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International Journal of Public Administration

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Public Service Motivation and Professionalism

a b
Lotte Bøgh Andersen & Lene Holm Pedersen
a
Department of Political Science , Aarhus University , Copenhagen , Denmark
b
AKF, Danish Institute of Governmental Research , Copenhagen , Denmark
Published online: 03 Jan 2012.

To cite this article: Lotte Bøgh Andersen & Lene Holm Pedersen (2012) Public Service Motivation and
Professionalism, International Journal of Public Administration, 35:1, 46-57, DOI: 10.1080/01900692.2011.635278
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International Journal of Public Administration, 35: 46–57, 2012
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0190-0692 print / 1532-4265 online
DOI: 10.1080/01900692.2011.635278

Public Service Motivation and Professionalism

Lotte Bøgh Andersen
Department of Political Science, Aarhus University and AKF, Danish Institute of Governmental
Research, Copenhagen, Denmark

Lene Holm Pedersen

AKF, Danish Institute of Governmental Research, Copenhagen, Denmark

Public service motivation (PSM) literature has traditionally conceptionalized professionalism

as identification with professional associations. In contrast, this article discusses profes-
sionalism as an occupational variable and claims that professionalism relates differently to
the different PSM dimensions and user orientation. Using two different measures of pro-
fessionalism, the article analyses 845 Danish employees and shows that professionalism is
negatively related to compassion and user orientation, but positively related to attraction to
policy-making. Commitment to the public interest and professionalism are not related. Thus,
professionalism relates to PSM in more complex ways than earlier supposed, pointing
towards an institutional approach to professionalism and PSM.

Keywords: public service motivation, professionalism, user

orientation
 PSM may increase the
INT individual and
ROD organizational perfor-
UCT mance (Brewer, 2008;
ION Leisink & Steijn, 2009;
Andersen & Serritzlew,
Many providers of public 2012). This article
services are professionals. therefore investigates
They belong to how professionalism and
occupations with high PSM are related.
levels of specialized, The main contribution
theo- retical knowledge of the article is that it
and strong intra- integrates the sociology
occupational norms. This of professions and public
means that their service motivation
motivation and behavior literature and empirically
potentially differ from tests the association
other public employees. between PSM and
While the sociology of professionalism, using
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pro- fessions has already different

been rediscovered in operationalizations of
some parts of the professionalism. The
discipline of public existing literature has
administration (Tonon, predominantly
2008; Teodoro, investigated the effect of
2010), it has not yet been individual identification
integrated in the study of with the professional
public service motivation. organization. For this
Are professionals more or specification, the results
less motivated by doing have been somewhat
good for others and inconsistent (Perry, 1997;
society than other Moynihan & Pandey,
providers of public 2007).
services? Does We argue that we can
socialization within an more fully understand the
occupational group with rela- tionship by also
norms and specialized, drawing on the sociology
theoretical knowledge of professions. We
increase public service therefore conceptionalize
motivation (PSM), or is professionalism as the
altruistic motivation occu- pational level of
replaced by professional specialized, theoretical
norms or even occu- knowledge com- bined
pational self-interest? with the existence of
Does the association firm intra-occupational
between PSM and norms (Andersen, 2005,
professionalism differ for p. 25). Professionalism is
the different PSM dimen- thus ultimately a
sions? These are continuous occupational
important questions, variable in the sense that
especially given that some occupations are
more professionalized
Correspondence should be
than others. The term
addressed to Lotte Bøgh profession is reserved to
Andersen, AKF, Danish describe an occupation
Institute of Governmental with a high level of
Research, Købmagergade 22, professionalism, and
DK-1150, Copenhagen K,
Denmark. E-mail: lba@akf.dk professionals are
members of occupations
with high levels of
professionalism.
PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION
47
 48 TheANDERSEN
central claim in
AND PEDERSEN be more oriented maintain or establish a The major difference
the article is that towards doing good for monopoly on providing between the two
professionalism relates the individual users. This certain services. “Social traditional approaches to
differently to the implies that closure” thus refers to the professions is that while
dimensions of public professionalism relates way in which status functionalists see the
service moti- vation. Until differently to the different groups such as profession’s knowledge
recently, studies types of PSM. professions (Weber, as necessary (Goode,
predominantly treated The next section 1978, p. 306) try to 1957, p. 195) and assume
public service motivation presents the theoretical improve their own that altruism makes them
as a unified concept framework and proposes situation by limit- ing follow a num- ber of
(Coursey et al., 2008, p. three hypotheses rewards and opportunities professional norms
88), but the public service concerning the to themselves (Parkin, (MacDonald, 1995, p.
motivation literature has relationship between 1974, p. 3). 3), the neo-Weberian
begun to treat the concept professionalism and PSM. approach (in its most
as first order reflective After a presentation of the extreme form) sees the
and second order data and methods, the professional knowledge
formative (Wright & results are presented and as a cover used to get
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Christensen, 2009; Kim, dis- cussed. Finally, the power and the
2011). The dimensions main findings are professional norms as a
may therefore very well summarized in the way to uphold the
have different causes and conclusion. privileged sta- tus of the
consequences. We both occupation (Johnson,
investigate the traditional 1972; Parkin, 1974;
PSM dimensions THEORETI Murphy,
(commitment to public CAL 1988, pp. 15–42). The
interest, compassion, FRAMEWO neo-Weberians assume
attraction to public policy) RK that profes- sions
and user orientation as maximize “power, wealth
expressing another type of Within the public and status” (Collins, 1990,
altruistic motivation administration literature, p. 24), while (at least the
linked to the provision of professionalism is early) functionalists
public service. typically associated with assume that they are pure
This is highly specialized technical altruists (Parsons, 1954,
relevant as professional knowl- edge acquired p. 372; Durkheim,
norms do not apply to all from a formal educational 1992). In relation to PSM,
types of behavior program; ethical the neo-Weberian
(Goodrich & Salancik, responsibility; working approach implies that
1996; Andersen & for the common good professionals are
Blegvad, 2006; Andersen and life- time careers socialized to occupational
& Jakobsen, 2011). Thus, (Mosher, 1968). This self- interest, meaning that
their correspondence with definition does, however, professionals might be
PSM is also expected to rely only on one of the less willing to help others
differ between PSM two most important and society (have lower
dimensions. Some approaches within the PSM). This contrast with
dimensions of PSM may sociology of professions, the functionalist
be consistent with namely the functionalist expectation that
professional norms, approach. This approach professionals are
whereas others may not. expects professionals (in socialized to do good.
Additionally, professional the course of their In our opinion, neither
capacities such as spe- education) to become the neo-Weberian nor the
cialized, theoretical socialized to “an func- tionalistic approach
knowledge may also ideology that asserts can stand alone in an
affect the dimen- sions greater commitment to analysis of the
differently. Different doing good work than to relationship between PSM
professions may also do economic gain” and professionalism, as
good for others and (Freidson, 2001, p.127). profes- sionals (like other
society in different ways; In contrast, the neo- individuals) are neither
classical bureaucrats may Weberians warn us that knights (pure altruists) nor
be attracted to public professions can be knaves (pure egoists) (Le
policy-making whereas collectively self- Grand, 2003). The
health care workers may interested, trying to professional knowledge is
often necessary, but knowledge and skills. PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION
profession- als are not The second element 49
expected to follow norms in the definition of
for altruistic reasons professional- ism is the
alone. We thus follow the existence of professional
trend in the sociology of norms. Both the Neo-
profes- sions which Weberians and the
combines insights from Functionalists have a
the functionalist and neo- blind spot con- cerning
Weberian approaches. institutions, and
The first element in professional norms can be
our understanding of seen as institutions. For
professions is that services demanding
professions have a specialized, theoreti- cal
specialized, theoretical knowledge, politicians
knowledge (Andersen, face a serious dilemma,
2005). “Specialized” because
means that only the pro-
fession has the
knowledge. “Theoretical”
means that the knowledge
involves general
understanding of relevant
con- cepts and causal
relationships within the
field, but that the
knowledge cannot be
codified because of the
complexity of the area and
the corresponding need
for discretionary assess-
ment. For instance, the
production of some
services—this could be
heart surgery — demands
special expertise which
only one occupation
possesses. Especially if
this knowledge is
theoretical and therefore
less transferable, others
will then be unable to
evaluate whether the
members of the
occupation did the right
thing (Roberts & Dietrich,
1999, p. 985). When
persons outside the
profession do not know
how a job should be done,
the usual information
asymmetry is increased
due to the knowledge
asymmetry (Sharma,
1997). The principals
might not even be able to
evaluate the outcome; it
can, for example, be
difficult to say whether a
university student has
obtained adequate
50 ANDERSEN AND PEDERSEN
 they cannot control the service production, while voters still PUBLIC
TABLESERVICE
1 MOTIVATION
hold them responsible. The politicians may therefore be 51
Understanding of the classical PSM dimensions and user
interested in a settlement with the profession, according to orientation
which the profession promises to keep its house in order Understanding of
by upholding certain standards in exchange for higher Dimension dimension Discussed in
status
Commitment to Motivation to deliver Perry (1996)/Kim
and pecuniary rewards (Day & Klein, 1987, p. 19; Watson,
public interest public services to serve &Vandenabeele
2003, p. 192). (public values) the relevant society, (2009)
The need to uphold certain standards leads to the insti- based on values and
tutionalization of professional norms. Despite the informa- duty
tion asymmetry, an occupation can hardly keep its status Compassion Emotionally Perry (1996)
(empathically) based
as a profession in the long run if sloppy practices are
motivation to do good
widespread among individual professionals. The for others by improving
professions defend their status by boasting careful and public services
competitive selec-
tion procedures, training and credentials and by establishing Attraction to Motivation to improve Perry (1996)/Kim
policy-making/ decision-making &Vandenabeele
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protocols, specifying best practices, and creating codes of

public concerning public (2009)
ethics to limit agent discretion (Shapiro, 2005, p. 275).
participation services to help others
In other words, professions formulate and sanction profes- and society
sional norms defined as prescriptions commonly known Self-sacrifice The will to bypass one’s Perry (1996)
and own needs to help
used by the members of an occupation, referring to which others and society by
actions are required, prohibited, or permitted in a specific providing public
services
situation (Ostrom, 1986, p. 4; Andersen, 2005, p. 71–73). User orientation Motivation to help the Vandenabeele
In sum, professionalism is the occupational level of spe- specific user of public (2008)
cialized, theoretical knowledge combined with the services Andersen,
existence of firm intra-occupational norms (Andersen, Pedersen, &
2005, p. 25). Both these elements are relevant in the Pallesen (2011)
measurement of professionalism.
Public service motivation (PSM) is defined as “an
individual’s orientation to delivering service to people
with the purpose of doing good for others and society” (e.g., within health care), where the mission is to help other
(Hondeghem & Perry, 2009, p. 6). This definition includes people. In this article, we are able to control for the over-
specific others whereas other definitions of PSM put all job contents, by analyzing health care, education, and
empha- sis on collective entities (Rainey & Steinbauer, administration separately. We therefore argue that although
1999, p. 20; Vandenabeele, 2007, p. 547).The incidence attraction due to PSM might very well be important for
and dimension- ality of PSM are fairly well established. the choice among different tasks (curing, teaching, or doing
The top rows in Table 1 show the four classical dimensions administrative work) and sectors (public versus private), it
developed by Perry (1996). In this article, we follow does not affect the level of professionalism substantially.
Coursey & Pandey (2007) and exclude self-sacrifice. In Within health care (and education and administration) we
order to take altruis- tic motivation to “do good” for expect the choice of occupation in terms of professionalism
specific others seriously, we include a user orientation (that is, choosing, for example, among becoming a doc-
dimension. Whether it should be included in the PSM tor, a nurse, or a health assistant) to be determined much
construct can be discussed; in this context it is more by individual ability and socio-economic factors than
inconsequential as we will treat the dimensions separately. by PSM. We therefore argue that attraction is not an impor-
The next question is how these dimensions (and the other tant mechanism for the relationship between
insights from the PSM literature) relate to profes- professionalism and PSM.
sionalism, and this discussion is structured by the mecha- Selection refers to the processes which prioritize some
nisms through which the concepts can be linked (attraction, individuals over other individuals. If higher education insti-
selection, attrition, and socializing). tutions prioritized individuals with high PSM over individu-
Attraction denotes a process where an individual is als with low PSM (or oppositely), PSM would also affect
attracted to something, in this case an occupation with more professionalism. Similarly, if employers of professionals
or less professionalism. This mechanism could potentially emphasized high PSM (and had the choice between differ-
sort individuals into occupations based on their ent professionals) individuals with low PSM might become
motivational structure. Perry & Wise (1990, p. 370) thus unemployed and therefore leave the profession. However,
argued that the greater the strengths of public service these mechanisms are unlikely, because acceptance in a
motives are to an indi- vidual, the more likely the individual pro- fessional education is not based on individual
is to seek environments which satisfy these needs. motivation, and because few professionals leave their
Employees with high initial lev- els of PSM may thus seek profession due
out specific occupational groups
 to lacking chances to get arguments for a positive find that professional But what are the
a job. Like attraction, we socialization effect, identification affects PSM arguments for a
there- fore assume that the Pandey & Stazyk (2008, strongly and uniformly negative socializa- tion
selection effect of PSM at pp. 105–6) argue that pro- positive. In contrast, Perry effect of professionalism
the level of fessions have ethical (1997) finds that on PSM? In relation to
professionalism is not codes emphasizing the professional identification the mentioned studies, the
substantial. promotion of the public had no overall positive difference might be due to
Attrition denotes the interest, but that the effect and has a negative the measurement;
gradual, natural reduction effect on PSM depends influence for attraction to Moynihan & Pandey
in mem- bership or on the socializing policy-making. used a dichotomous
personnel, as through institutions of the measure of membership
retirement, resignation, or professional associa- in professional
death. Similar to tions. In terms of this organizations, whereas
selection and attraction, article, strong Perry measured activities
our assessment is that socialization neces- sarily in and attitudes towards
attrition is of minor exists within professions, professional
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importance for the because firm professional organizations. In contrast

association between norms are defining to these studies, this
professionalism and PSM. characteristics, but it is article conceptionalizes
Few leave their occu- not self-evident that this professionalism as an
pation before retirement, socialization is directed occupational variable.
and age-based differences towards (all dimensions This conceptualization is
can be handled by of) PSM. Socialization especially important for
controlling for age. The within professions can the discussion of why
expectation that attrac- potentially happen already professionals may be
tion, selection, and during the formal socialized to
attrition cannot be education. (occupational)
expected to cause Within the PSM selfishness, implying that
substantial effects from literature, Perry (2000, pp. professionalism
PSM to professionalism 480–1) also argues that negatively affects PSM as
can, of course, only be schools are an important implicitly implied by the
confirmed by panel source in terms of neo- Weberian approach.
studies over a long influencing the Freidson argues that
period, but given that we motivation of individuals. professional power exists
control for task and He expects both as a protected position for
sector, we find it educational level and the occupation in the
reasonable to treat PSM professional training to social division of labor; as
as the dependent variable affect the level of PSM. authority, status, and
in the analyses. This is Socialization can also expertise in inter- actions
also in accordance with happen after the edu- with individual users; and
the rest of the literature cation is finished, both as dominance in the larger
(Perry, 1996; Perry & spontaneously between political economy of
Hondeghem, 2008b, p. individual professionals ideas (1970, 1986).
298). We therefore and within the settings of Frankford (1997, p. 196)
concentrate on the last professional organi- argues that this power is
mechanism, socialization, zations. The existing based on professionals
which means the literature has primarily cre- ating ideas about their
process where individu- investigated the subject area; that these
als internalize the values socialization linked to the ideas come to dominate
and norms of their professional organization. the laity, and that this
peers. We discuss Perry (1997, p. 185) thus power over ideas is
expects that professional embod- ied in educational
1. the arguments for a organizations shape the (and other types of)
positive effect, ethical norms of their institutions. He argues
2. the arguments for a members and that that both professions as
negative effect and member- ship and active collectives and
finally participation of these professionals as indi-
3. the arguments for a organizations therefore viduals possess this
conditional effect. increase public service power, and that it is
motivation. Moynihan & exercised against other
Considering the Pandey (2007, p. 46) also occupations, individual
users and society as a col- occupation are expected
lective, particularly as to behave and perform
embodied in the political similarly (either because
and legal systems. the professionals find the
In the public norms the right way to do
administration literature, things or because of (col-
Mosher has (1968, p. 210) lective) self-interest in
called attention to the upholding the privileged
perspective on position of the
professionals, arguing that profession). This implies
the general interest might that other types of
be substituted by the motivation (both altruistic
(narrower) professional such as PSM and egoistic
perspective influenced by such as pecuniary
the pro- fessionals’ own motives) matter less. The
interests (see also Perry professional norms do,
2007, p. 5). Perry (1997, however,
p. 185) touches on this
issue, stating that “the
degree to which
professionalism influences
public service motiva-
tion is likely to be
constrained by tension
between profes- sional
self-interest and the ideal
of professional responsi-
bility to higher ethical and
moral standards.” Despite
this tension, Perry still
expects that identification
with a pro- fession is
positively related to
public service
motivation. In contrast,
we argue that a more
nuanced discussion, relat-
ing to the PSM
dimensions, is necessary
to account for the
countervailing forces of
professionalism.
As mentioned, there
are also arguments for a
conditional socialization
effect of professionalism
on PSM, implying that
the effect can be positive
under some
circumstances and
negative under other
circumstances. An
institutional approach to
professionalism thus calls
attention to the fact that
sometimes professional
norms and PSM can be
com- peting motivations.
If a firm professional
norm exists, pro-
fessionals from the same
 differ from profession to
profession, and it is also
differ- ent for the PSM
dimensions, whether they
clash with the
professional norms.
Commitment to the
public interest
(motivation to deliver
public services to serve
the entire relevant
society based on values
and duty) hardly clashes
with professional norms
in any profession. Given
the argument presented
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be oriented towards the
perceived needs of the
user. As Mosher (1968, p.
109) formulated it “there
are correct ways of
solving problems and
doing things.”
Concerning attraction
to policy-making, it is
harder to form specific
expectations. Mosher
(1968, p. 108) argues that
there is “a built-in
aversion between the
professions and politics,”
originating in the
providers. The institutional
Hypothesis 3: Public approach to
service providers, who professionalism also
are members of calls attention to the
occupations with a high institutional context in
level of which professionalism
professionalism, have relates to PSM. This is
lower levels of user not the main focus here,
orientation than other but including the subject
public service area (education, health
providers. and administration) allows
us to explore this factor.
For example, we would
expect that administrators,
especially in the public
sector, are more attracted

above for including these historical fact that most to politics, because
norms in the definition of pro- fessions have fought Danish admin- istrators
professionalism, they are politicians who are seen organizationally are
created to guarantee good as amateurs trying to placed closer to the
service for society in the infiltrate, dominate and political core and thus are
implicit bargain between influence their work sub- institutionally closer to
profession and public. In stance to the expense of decision-making.
contrast, we clearly “specialized knowledge,
expect all professionals to science and rationality.”
have lower levels of On the other hand, the D
compassion. Given that literature on political A
professionals act in efficacy and political T
accordance with norms participation (Milbrath, A
and based on the 1965; Verba, Schlozman,
specialized, theoretical & Brady, 1995; A
knowledge, this Vecchione & Caprara, N
emotionally based type of 2009) has shown that D
motivation should not higher education increases
charac- terize them. The political participation M
professional socialization (Vecchione & Caprara, E
is expected to be directed 2009), and professionals T
towards internalizing normally have a long H
norms and removing education. As it is O
emotions as the basis of impossible to say which D
decision-making; effect dominates, we S
professional power is cannot offer specific
based on the ability to expectations for attrac- The study has been
convince the public that tion to policy-making. designed to get variation
the professional autonomy The three investigated in the level of
is based on expertise. hypotheses thus are: professionalism while
Professionals are holding other variables
supposed to respond Hypothesis 1: constant. The
analytically (rather than Professionalism and investigation is based on a
emotionally) to people in commitment to the survey of 3,304 Danish
need. public interest are not employ- ees from the
The same logic correlated. private and public sector.
applies to user Hypothesis 2: Public The respondents are
orientation. Seen from a service providers, who Danish employees
profession’s perspective, are members of between the ages of 25
only professionals (and occupations with a high and 64. The sam- ple
not the users) have the level of includes both private
right theoretical and professionalism, have sector and public sector
specialized knowledge to lower levels of employees. The data
take decisions, and compassion than other were collected by
professionals should not public service Zapera in June 2009 in
a web-survey undertaken higher secondary and pre-
using a web-panel. The school teachers), three
representa- tiveness of types of health care
web-panels can be workers (physicians,
seriously questioned, but nurses, and health
as we are interested in assistants), and two
testing a causal relation, types of administrators
rather than get- ting a full (with and without a
picture of the Danish university degree). Apart
population, this does not from our wish to be able
constitute an important to vary professionalism,
problem in the present while holding the area
context. constant, the criterion for
We analyze a sub- selecting an occupation
sample of these (n = was that more than 25
959), namely from this occupa- tion
those belonging to nine answered the
occupations from three questionnaire. An
different occupation is defined as
parts of the public sector a group of employees
(education, health, and who share the same
administra- tion). 845 of education and perform
these answered all the approximately the same
relevant questions and are task. Practically, we asked
used in the analyses. For the respondents to
education, university describe their job category
teach- ers for example in detail, and afterwards
have a higher level of we coded them based on
professionalism than DISCO 88. It is
high-school teachers who
again (at the occupational
level) have more
specialized, theoretical
knowledge and firmer
norms than primary
school teachers.
Comparing these differ-
ent types of teachers
enables us to hold the
basic task (edu- cation)
constant while varying
professionalism and the
same applies to health
care and administration.
Including employ- ees
performing three different
tasks (education, health,
and administration)
ensures that the results
are robust in terms of
their applicability to
different tasks, and it
also allows us to
investigate differences in
the level of PSM between
providers of different
public services.
Table 2 shows the
investigated four types of
teachers (university, high
school, primary, and

Investigated occupations after their professionalism and service area (number of respondents) ∗
Very high professionalism
High professionalism
Medium professionalism
Low professionalism
∗
Years of education and prestige measure in brackets.
PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION
51
TABLE
2
Administrative
Criteria Teaching occupations Health occupations occupations
Specialized and theoretical University teachers Physicians
knowledge which only the (8 years/7.20) n = 29 (8 years/7.74)
occupation possesses combined n = 56
with strict norms which are
sanctioned.
Specialized and theoretical High-school teachers Administrators with
knowledge combined with norms (5 years/5.32) n = 28 university degree
which are sometimes sanctioned. (5 years/6.25) n = 83
Theoretical knowledge combined School teachers Nurses (3.5 years/
with norms which are sometimes (4 years/4.64) 5.71) n = 78
sanctioned. n = 189
A little theoretical knowledge and Pre-school teachers Health assistants Administrators with
maybe norms which are not (3.5 years/4.08) (1.5 years/3.10) vocational training
sanctioned. n = 104 n = 88 (3/4.11) n = 304
 the
52 official AND
ANDERSEN Danish
PEDERSEN transfer- ability. The Still, not all education is r
version of the reliability of the both theoretical and th
international occupational qualitative measure is specialized, and the e
classification ISCO-88. therefore relatively low. indicator only measures in
A description of DISCO In sum, the qualitative one of the two elements ve
88 can be seen at measure of profession- in the definition of sti
http://www.dst.dk/Vejvis alism measures what it professionalism. It is ga
er/Portal/loen/DISCO/ purports to measure, but therefore neces- sary to te
DISCO-88.aspx. it does not do it very supplement with another d
In the analysis, two precisely. quantitative indicator of oc
different measures of The quantitative professionalism. cu
professional- ism are measure of We use an indicator pa
employed. As we will professionalism is a from a survey-based tio
discuss in detail below, forma- tive index based assessment of ns
the qualitative measure on two quantitative occupational prestige. .
has high measurement indicators of the occupa- This survey was made in The qualitative and
validity, and the tional level of norms and 2006 by A4, which is a quantitative measures of
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quantitative measure has specialized, theoretical weekly journal published profes- sionalism do, as
high reliability. We knowledge. The first by the unions. In the mentioned, have different
present analy- ses with quantitative indicator is survey, 2,155 randomly strengths and weaknesses.
both measures to make length of education mea- selected Danes were The quantitative measure
sure that the findings are sured in number of years asked to place (education and pres- tige)
robust in terms of similar (stated in parentheses in 99 different occupations does not depend on
results for measures with Table 2). Length of on a scale from 0 to 10 researchers’ judgment
very different strengths education and level of depend- ing on the and is very precise
and weaknesses. theoretical, specialized prestige of the occupation (education because
The qualitative knowledge are closely (A4, 2006). Prestige is formal rules specifies the
measure of related, and education can related to the public’s exact length of a given
professionalism is based therefore be used as an perception of an education, and prestige
on a qualitative coding of indicator of this element occupation’s knowl- edge because it is based on
the level of theoretical of professionalism. and norms, but some 2,155 answers), while the
knowledge and the occupations are better at qualitative measure is
firmness of the intra- giving the impression of less exact. The qualitative
occupational norms for having knowledge and measure does, however,
the inves- tigated nine norms, and other factors have high measurement
occupations. These than knowledge and validity, while the
occupations are coded in norms also affect quantitative measure
four categories according occupational prestige, (although it has two
to the criteria listed in meaning that prestige indicators) does not
Table 2. The material cannot stand alone as an correspond per- fectly to
coded is semi-structured indicator of the theoretical definition
interviews, secondary professionalism. We of professionalism. This
data, and analyses of their combined education and is why we run all
formal education (see prestige in a formative analyses with first one
Appendix B for a list of index to measure level of measure and then
the material). The profes- sionalism
strength of this measure quantitatively by first
is that it has high standardizing education
measurement validity as and prestige so that they
the two central ele- ments had the same mean and
in the theoretical standard devi- ation and
definition — knowledge then added them together
and norms in an index, which was
— are reflected in the rescaled to go from 0 to
criteria on which the 100. Table 2 shows the
coding is based. The exact years of education
classification does, and levels of prestige (on
however, depend on the the scale between 0 and
judgment of the 10
researcher, meaning )
lower inter-subjective fo
 PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION
53
TABLE
2
 the
54 other; it ensures
ANDERSEN AND that the results are similar for very
PEDERSEN
different operationalizations of professionalism. In order to
make this transparent, the results from both measures of
pro- fessionalism are reported in the results section. We
based our measures of the PSM dimensions on the short
form devel- oped by Coursey & Pandey (2007). Wright &
Christensen (2009, p. 15) found that this short form had a
moderately good fit with the data.
Appendix B presents a factor analysis of the items,
and it indicates that the factors correspond to the expected
dimensions (commitment to public interest corresponds to
factor 1, attraction to policy-making corresponds to factor
2, compassion corresponds to factor 4, and user orientation
cor- responds to factor 3 in Table A1 in Appendix B).
Cronbach’s alpha for the indexes corresponding to the items
belonging to the different dimensions is between 0.52 and
0.72 (exact val- ues can be seen in Appendix B). We
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and sector (public/private) are included. The level of com-
mitment to the public interest is highest for education, and
it is higher in the public sector than in the private sector.
Pedersen & Andersen (2010) discuss this finding. Our inter-
pretation is that the level of professionalism and the level of
commitment to the public interest are not correlated, when
service area and sector is controlled for, because the argu-
ments for expecting a positive and a negative association
neutralize each other, suggesting that professions should
nei- ther be seen as pure “collective egoists” (as
suggested by the Neo-Weberians) or as totally committed
to doing good work (as suggested by the Functionalist
approach to profes- sions). It is, however, possible that
none of the arguments are valid. Table 3 shows that there is
no substantial difference in the results using the qualitative
or the quantitative measure of professionalism, suggesting

that the findings are robust concerning the

analyze the dimensions separately and use factor scores
from the analysis presented in Appendix B.
RESULTS
In this section, we present a series of OLS regressions
of the different dimensions of PSM and user orientation.
Hypothesis 1 expects that professionalism does not relate
to commitment to the public interest. As expected, Table 3
shows that professionalism does not systematically
correlate with the level of commitment to the public
interest con- trolled for age and gender. The same result is
seen when con- trols for service area (education, health, or
administration)
operationalization of professionalism.
Hypothesis 2 expects that a higher level of professional-
ism is associated with a lower level of compassion. Table 4
confirms this expectation as employees belonging to occu-
pations with a high level of professionalism a have a lower
level of compassion than employees belonging to occu-
pations with a low level of professionalism. Due to mul-
ticollinarity, this association is not statistically significant
for the models with interaction terms between profession-
alism and area, but the coefficients do not change, and
the association does not differ substantially among admin-
istration, teaching, and health. Our interpretation is that
professionals are governed by norms rather than emotions,
and that they have been socialized out of being motivated
by

TABLE 3
OLS regressions of Commitment to Public Interest (unstandardized regression coef)

Quantitative measure of professionalism Qualitative measure of professionalism

Model 3-1 Model 3-2 Model 3-3 Model 3-4 Model 3-5 Model 3-6 Model 3-7 Model3-8 Model 3-9
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
(Intercept) 71.67 70.812 69.26 67.840 66.864 69.53 68.94 67.42 66.44
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗
Age (years) 0.111 0.113 0.098 0.090 0.098 0.113 0.098 0.090 0.096
Gender 0.873 1.118 1.443 1.168 1.179 1.245 1.474 1.224 1.281
(1 = woman)
Professionalism 0.017 0.006 0.005 0.025 0.643 0.188 0.209 0.490
Service area1 : 5.60∗∗∗ 2.701∗ 5.900 5.555∗∗ 2.633∗ 6.020
Teaching
Service area1 : 1.545 −1.466 −1.477 1.468 −1.571 −2.440
Health
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
Sector 5.43 5.41 5.44 5.38
(1 = public)
Interaction:
∗ −0.086 −1.189
Teach prof.
Interaction:
∗ −0.004 0.226
Health prof.
n 845 845 845 845 845 845 845 845 845
Adj. R-square 0.005 0.004 0.033 0.053 0.054 0.005 0.033 0.053 0.053
F-value for full 3.032 2.239 6.838 8.932 7.061 2.536 6.848 8.950 6.883
model

1
Reference category to “service area” is administration.
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗
0.05 ≥ p > 0.01; 0.01 ≥ p > 0.001; 0.00 1 ≥ p.
 PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION
53
TABLE
4 (unstandardised regression coef.)
OLS regressions of Compassion

Quantitative measure of professionalism Qualitative measure of professionalism

Model 4-1 Model 4-2 Model 4-3 Model 4-4 Model 4-5 Model 4-6 Model 4-7 Model 4-8 Model 4-9
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
(Intercept) 68.6 70.0 67.6 66.7 66.6 69.6 69.5 68.5 67.4
∗ ∗ ∗
Age (years) .112 .109 .083 .077 .079 .111 .083 .077 .081
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
Gender 5.63 5.24 5.26 5.08 5.06 5.46 5.19 5.03 5.05
(1 = woman)
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Professionalism −.027 −.052 −.053 −.055 −.298 −1.42 −1.40 −1.039
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗
Service areaa1 : 8.76 6.90 7.94 9.05 7.21 9.080
Teaching
Service area1 : 5.57∗∗∗ 3.637∗ 3.22 6.02∗∗∗ 4.11∗∗ 5.105
Health
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Sector 3.484 3.46 3.43 3.424
 =
54(1 public)
ANDERSEN AND PEDERSEN
Interaction:
∗
Teach prof.
Interaction:
∗
Health prof.
n 845 845 845
Adj. R-square .030 .031 .090
F-value for full 14.268 9.993 17.625
model
1
Reference category to “service area” is administration.
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗
0.05 ≥ p > 0.01; 0.01 ≥ p > 0.001; 0.001 ≥ p.
compassion; it is not considered “professional” to feel
rather than know.
Table 4 also shows that employees working with educa-
tion have the highest level of compassion. The level is
much lower for administration than for the other two areas,
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prob- ably reflecting that administrative (anti-emotional)
profes- sional norms demand objectivity, lawfulness, and
equality. Public employees have more compassion (as
discussed in Pedersen & Andersen, 2010). The results are
robust across the two measures of professionalism.
Hypothesis 3 expects that high professionalism is asso-
ciated with low user orientation, and Table 5 shows that
this expectation is confirmed. User orientation is higher for
health, and this corresponds with the professional norms of
health professionals (codified in the medical codex based
on the Hippocratic Oath (Von Staden, 1996) and similar
oaths for nurses (e.g., Lingås, 2005). These norms empha-
size that health care skills should be used to benefit both
society and the individual users of health services (poor
as well as rich). We also think that user orientation is less
against the norms of health professionals, because they nor-
mally treat the patients separately, whereas teachers must
attend to the collective (the class) and ultimately society
(the ultimate user of education). For administration, being
oriented towards the user can be a direct problem for reg-
ulation, where the administrator must ensure that the user
does not harm others in society (e.g., environmental regula-
tion) and that equal cases are treated equally. In other
words, our interpretation is that user orientation in varying
degrees is incorporated in the professional norms for the
different
−.026 −.697
.011 −.400
845 845 845 845 845 845
.096 .094 .030 .090 .096 .094
15.873 11.940 9.596 17.720 15.912 11.940
occupations. Table 5 also shows a high level of similarity
between the results based on the two different measures
of professionalism, at least for the results concerning the
relationship between professionalism and user orientation.
We had no expectation as to the association between
professionalism and attraction to policy-making, because
countervailing forces could theoretically mean positive
and negative effects, respectively. Table 6 shows that the
association is positive. We suppose that this is due to
the mentioned association between education and political
participation/efficacy, but it is hard to confirm this. Still,
although we do not know the mechanism behind the associ-
ation, we know now that professionals are more attracted to
policy-making. The interaction terms show that this
associa- tion is strongest for administration, and the level of
attraction to policy-making is also highest for this area.
Again, the results are stable across the two measures of
professional- ism (except for the fact that the interaction
terms are only significant for the quantitative measures of
professionalism).
CONCLUSION
The literature on the relationship between professionalism
and PSM tends to measure professionalism as individual
identification with professional organizations and to treat
PSM as a unified construct. In contrast, drawing on the
sociology of professions, professionalism in this article is
defined as an occupational variable which refers to the
 TABLE 5
OLS regressions of user orientation (unstandardised regression coef.)

Quantitative measure of professionalism Qualitative measure of professionalism

Model 5-1 Model 5-2 Model 5-3 Model 5-4 Model 5-5 Model 5-6 Model 5-7 Model 5-8 Model 5-9
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
(Intercept) 71.1 73.7 73.6 74.2 76.3 76.5 76.9 77.6 78.0
∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∗
Age (years) .119 .114 .112 .115 .113 .114 .110 .113 .118
∗∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Gender 3.39 2.64 2.43 2.54 2.37 2.44 2.10 2.20 2.27
(1 = woman)
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗
Professionalism −.052 −.056 .005 −.114 −1.65 −1.92 −1.93 −2.19
Service area1 : .219 1.371 2.202 .718 1.915 5.22
Teaching
Service area1 : 1.453 2.648 −.587 2.24 3.486 ∗ −1.131
Health ∗
Sector −2.155 −2.248 −2.226 −2.348
(1 = public)
Interaction: −.008 −1.056
∗
Teach prof.
Interaction: .096 1.559
∗
Health prof.
N 845 845 845 845 845 845 845 845 845
Adj. R-square .019 .027 .026 .029 .034 .032 .033 .036 .039
F-value for full 9.361 8.675 5.516 5.146 4.719 10.197 6.789 6.252 5.330
model

1
Reference category to “service area” is administration.
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗
0.05 ≥ p > 0.01; 0.01 ≥ p > 0.001; 0.001 ≥ p.

TABLE 6
OLS Regressions of Attraction to Public Policy Making.(unstandardized regression coef.)

Quantitative measure of professionalism Qualitative measure of professionalism

Model 6-1 Model 6-2 Model 6-3 Model 6-4 Model 6-5 Model 6-6 Model 6-7 Model 6-8 Model 6-9
∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
(Intercept) 52.0 49.3 50.1 50.0 44.4 47.0 46.2 46.1 41.1
Age (years) −.133 ∗ −.128 −115 −.115 −.092 −.128 −.113 −.113 −.097
∗
Gender −3.258 −2.488 −2.025 −2.036 −1.753 −2.388 −1.656 −1.671 −1.564
(1 = woman)
∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
Professionalism .053 .069 .069 .210 1.505 2.321 2.322 4.03
∗ ∗ ∗
Service area1 : −3.089 −3.212 3.984 −3.68 −3.85 3.99
Teaching
∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
Service area1 : −5.004 −5.132 −.341 −5.93 −6.11 −.607
Health
Sector .231 .309 .319 .337
(1 = public)
∗ −2.96
Interaction:
∗ −.215
Teach prof.
∗
Interaction:
∗ −.154 -2.15
Health prof.
N 845 845 845 845 845 845 845 845 845
Adj. R-square .008 .011 .019 .018 .022 .012 .023 .022 .023
F-value for full 4.449 4.107 4.236 3.529 3.411 4.443 5.011 4.176 3.490
model

1
Reference category to “service area” is administration.
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗
0.05 ≥ p > 0.01; 0.01 ≥ p > 0.001; 0.001 ≥ p.
 degree of specialized orientation and
theoretical knowledge compassion and
and the firm- ness of the positively with attraction
professional norms. to policy-making. Our
Furthermore, we argue argument is that
that the relationship compassion is nega-
between professionalism tively correlated to
and PSM differs between professionalism, because
the different dimensions professionals deliver
of PSM, and the empirical public service based on
analysis in this article theoretical knowledge
supports this. and professional norms
Studying nine different (and not based on
occupations (845 emotions). The recip- ient
individuals) we found may be seen as an
that professionalism interesting case which
Downloaded by [Chinese University of Hong Kong] at 02:49 25 February 2015

correlates negatively can — and should — be

with user handled professionally,
rather based on
PUBLIC SERVICE MOTIVATION
55
 56
compassion.
ANDERSENIn line
ANDwith
PEDERSEN robust in terms of being
this, the professional does similar for a quantitative
not draw energy from and a qualitative measure
helping the individual of professionalism. None
user, but from applying of the two professionalism
the relevant knowledge in measures is perfect, but
order to do a job that the development of new
meets the professional empirical measures of
norms. If the professionalism based on
professionals did not a conceptual discussion of
comply with the the recent development in
professional norms which the sociology of
guide the provision of professions can still be
ser- vices, the public may seen as one of the
lose its confidence in the contributions in the
professions’ knowledge article. The qualitative
and norms. The job is measure of pro-
Downloaded by [Chinese University of Hong Kong] at 02:49 25 February 2015
therefore not necessar- fessionalism categorized
ily done when the occupations based on
individual user is interviews and existing
satisfied, but when the documents and looked
professional norms are specifically on intra-
met. Given that we see occupational norms and
profession- als as specialized, theoretical
members of occupations knowledge. This measure
with specialized, does, however, depend on
theoretical knowledge and the researchers’
firm professional norms, qualitative interpretation,
the negative corre- lations and it is therefore
between professionalism reassuring that the
on the one hand and user quantitative measure of
orientation and professionalism leads to
compassion on the other simi- lar results. This
are understandable. measure is independent of
Attraction to policy- the researchers’
making is positively interpretations, but its
associated with measurement validity is
professionalism, and our not as high as the
interpretation is that qualitative measure,
higher educa- tion leads to because education and
both stronger political occupational prestige are
efficacy and higher level only indirect indicators
of specialized, theoretical for the degree of theo-
knowledge. There seems retical knowledge and
to be no association professional norms. These
between professionalism indicators do, however,
and commitment to the have a high reliability. As
public interest, when such the measures
service area and sector developed here have
(private/public) are opposite weaknesses and
controlled for. strengths. The fact that
Additionally, we found analyses with different
substantial differ- ences measures of profes-
among health care, sionalism produce similar
education, and results indicates that the
administration both in findings are robust in
terms of the level of PSM terms of not being
and in terms of the dependent on the chosen
associations with professionalism measure.
professionalism. While the major
These results are strength of the study is
that we empir- ically
investigate the association
between PSM and pro-
fessionalism, using
different
operationalizations of
profes- sionalism and
controlling for sector and
service area, the major
weakness is that the data
are cross-sectional. We
hope that future research
will investigate the
relationship between
professionalism and PSM
using panel data, because
this would shed more
light on the causal
direction between
professionalism and PSM.
Concerning
generalizability, our
assessment is that
although the web-panel is
not strictly representative
even for Danish
employees we expect to
find the same correlations
between professionalism
and the dimensions of
PSM and user orientation
in other contexts. Cross-
nationally, the same
profession (e.g., teachers)
may have different
professional norms, and
understandings of for
example “the public
interest” may also vary.
This may influence the
results, and we hope to
see more comparative
research on causes and
effects of PSM.
Despite the mentioned
limitations, one of the
core find- ings is that
professionalism relates
differently to the different
PSM dimensions. This
supports the claim that
PSM is a first- order
reflective and second-
order formative construct
(Kim,
2011), and that we (in
each study) should
carefully consider whether
it is most meaningful to
treat the dimensions sepa-
rately or to look at PSM
as a unified concept. The
results also indicate that a
conditional theory
concerning professional-
ism and public service
motivation is necessary.
Although we have found
some general trends, the
results still indicate that
we can get a better
understanding of PSM
among profession- als if
we look at their
professional norms and
institutional contexts more
closely. This is in line
with the institutional
approaches both within
the sociology of
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ANDERSEN
from http://ww
ANDwPEDERSEN
.mit.ps.au.dk/mema/2009/Thomas_Reinholt_ APPENDIX B. FACTOR ANALYSIS
Vestergaard_og_Maiken_Baltzer_Løsmar.pdf
Von Staden, H. (1996). In a pure and holy way: Personal and professional TABLE A1
Factor analysis of all items (pattern matrix)
conduct in the Hippocratic Oath. Journal of the History of Medicine and
Allied Sciences, 51, 406–408. Factor
Watson, T.J. (2003) [1980]. Sociology, work and industry (4th edition).
London: Routledge. 1 2 3 4
Weber, M. (1978). In Roth, G.., & Wittich, C. (Eds.), Economy and I associate politics with 0.209 −0.599 0.052 −0.029
society: An outline of interpretive sociology. Berkeley: University of something positive
California Press. ATP 0.106 0.462 0.054 −0.095
Wright, B.E., & Christensen, R.K. (2009). Public service motivation: The give-and-take of public
Testing measures, antecedents and consequences. Paper presented at the policy-making doesn’t appeal
2009 International Public Service Motivation Research Conference in to me (R) ATP 0.057 0.841 0.020 0.110
Bloomington, Indiana, June 7–9. I do not care much about 0.476 −0.060 0.130 0.034
politicians (R) ATP
I contribute to my community 0.529 0.122 −0.019 −0.178
CPI
APPENDIX A. SOURCES USED TO CODE Meaningful public service is very 0.659 0.015 −0.077 −0.001
PROFESSIONALISM important to me CPI
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I would prefer seeing public

Occupation officials do what is best for the
0.738 −0.045 −0.015 −0.066
Researchers Ministerial order on Ph.D. program at the whole community even if it
universities, order no. 18, January 14, 2008 harmed my interests CPI −0.028 −0.012 0.019 −0.686
(www.au.dk/da/regler/2008/bek18.pdf). I consider public service my civic
3 telephone interviews with representatives for duty CPI
professional organizations. It is difficult for me to contain
my feelings when I see people
in
High-school Vestergaard & Løsmar (2009). Thesis distress COM
To me, considering the welfare of 0.010 −0.032 −0.019 −0.806
teachers investigating professionalism of high-school
teachers.
School teachers 12 interviews with teachers, 6 with school others is very important COM
I am often reminded by daily 0.183 0.034 0.093 −0.369
principals, analysis of formal education
(Andersen, 2005) events about how dependent
Pre-school 6 interviews with pre-school teachers we are on one another COM
teachers The individual user is more −0.060 0.014 0.355 −0.074
Physicians 20 interviews with orthopedic surgeons important than formal rules
(Andersen & Jakobsen, 2011), 6 interviews with UO
It gives me energy to know that I 0.171 −0.036 0.605 0.016
general practitioners (Serritzlew & Andersen,
2006) helped the user/customer UO
Health assistants Kjeldsen (2009) If the user/patient is satisfied the −0.043 0.031 0.704 0.053
and nurses job is done UO
Administrators 6 interviews with administrators (Andersen, 2000).
For university educated: Analysis of academic R: Reversed. Extraction Method: Principal factor. Rotation Method:
regulation of law, economy, and political Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization. All respondents (not only selected
science studies [studieordninger]. For not occupations) are included in the analysis. Cronbach’s alpha for shaded
university educated: Web pages for the general items for factor 1 (0.72), for factor 2 (0.65), for factor 3 (0.52) and for
office education [‘den generelle factor 4 (0.69). ATP: Attraction to policy-making. CPI: Commitment to
kontoruddannelse’]. the public interest. COM: Compassion. UO: User orientation.