TLD badges (few examples below) – Report within 24 hours of
notice to manger, EHS team and Regional RSO. Failed to do so will result in Disciplinary actions.
• Unknowingly TLD remained inside radiation room during exposure ( TLD fallen down/in tool bag…),
• Misplaced/lost TLD,
• Air Travel with TLD in check in luggage
• Each TLD user is responsible to know the dose received from the Lab monthly/quarterly. Your
point of contacts are – LCT TLD coordinator, Regional RSO, Service Manager, & EHS team. If you
received the dose >1 mSv, it needs to be escalated within 24 hours to your manager , RSO and
EHS team
• Ensure you finished your Radiation medical surveillance once in three years.
RESPOSIBILITY AS SERVICE MANAGERS

• Create awareness on employees on Radiation safety in LCT meeting, Safety

committee, team meetings etc.
• Ensure each employee reporting to you has completed annual Radiation training -
575 prior to start working in the field. If not please ensure he completed the training
before work is assigned.
• Each TLD user returns the previous months TLD and takes the new TLD for the
month/Quarter by 2nd of each month/Quarter
• Used TLD Badges are send to HO or Lab directly (Kolkata, Delhi and Lucknow LCT’s
send directly to Lab ) for analysis before 5th of every month/Quarter
• If any employee reports any mishandling of TLD, report to RSO (Regional/ National)
and EHS team within 24hours.
• Review your employees dose reports for the month/quarter and If any of your TLD
users received the dose >1 mSv, it needs to be escalated within 24 hours to RSO
(Regional & National) and EHS team.
• Refer to Radiation safety program for New / transferred employees onboarding.
• TLD users finish their Radiation medial surveillance in Time.
RESPOSIBILITY AS RADIATION SAFETY OFFICER (RSO)

• Create periodic awareness for employees on Radiation safety.

• Review compliance to TLD badge handling and usage in the region for any concerns/misses
• Complete Inspections and report findings
• Review Dose reports and escalate overdose to employee, manager and EHS.
• All TLD users finish Radiation medical surveillance
Radiation safety in Molecular Imaging on field

MEDICAL TREATMENT
Almost 90% of external irradiated dust and contamination can be removed by
cleaning, removing clothes and taking a shower.
• External Decontamination
• Mild cleaning solution applied to intact skin
• Betadine, Soap, Rad-Con for hands
• Never use harsh abrasive or steel wool

• Internal Decontamination
• Treatment which enhances excretion of radionuclides
THANK YOU