NUMERICAL/CFD STUDY OF HEAT TRANSFER AND

THERMAL PERFORMANCE WITH LONGITUDINAL FINS

OF SOLAR AIR HEATER

A Dissertation
Presented to
The Academic Faculty
By
M Jawwad Moeen
Advisor
Dr. Shafiq ur Rehman Qureshi
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Masters
In Thermo Fluids

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

2018
DEDICATED TO ALL THOSE FELLOW COUNTRYMEN WHO STRIVE
FOR EXCELLENCE IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me immense pleasure to express my profound thankfulness to my thesis

advisor Dr. Shafiqur Rehman Qureshi, who has an ability to keep students motivated
towards the task of achieving the best out of whatever science activity they are involved
in the college.

Further, I would not forget to mention my fellow mates Mr. Shamoon Jamshed, Shiraz
Ali, Muzammil Ejaz and Abdullah who have always been there to bring out the best
out of me.

Lastly, I would also like to mention my instructors Dr. M Ali Khan, Dr Mukkarum
Hussain and Dr. Nauman Qureshi who never hesitated in guiding me whatever they
could in culmination of my job.
 ABSTRACT/PREFACE

Solar air heater converts solar energy into thermal energy. These are used for
commercial/residential purposes and generally have a low efficiency. There is
certainly a need for more research and development in this field and to reduce losses
and improve efficiency by proposing better designs. Various experimental works in
this regard have been contributed. The experimental works have produced very few
progressive results as experiments have a limited scope and lack flexibility. Therefore,
an option in this regard is validation of experiments through CFD simulations and
predicting the efficiency of a particular design. Solar air collectors can be made more
efficient by introducing better designs (with fins).

In this thesis Numerical (CFD based) study of thermal efficiency of (single pass) solar
air heater with five fins incorporated under the absorber plate in comparison with flat
plate type absorber plate was carried out. The same study was initially conducted
experimentally to show the effects of surface geometry air heating by hollow fins of
semi-cylindrical of longitudinal form in comparison viz-a-viz to solar heater having a
flat absorber plate (dimensions: 2m x 2m x 0.5m) solar air heater absorber plate that
is dimensionally same. Therefore the results and report published has been studied
and same has been validated (Numerically) in the present thesis work. Longitudinal
fins (integrated below the absorber plate) enhance the heat exchange and provide fluid
a uniform channeled flow. The effect of fins on the outlet temperature and heat
transfer(thermal) efficiency of the solar collector/air heater that were studied in the
experiment are validated in this study through CFD. Results of fluid flow (air) by solar
collector with and without fins were compared shows significant increase in thermal
efficiency upto 50% with fins.

CFD simulation tools require High Performance Computers to model flow (fluid etc.)
scenarios to predict material/thermal, momentum transfer and parameters in various
real world cases. CFD simulation solutions mostly provide result in suitable ranges,
hence proving that CFD tools can be applied for analysing the working and
performance of solar air heaters etc. Designing a solar air heater with software
simulation approach and determining of suitable boundary conditions alongwith
solution techniques is a challenging job. Hollow Semi-cylindrical longitudinal fin form
is an effective design improvement that has emerged to enhance the thermal efficiency.
The thermal performance of conventional solar air heater has been found inferior due
to low convective heat transfer coefficient of absorber plates employed. Using artificial
roughness below absorber plates’ surface is an effective design improvement that
increases surface area and consequently the rate of heat transfer.
 NOMENCLATURE

Nomenclature

T Temperature

Xi Local transverse direction of points (m)

Yi Local thickness direction of (panel Height) (m)

Tin Temperature inlet

Vair Air velocity (m/s)

h Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

Cp Specific heat of air (J/kg K)

Ac Area of absorber plate surface (m2)

Q Useful heat collected for an air-type solar collector

Greek symbols

 Collector efficiency (%)

m Air mass flow rate (kg s-1)

e Emissivity of absorber plate

αa Absorber plate absorption coefficient

αg Absorptivity of the glass covers

Re Reynolds number

Nu Nusselt number for roughened duct

k Thermal conductivity of air (W/m/K)

L Length of duct (m)

(α) Transmittance–absorptance

 Density of air (kg/m3)

w Wall

I Global irradiance of solar incident (W/m2)

 CONTENTS
Page No.

Chapter 1.............................................................................................. 01

Introduction .................................................................................................... 01

Energy Scenario. ............................................................................................. 02

Solar Energy Utilization (Air Heating) ........................................................... 04

Basics of Solar Air Heater ............................................................................... 07

Justification/Motivation (Thesis Problem Statement) .................................. 07

Chapter 2 ............................................................................................. 09

Literature Review ............................................................................................ 09

Chapter 3 ............................................................................................. 14

Mathematical Modeling. ................................................................................. 14

Chapter 4 ............................................................................................. 20

Computational Fluid Dynamics ...................................................................... 20

Pre-Processing. ................................................................................................ 21

Solution Domain ............................................................................................. 21

Grid. ................................................................................................................. 24

CFD Analysis ................................................................................................... 24

Boundary Conditions ...................................................................................... 24

Discretisation of Governing Equations ........................................................... 25

Post-Processing (Fluent Simulation) .............................................................. 25

Grid Independence .......................................................................................... 27

Chapter 5 ............................................................................................. 29

Results & Discussion ....................................................................................... 29

Findings ........................................................................................................... 29

Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 42

References ........................................................................................... 43

List of Figures

1. Energy Sources of Global Energy Consumption ............................................. 02

2. Solar Heating Existing Capacity in the world ................................................. 03

3. Solar Heat Production Cost Comparison ........................................................ 04

4. Employment of Solar energy for Various Outputs ......................................... 04

5. Solar Thermal Energy Use for Heating Buildings .......................................... 07

6. Control Volume Energy Balance Schematic Figure ........................................ 14

7. Radiation Schematic. ...................................................................................... 14

8. Experimental Setup Schematic. ...................................................................... 23

9. Meshing. .......................................................................................................... 24

10. A control volume bounded by mesh elements ................................................ 25

11. Grid Independence Study ............................................................................... 28

12. Comparison of Average Output Results (Experimental vs Numerical) ......... 30

13. Outlet Temperature Profiles ........................................................................... 30

14. Air Heater Temp Contours .............................................................................. 31

15. Temperature Across Flow Panel (Flow Rate 0.016) ....................................... 32

16. Temperature Across Flow Panel (Flow Rate 0.012) ....................................... 33

17. Outlet Temperatures With Fin (Flow Rate 0.012).......................................... 35

18. Outlet Temperatures With Fin (Flow Rate 0.016).......................................... 36

19. Solar Intensity and Thermal Efficiency Vs Time Of Day (Flow rate: 0.012) 38
20. Solar Intensity and Thermal Efficiency Vs Time Of Day (Flow rate: 0.016) 39

21. Air Heater Cut Away Sec Temp Contours ....................................................... 40

22. Velocity (Boundary Layer) Contours .............................................................. 41

23. Pressure Drop Across the Air Heater Panels .................................................. 41

List of Tables

1. World Renewable Energy Use by Type and Scenario. .................................... 03

2. Numerical Result Overall ................................................................................ 29

3. Experimental Results Overall ......................................................................... 29

4. Across Length (Outlet-Inlet) Temps of Panel ................................................. 32

5. Across Length (Outlet-Inlet) Temps of Panel ................................................. 33

6. Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) Without Fins, According to
Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow Rate: 0.012 kg s-1) Corresponding to the
Experimental Results of Reference Paper[1] ............................................................. 35

7. Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) With Fins, According to Day
Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow Rate: 0.012 kg s-1) Corresponding to the Experimental
Results of Reference Paper[1] .............................................................. 35

8. Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) Without Fins, According to
Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow Rate: 0.016 kg s-1) Corresponding to the
Experimental Results of Reference Paper[1] ............................................................. 35

9. Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) Without Fins, According to
Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow Rate: 0.016 kg s-1) Corresponding to the
Experimental Results of Reference Paper[1] ............................................................. 36
 CHAPTER 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Energy system of today's world is at its turning point. Presently the Global Energy
production, supply and consumption are actually unsustainable and this approach
certainly needs to be altered in times to come. The future wellbeing of humans depend
highly on how successfully the two energy challenges we face today are tackled; secure
supply of consistent energy and shifting towards low-carbon environmental friendly
system [13]. This means a revolution in the field of energy.

World’s most essential source of energy is oil and it seems it will continue to remain so in
years to come, even if the pace of alternative technology is increasing. However the oil
sources to meet rising demands, the production cost and the buying price are victims of
uncertainty. Moreover, to check further damage to the global climate asks for the use low
or non carbonised energy for world power requirements. Current energy related, emission
trends of carbon-dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases are expected to rise
exponentially in years to come, and may push average global temperature up 6°C in long
term [10]. As per the requirements of the 'Kyoto Protocol' treaty 1992; All States must
commit to curb greenhouse gases emissions; the same is based on the preamble that (a)
global warming effects do exist and (b) man-made emissions of CO2 gas have caused
it[10].

The energy sector will have to play main role in restricting emissions through vital
improvements in efficiency and switching to renewable energies and other low-carbon
technologies. [12]

Although the world’s total resource of oil is enough to support the predicted rise in
requirement beyond 2030[13], yet research says that although fossil fuels are being
formed continuously through natural processes, but still they are generally considered to
be nonrenewable resources because they take literally millions of years to form and the
known feasible reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones forming.
Moreover, the use of fossil fuels raises grave concerns for the natural environment. The
combustion of fossil fuels produces approximately 21.2 billion tonnes (21.2gigatonnes) of
carbon dioxide (CO2) annually[10], according to an estimation, natural eco-cycle can only
absorb approximately half of this amount, so there is a net increase of 10.62 billion tonnes
of CO2 in atmosphere per annum (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent
3.6 tonnes of Carbondioxide). Carbondioxide gas (one of greenhouse gases) contributes
to global warming and can cause the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise,
which will cause serious impacts on climate. Therefore, collective efforts are being taken
globally towards shifting to renewable energies for reducing global greenhouse gas
emissions for a cleaner and more efficient energies system in the world [12].
1.2 ENERGY SCENARIO

There is a lot of research and deliberation nowadays to achieve development and

fulfillment of global power requirements from sustainable energy sources. Hydro, solar
energy, and wind power are all orthodox sources of renewable/ alternative energies that
are being developed. Alternative energy is an attractive concept; it actually means energy
extracted from sources other than orthodox (fossil fuels, Coal, oil and natural gas). Fossil
fuels are produced by nature from organisms/living things that lived thousands of years
ago and got buried beneath the surface of the Earth and ultimately transformed into the
combustible materials or fuels. But as mentioned earlier their rate of use as fuels
surpasses their renewability rate by the nature unlike the solar, wind and to some extent
hydro energy sources which get renewed as they are used.

The renewable energies cater for only about 8 percent of global energy requirements [13].
This implies that crude oil/gas, along with nuclear makeup for 92 percent of the total
global energy resources. So far energy demand of world is about 400 quadrillion British
Thermal Units (BTUs) [12]. A BTU nearly equals energy and heat produced by a match
[12]. Oil, coal, natural gas and nuclear nearlyfulfill91 percent of the world’s energy
requirements, that is nearly about 355 quadrillion BTUs. Out of this requirement, oil has
the highest share, fulfilling about 40 percent of the world’s total energy needs [10,11]. As
the population will grow beyond nine billion over the next 5 decades, the world’s energy
demands are expected to increase exponentially. Therefore, it is expected that fossil fuels
will also diminish exponentially and thus requirement to establish alternate systems must
be worked out. Therefore, the importance of enhancing energy extracting options in the
field of alternative methods cannot be ignored [13]. The table below mentions some of the
uses and consumption levels of leading world renewable/sustainable energy producers.

Figure.1 Energy sources of global l energy consumption in 2016[12]

 Table.1 World Renewable Energy use by type and scenario [13]

The table above discusses the heat energy generation from renewable sources as well.
Heat energy is mostly required to heat spaces, warming water, cooking, and various
industrial processes. Heat can be produced and consumed at many levels that range from
domestic applications to large‐scale industrial processes and district heating networks
[10].The implications of renewable energy in the energy sector, particularly for generating
heat, is one of the outstanding challenges. The most suitable heat energy resource that is
still to be tapped in the mist efficient ways is the sun (solar energy). There have been a
series of researches on methods of harnessing heat and power for sun. The ensuing
paragraphs discuss this in detail.

Figure.2 [12]
1.3 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION (AIR HEATING)

Solar Air heating is a method in which solar radiations are converted into thermal energy
(heat/enthalpy). Air absorbs and carries thermal heat and delivers to living/working
spaces. Air has property of transparency due to which it is not able to absorb (effective
amounts of) solar radiation directly, therefore a media is required to make (heat) energy
transfer possible effectively and deliver the heated air into living spaces. Technologies
developed to materialize the (heat transfer) process are called 'Solar Air Heaters'.
[10,12,13]

Figure.3 [11]

Utilization of Solar Energy For Various Outputs

Figure. 4[12]
Conversion of solar energy to thermal energy by utilizing heating application devices is
an effective means of harnessing this natural (solar) resource. The most typical
equipment/tools that convert solar energy (insolation) into thermal energy are known as
solar collectors/air heaters. Solar air heating is a renewable/sustainable energy (heat
harnessing methodology) used to heat/condition air in living spaces or processes that
involve heat applications [14]. Equipment that is used for solar air heating are called Solar
air collectors and are generally distributed into two categories [10]:

a. Unglazed Solar Air Collectors or Transpired Solar Collector. It is primarily

utilized for heating ambient air in commercial, industrial, agricultural
processes/applications. It consists of a metallic absorbent plate without glazing
cover on top. Common type of unglazed collector commercially available is
transpired solar collector.
b. Glazed (with glass cover) air collectors (recirculating types). Air is forced
convected through fan from living spaces to the collector. After passing through
the collector, the heated air is channeled back to the space.

Unglazed Solar Air Collector Glazed (with glass cover) air collectors

There are various designs for solar air heaters/collectors with respect to flow of air:

a. Through pass solar heat air collector carries air from one side of the
absorber to the other. This system has a greater surface area, making it an efficient
design for transferring heat. However, it requires more fan power. Moreover,
degradation of selected types of absorber materials after prolong usage/exposure
to solar radiation can lower air quality and performance.

b. Back, front and combination passage types channel air to the back, front or
both sides of the absorber. This system is prone to dust accumulation, which can
lower the efficiency.
ADVANTAGES
The advantages and disadvantages of the solar air heaters are:

a. Solar energy is a free resource.

b. Solar energy use does not give pollution in its output
c. Solar energy can be used for power production in far flung (remote) areas that are
away from main grid.
d. Many everyday use devices (like laptops, gadgets etc) can be powered by solar
energy effectively.
e. According to rough estimations, world’s oil reserves are finite. On the contrary,
solar energy is apparently infinite.

DISADVANTAGES
a. Solar energy is only available abundantly during (sunny) daytime.
b. Solar collector equipment and devices are comparatively costly to manufacture.
c. Conventional power stations give higher power output as compared to solar power
stations of similar size.
d. In countries where the climate is mostly overcast, solar energy is scanty therefore
reducing effectiveness.
e. Solar power charged batteries need replacement from time to time for efficient use.
Moreover, batteries also need appropriate stowage spaces.
 Figure. 5[12] Solar Energy Use for heat in buildings sector by region

1.3.1 BASICS OF SOLAR AIR HEATER

Solar Air Heaters work on simple thermodynamic principles:

a. Absorption of the solar insolation by metal body (collector/absorber plate)

results in the body heating up.
b. Heat transfer inform of convection from heated metal body to the fluid flow
is a thermodynamic phenomenon.
c. Different types of technologies of (Solar) Air Heating processes operate
using the same basic principles. A fan channels the air across ducting network
from heater to the (dwelling) space.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION/MOTIVATION (THESIS PROBLEM STATEMENT)

Solar Air Heaters used commercial/residential purposes generally have low

efficiency. There is certainly a need for more research and development in this field and
to reduce losses and improve efficiency by proposing better designs. Various experimental
works in this regard has been contributed. The experimental work has brought very few
progressive results as experiments have a limited scope and lack flexibility. Therefore, an
option in this regard is validation of experiments through CFD simulations and predicting
the efficiency of a particular design. Solar air collectors can be made more efficient by
introducing better designs (with fins).

In the subject thesis, a numerical study of solar air heater has been performed
based on an experimental[1] work on solar air heater to show the effect of surface
geometry on heating of air by longitudinal fins (semi-cylindrical form)in comparison viz-
a-viz to solar heater of the same size having plate type heat absorber surface. The study
seeks to prove that there is an increase in thermal (heat transfer) efficiency of the solar
collector with longitudinal fins as compared to solar air heater having plate type heat
absorber surface. Hollow Semi-cylindrical longitudinal fin form on underside of solar
heater heat absorbing surface is one of the significant and workable improvements in
design that are being researched for efficient thermal performance [1].

1.4.1 OBJECTIVE
Following objectives were intended from the subject study:
a. Verification and validation of experimental data by simulation to predict
flow in the two geometries as done by the authors of experimental research
paper [1].
b. CFD will prevent further requirements of multiple experimental rigs
c. This research will use computational fluid dynamics models to investigate
the use of longitudinally finned absorber tubes under solar absorber plate
to achieve better heat transfer to flowing air inside solar heater panel.
d. Comparative performance evaluation (Flat plate and Finned Solar Air
Heater).
Further explanation of the experimental setup and processes done by the authors of
experimental research paper [1] is discussed in the literature review. The same work has
been done in the subject study but by using Numerical Techniques instead of
experimental techniques to validate the output results of the experiment.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 One of the most promising utilization of solar energy is heating process. Heating
is frequently utilized in both domestic and industrial sectors. Approximately 30 % of
energy produced from various fuels is utilized for heating in industrial processes globally
[16]. Some common industries include textile, pharmaceutical, food processing etc.
Proper heating generally requires temperature between 40-80 deg Celsius. Furthermore,
domestic air heating is also a commonly applied process. Consequently, a lot of research
is focused on utilization and optimization of Solar Heat process as an
alternative/sustainable energy for conservation of depleting resources.

A very useful research regarding improvement and efficient solar heating has been
published by Shafiq R.Qureshi et al [16] in which the author has discussed that how
materials selection and setup can be economized for efficient solar heating for various
purposes. The author has proposed a double slope triangular enclosure for trapping the
maximum sun radiation in all times of a day and is a novel concept. The author has
concluded that the analytical results are in agreement with the experimental results with
an error of maximum 10%.

A comprehensive study by authors Foued Chabane et al [1] discusses in detail the

experimental setup with improvements to enhance efficiency of Solar Air Heater
performance. The same document has also been set as reference document in this CFD
study. The reference document discusses following:

a. An experiment of solar air heater was carried out to study the effect of
surface geometry (longitudinal plate with semi-cylindrical finned form) on air
heating in comparison viz-a-viz to solar heater having a flat plate solar collector
absorber plate of the same dimension.
b. The study focuses on method to enhance the thermal efficiency of solar air
heater; type used is counter flow type single pass solar air heater having fins of
longitudinal type.

c. Evaluation of the results (as in table below) revealed that;

1. Thermal efficiency of aforementioned type solar air

collector enhances with creation of longitudinal fins under the
absorber plate, as compared to the one without fins (flat plate
type)

2 Increasing the surface area of absorber resultantly

affects fluid flow heat transfer and increases Nusselt Number.

3. However the flow of air across finned space tends to

raise the pressure drop across the device/collector and
resultantly increase power consumption requirement to
pump air flow across the collector.

4. Hollow longitudinal fins for the absorber plate have

been created to increase heat exchange, outlet temperature,
and thermal efficiency when forced convection is used.

5. The efficiency of the solar air heaters rely highly on the

solar radiation intensity, surface geometry and mass flow rate
of air heater device that is integrated with fins under the
absorber plate surface to enhance heat transfer to air flow.
 Mass Flow Rate 0.016 kg/s
% efficiency With Fins Without Fins
Solar Heat
Harnessed 51.50% 43.94%
RESULTS [1]

Author Manjunath M.S [2] explains a comparison of effects of surface dimpled design
geometry solar collector with a plain flat plate solar collector measuring same dimensions.
The analysis tool used was CFD. The author deduced from this study that dimpled
absorber plate displays a temperature difference of about 50 deg C in heat transfer when
compared to plain flat plate collector.

To create roughness, the author used dimpled surface design geometry on the absorber
plate to increase surface area for heat absorption and for introducing turbulence in fluid
flow.

Authors; Anil Singh Yadav [3] discussed effects of circular sectioned ribbed surface on
friction factor and average Nusselt number on a solar air heater (duct aspect ratio, AR =
5:1) through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach. Numerical solutions were
calculated on ANSYS FLUENT. Computations were carried with finite volume methods
and semi-implicit for pressure-linked equations (SI MPLE). Air to be heated was passed
through a rectangle cross-sectioned ducting with metallic solar absorbant plate receiving
solar radiations from top.

As thermal performance of conventional solar air heater is of lower quality (due to low
convective heat transfer coefficient). Therefore sub surface roughness geometry
introduced under absorber plate to counter this and then analysed using CFD. However,
there is an argument this could also increase frictional losses and therefore require higher
power to pump air across ducting.

The author deduced that rib roughness developed underneath absorber plate
substantially improves heat transfer coefficient. Turbulence in flow induced due to
roughness in surface causes improvement in heat transfer coefficient. To keep minimum
friction losses, turbulence is induced only in region that is very close to the surface of plat
(in the laminar sub-layer). Artificial roughness in various forms (fine wires/ribs etc.)
introduced on the heat transfer surface definitely augment heat transfer efficiency.
 A rib height of 1.4 mm is chosen such that it breaks the viscous sub-layer

Author Dr. V.N. Bartaria [4] has discussed that efficiency in conversion of solar energy to
heat by solar thermal heaters is low because air has a lesser heat transfer coefficient. Heat
transfer coefficient of air can be enhanced by introducing flow field turbulence by crafting
different artificial roughness (Trapezoidal ribs in this case) geometries on absorber plate.

To analyse Nusselt number, velocity, heat transfer coefficient, and temperature

parameter, simulation (CFD) analysis is done using fluent software (K-ε model).

The two methods for improving heat transfer coefficient is by increasing the area of solar
radiation absorbing surface and introducing fins to induce turbulence on the heating
surface. A thermal resistance layer develops that smothers transfer of heat due to
development of a viscous (laminar) sub-layer below the absorber plate surface.
Roughness created (in form of projections) on the heat transfer surface induces
turbulence close to the wall that resultantly splits the laminar sub-layer which augments
heat transfer coefficient.

Results depict that due artificial roughness, Nusselt number increases. Thus heat transfer
is also enhanced.

Author Hyo Min Jeong [5] in his study carried analysis of heat transfer enhancement in
air-heating vaporizers. A vertical pipe (longitudinally finned) was designed for air-heating
vaporizer in the CFD model. Working fluid (Nitrogen gas) was passed through the vertical
pipe, and flow was channeled upward. CFD analysis in 2-D was carried out.

Longitudinal fins design underneath absorber plate substantially enhances the heat
transfer coefficient. Roughness elements create turbulence along the flow and as a result
improves heat transfer coefficient of the flow. Creation of turbulence ought to be only in
the region very close to the duct surface, i.e. in the laminar sub-layer due to which the
frictional losses can also be kept low.

Sunil Chamoli, Ranchan Chauhan investigated [6] the effects on heat transfer and surface
friction increase along rectangular duct having circular profile fins under its heat
absorbing plate. The fins (circular in profile mounted vertically) dimensions were of 5 cm
height and 2 cm dia. CFD analysis was carried out in 3-D.

From the Fig below it can be observed that vortices are developed in flow direction, thus
creating turbulence and the Nusselt number increases along with heat transfer rate.

Yadav and Bhagoria [7] studied that thermal efficiencies of conventional solar air heaters
are generally inferior due to low convective heat transfer coefficient of absorber plate to
the working fluid. Use of artificial roughness on surfaces is an effective way to increase
the thermal performance;

One of the techniques to enhance the heat coefficient is development of fins on heating
surface/absorber. However, the improvement in heat transfer also brings pressure drop
in the fluid flow.

Solar air heater crafted with fine wires (of various shapes, sizes, and orientations) on
underside of the absorber plate is one vital and efficient design improvements that can
enhance the thermo hydraulic performance.

Jung-Hyun Yoo [17] studied to evaluate function of solar hot water heating system fitted
in a residential building of 14 flats. Data of heat gain recorded for three years operation
was 51.8% of the design baseline (4068 GJ/year). The results gave valuable feedback for
the future design as the deficiency in design and placement angle of solar heaters placed
a factor in lowering of efficiency.
Vanessa M.T. Bessaa, and Racine T.A. Pradob [18] have studied reduction of carbon
dioxide emissions by using solar water heating systems for residential areas due to rising
apprehensions on changes global in climate and global warming. The author identifies
Brazil as one of the largest user solar water heating systems. Moreover the author states
that designs of solar heaters have not always been perfectly developed. Author is of the
opinion that in most cases the installation of solar collectors are only considered for
electrical power due to economical aspects and not due to climatic factor. The author has
assessed the potential of carbon dioxide reduction with the use of solar energy alternative.
The author emphasised on shifting to solar alternative for countries having it in
abundance, therfore the author has recommended awareness programs and CFD research
programs in this regard.

Ciarán Flynn [19] investigated the Influence of location and design on the performance of
a solar heating system. A model of the community is created with TRNSYS and
simulations were carried out in five different locations: Helsinki, Hohhot, Dublin, Oviedo
and Perpignan. The results show that design, location and insulating the heating space
can increase the efficiency of solar collectors significantly.

M. Guadalfajara [20] has worked upon a calculation tool for central solar heating plants.
The author proposed a simple method for the calculation of Solar heating plant capacity
using demand data vs climatic data. The proposed method aimed at optimization of
design for efficient solar heating. The analysis of results depict that a particular climate
and demand have significant effects on system performance of solar heating. Therefore
for a particular location design of system must be considered by first taking into account
specific climatic data and demand parameters.

Ch. Reichl [21] did a comparison of heat transfer and fluid dynamics of a flat plate solar
air heating collector with the help of experimental and CFD data. Heat transfer was
simulated in the assembly of solar collector. The performance simulation models were
compared with experimental data. The experimental and numerical data was in good
conformance with each other with an error of 20%.
CHAPTER 3
3.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELING

Figure below shows a schematic diagram (control volume) of the solar air heater
having a glass cover on top, iron material with black chrome selective coating absorber
plate, air cavity and back plate with insulation. An energy balance applied on absorber
plate having differential area (2×δx) give set of equations discussed below [15]:
 Figure 6.Control Volume Energy Balance Schematic Figure (absorber plate, back plate and middle cavity air flow)

Figure 7. Incident Radiation on Absorber Plate

3.2 SOLAR RADIATION (FLUX) ABSORPTION [15]:

Solar Air heater performance analysis initially requires information on the
radiation flux (solar energy) absorbed by absorber plate. The incident radiation (solar
energy)on absorber surface can be calculated as shown below. Thus the total absorbed
radiation 'S', is given by;
S= (τα)avIt (Eqn 1)

Where (τα)av, transmissivity-absorptivity product average of total beams falling on

absorber plate, It the total radiation and (τα)B is transmissivity-absorptivity of a single
beam;
(τα)av≅ 0.96 (τα)B
So, the energy balance becomes;

S (2δx) =Ut (Tp-Ta) +hc,p-a(δx)(Tp-To) +hr,p-bδx(Tp- Tb) (Eqn 2)

An energy balance for air stream volume(s×2×δx) gives;
𝒎𝒎
cp (T'δx) = hc,p-a(δx)( Tp-To) + Ubδx (Tb- Ta) (Eqn 3)
𝟐𝟐

An energy balance on the back plate area (2×δx) gives;

hr,p-aδx (Tp- Ta) =hc,p-a(δx)( Tp-To) + Ubδx (Tb- Ta) (Eqn4)

As Ub is muchmuch smaller than Utdue to insulation, UL≈Ut . Therefore neglecting Uband

solving Eqn. (4) for Tb; in the subscripts 'a' stands for ambient, 'b' stands for back plate, 'c'
stands for convection, 'p' stands for absorber plate, 't' stands for top plate, 'r' stands for
radiation , 'o' stands for output in the cavity and 'L' stands for loss.

Tb= (hr,p-bTp + hc,b-a To) / (h r,p-b + hc,b-a) (Eqn5)

Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (1) gives;

Tb (UL+ h) =S +U L Ta+ hT (Eqn6)

Where,

h= hc,b-a + 1 (Eqn7)
�1� 1
ℎ 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎 + �ℎ𝑟𝑟, 𝑝𝑝 −
𝑏𝑏
Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (2) gives;

𝒎𝒎
hTp = cp (T') + hT (Eqn8)
𝟐𝟐

Finally, combining Eqs. (6) and (8) gives,

𝒎𝒎
cp (T')=F' [S -U L T- Ta] (Eqn9)
𝟐𝟐

Where F′is the efficiency factor for air heater, given by,

1
𝑈𝑈�
ℎ
F′ = L
1 1= (Eqn10)
+ ℎ+𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿
𝑈𝑈L ℎ
Where 'h' is the coefficient of heat transfer for total useful enthalpy
(exergy) and UL is the heat loss coefficient. This implies in words that the efficiency
is the fraction of total useful enthalpy divided by the total enthalpy received. Moreover,
in general;
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐𝐶𝐶𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 𝑄𝑄𝑆𝑆 (𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶 − 𝑇𝑇 𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸)
𝜂𝜂 = = = ṁ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐𝐶𝐶𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑋𝑋 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼 𝑋𝑋 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

3.3 GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND NUMERICAL SCHEMES

The governing equations consist of 3-D continuity, Navier-Stokes for momentum

and energy, equations for steady-state flow, and can be written as follows:

a. Continuity equation:

(ui )
 0.
xi

b. Momentum equation:

(uu )    u j  p

  .
x x x


x ij
i i i j

c. Energy equation:
 
(u T )    k uj 
.
xi x i  C p x i 
i
 

3.4 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
The performance parameters describe how heat coefficient and drop in flow
pressure are characterized. This includes dimensionless groups, heat transfer equations
and calculations for efficiency and pressure drop.

3.5 DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS

Precise characterisation of heat transfer is very important for this characterisation,
dimensional groups are used. Dimensionless groups used in this study are:

a. Reynolds number (Re)

The Reynold’s number Re is the ratio of inertial forces in flow

vs the viscous forces. The Reynold’s number characteristic
dimension chosen for this study is the hydraulic diameter of duct
cross section and V is the air velocity (in the flow cross-section of the
duct)
 After applying values and calculating, the Re= 718 (Laminar Region
Flow)
.𝑉𝑉.𝐷𝐷ℎ
Re= 



b. Nusselt number (Nu)

The Nusselt number is the ratio of convective conductance h to
molecular thermal conductance k/Dh.

h
Nu 
k / Dh
Calculation results regarding Nusselt No. is shown in results table
The Nusselt number is based on the hydraulic diameter Dh. The
hydraulic diameter in this study is the ratio of the 4 times the
minimum free flow air-side area to the wetted perimeter.

The heat transfer coefficient 'h' is the coefficient of proportionality

between the heat flux and the temperature difference, ΔT i.e,
𝑞𝑞
ℎ=
∆𝑇𝑇
Where:
 'q' is amount of solar heat (Heat Flux), W/m2 i.e., thermal power
per unit area
 ' h' heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2•K)
 ΔT is temperature difference between the solid surface and
surrounding fluid area in‘K’.

Moreover, the pressure drop observed in the simulations has been analysed. The max
pressure drop is small enough to make any significant effects. This is shown in the ensuing
paragraphs.

Further the general solution of the governing Navier-Stokes equation (before

discretisation and numerical solution) related to the subject case is as follows:

a. Continuity equation:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤

+ 𝑆𝑆 + 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑤𝑤 + 𝜕𝜕 � + + �= 0
𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 For constant density

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= = = =0
𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
There is no change in flow velocity in 'x' direction, so the final equation
becomes;

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤
+ =0
𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
b. Navier-Stokes (Momentum Equation):

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 � + + 𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 + 𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 �= 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝚤⃑𝚤 − + µ� 2 + + �
𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2
𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸

𝜕𝜕 � + 𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 �
𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 + 𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �= 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝚥𝚥⃑ − 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 + µ �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 �⃑ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 � + 𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 + 𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 + 𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 �= 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑆𝑆 − + µ� 2 + + �
𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2

Due to flow being incompressible, the density is considered

constant and viscosity of air very low. These considerations
simplify the equation as follows (indeed very complex to be solved
numerically):
x

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕

�𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 + 𝑣𝑣𝐸𝐸 + 𝑣𝑣𝜕𝜕 �= 𝐸𝐸𝚤⃑𝚤 − + 𝜗𝜗 � 2 + + �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 2

In simulation (CFD) softwares, the momentum equation is often

combined with continuity equation to cater for pressure component in
continuity equation and attain accuracy in results. The combination result
is called Poisson equation;

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌𝑆𝑆𝜌𝜌𝑗𝑗)
� �= − � �=
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆

For Cartesian coordinate system we use i, j, k = x, y, z. The above equation

has appropriate numerical properties and to be solved by iteration
methods.
 c. Energy equation (For Constant Properties):

𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2𝑇𝑇

𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 � + 𝑆𝑆 + 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑤𝑤 �= 𝑆𝑆 � 2 + 2 + �+ µ𝜙𝜙
𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2

𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 2 𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 2 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 2

𝜙𝜙 = 2 �� � + + � � �+ � � + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � + � + �+ � + ��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸

2 𝜕𝜕𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 2

− � + + �
3 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Energy equation reduces to:

𝜕𝜕𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕2𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 2

𝜕𝜕𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 �𝑤𝑤 �= 𝑆𝑆 � 2 + 2 �+ µ � �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

CHAPTER 4
4.1 CFD ANALYSIS

CFD simulation is an economical alternative and delivers smart solutions to optimization

and design of an artificially roughened solar air heater. Computational Fluid Dynamics is
a CAD (computer aided design & simulate) gadget that has evolved over the few years and
will continue to progress as the insight of the science related to simulation theory
enhances. The objectives of CFDs are to be able to forecast fluid flow in chemical reactions
and heat transfer of sophisticated systems. Computational Fluid Dynamics uses
numerical techniques for solving and evaluates problems of fluid statics and dynamics.
High Performance Computers(HPC)is employed to run simulations of fluids with
boundary conditions defining the parameters. After the introduction of numerical
techniques and HPCs, better solutions of fluid mechanics are possible. The subject thesis
uses CFD for studying heat transfer in a duct for validation against actual (experimental)
results.

The use of CFD techniques for validating experiments and proposing improvements can
be a highly beneficial way of preventing experimental costs that are directly proportional
to the number of configurations and experimental setups intended for research, on the
contrary, with CFD, the bulk of results can be attained at virtually no expenditure. Like
this the studies for optimization of equipment are cheaper with CFD in comparison with
experiments.

In this chapter the principles of CFD relevant for the subject thesis have been discussed.In
the field of artificially roughened solar air heaters, not very substantial amount of CFD
study have been carried out to judge the optimum configuration and shape of fins that
can augment convective heat transfer with least requirement of pumping power.
Commercial CFD simulation code FLUENT (V.15) has been used for solving the
conservation of mass, momentum and energy equations. The subject study is novel in a
logic that the study previously been carried out on solar air heaters having longitudinal
fins on the absorber plate is not substantial. CFD simulations applied are quite
advantageous in a sense that any complex geometry and any type of flow characteristics
can be applied to predict the performance of solar air heater with artificial roughness of
the experimental study otherwise would have been very difficult. The main objectives of
the present CFD analysis is to probe into the effects of fluid movement and channel
roughness on average heat transfer in comparison to a plain flow channel. Assumptions
considered for solver are as follows:

a. The walls and absorber plate of channel/duct are isotropic.

b. No-slip boundary condition is considered between the wall in contact with
working fluid.
c. The flow is fully developed, laminar, steady and three dimensional.
d. The working fluid (air) is considered incompressible.
e. Negligible heat losses.
4.2 PRE-PROCESSING
Pre-processing is carried out through software by entering input parameters into
suitable form and processing in the solver. The user actions at pre-processing stage
include:
a. Establishing geometry of the region of system under consideration
b. Grid generation of domain
c. Modeling of physical /chemical parameters to be entered as input
d. Specifying of appropriate boundary conditions

CFD solution depends on the number of cells in the grid for its accuracy. As per
rule of thumb; finer the mesh, better the accuracy of solution that can be achieved.
Generally meshes are made finer in regions where large flow variations are expected to
occur and coarser in areas with less change. CFD user must be capable of creating an
appropriate grid by considering tradeoffs between desired accuracy and solution cost.
There are three distinct methods of numerical techniques namely; finite difference,
spectral method and finite element. The approach used in this study is finite volume, this
solution proceeded through the following steps:

a. Incorporation of the governing equations of flow with control volume of

the domain.
b. Conversion and discretisation of the resulting equations (integral form)
into a system of equations in algebraic.
c. Algebraic equations are solved by an iterative method

4.3 SOLUTION DOMAIN

The longitudinal fins arrangement in the form of semi cylinders fixed on the
underside of absorber plate and their effect on flow with relation to adjacent cavity has
been considered in the domain of solution for analysis of CFD as shown in Fig. 8.
Complete geometry of duct is divided into three sections, namely; entrance segment, test
segment and exit segment. The absorber plates (top wall of duct) are made of iron sheet
(galvanized) with selective coating of black chrome. The thickness of plate of both
collectors is 0.5 mm. Thermal losses through the collector bottoms and sides are
prevented by applying insulation (thickness 4 cm) material. The same has been
considered wall for simulation software input. A schematic view of single pass fluid flow
duct with plain absorbing plate and semi-cylindrical (hollow) fins located under absorber
plate of collector is displayed in Fig.8. Dimensions are as follows:

a. The solar collecting area is 2 m (length) x2 m (width) for both with and
without fins

b. Thermal insulation applied on the exterior surfaces for insulation of the

back, and side plates is considered as inert wall in the simulator software.
c. The absorber plate absorption coefficient is 0.95
d. The duct used for CFD analysis has a height (thickness) of 0.25 m
and width of 2m.
e. Thickness of the absorber plate has been considered as 0.5 mm.

f. Longitudinal fins are located at underside of ducts' absorber plate while the
other three sides were considered as smooth surfaces. Five in number fins (semi-
cylindrical longitudinal form) beneath the absorber plate are of 1.84 m (length) and
0.03 m (Radian) curvature, the gap between two adjacent fins is 120 mm.
g. The other setup is an empty cavity without longitudinal fins that is flat
plate type.

2mx2mx0.25m (With Longitudinal 2mx2mx0.25m (Without

Fins) Longitudinal Fins)
 Figure .8 Schematic View of Original Experimental Setup
4.4 GRID

To critically investigate the flow and heat transfer in the flow regions, meshing has been
done with the help of Gridgen( V.15) software. Coarser mesh has been at central flow field
where as finer mesh has been done at the interfaces. Number of cells varies for each type
of geometries from 1 to 2million. For ensuring ‘grid independence’, repetition of solution
in all simulations types is carried out with increasing the number of grid mesh sensitivity
till no further pronounced differences in solutions are observed.

Figure.9

Meshing For Plain Solar Heater Meshing For Finned Solar Heater

4.4 CFD ANALYSIS

For CFD analysis, commercial code FLUENT Version 15 is used. 3-D model has been used
for simulating heat transfer flow. Furthermore, assumptions made in the mathematical
model are:

i. Flow is considered laminar, steady, Inviscid and three dimensional.

ii. Thermal conductivity of duct wall and fins do not vary with temperature.
iii. The fins and wall of duct are of homogeneous and isotropic material.

9. Working fluid (air) is assumed to be incompressible for the operating range of solar
air heaters as there is very less variation in density. Moreover, for keeping mesh size
calculable, 'Symmetry’ conditions are used for longitudinal fin type model of Air Heater
on the 'Z' axis. The flow inlet velocity was calculated using mass flow rate. Inlet boundary
condition is inlet velocity of fluid and outlet boundary condition is the ambient air
temperature. Second order upwind scheme along with SIMPLE algorithm were used to
discretise the governing equations.

4.5 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The complete domain of computation is distributed with a structured grid throughout.
The boundary conditions are:

a. Vin 0.0275 m/s

b. Reynolds No. 718 (Laminar Flow)
 c. Tin 23.01 Deg C/298.01 k
d. Tout 52.02 Deg C/327.02 k
e. Solar Radiation 750 w/m2
Moreover, on the inner surface of absorber plate, impermeability and no-slip conditions
are applied. Wall boundary conditions are used to bound fluid and solid regions. The
interface boundary of absorber plate and fluid is defined as wall and ‘coupled condition’
is applied to create effect of conjugate heat transfer between fluid and absorber plate.
Solar insolation is applied as constant heat flux at the top surface of the absorber plate.
The flow conditions considered are steady non transient.

4.6 POST-PROCESSING
Post processing is related to flow visualization and results. It includes:

a. Grid display of domain geometry

b. Vector plots
c. Contour plots
d. Output/ results

Meshed model exported to ANSYS FLUENT for analysis. HPC computer having the
configuration (Intel (i7) 12 core processor 3.4 GHz, 16 GB (4GBX4) RAM and Operating
system Windows 7 (Ultimate 64-bit) is used.

4.6.1 DISCRETISATION OF THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS

The governing equations of fluid flow heat transfer shown in chapter 3 above are partial
differential equations (PDEs). These equations cannot be solved directly as computers are
only cognizant with calculations of numerical data. Therefore, the PDEs ought to be
transformed into numerical equations based on numbers only but no derivatives. The
process of converting Partial Differential Equations to numerical analogue is known as
numerical discretisation. Discretizing process introduces errors, as the numerical terms
are only approximations to the original PDEs. However, this error can be minimized to
satisfactory limits. Finite volume method is used method for discretisation. The approach
used in this thesis is discretisation of spatial domain into finite control volumes. A control
volume is divided into sectors to separate mesh elements that overlap with each other, as
shown in Fig. 10 below:

Figure.10. A control volume bounded by mesh elements

The solution domain is segmented into finite number of small control volumes (cells) by
a grid, using finite volume method. The differential form of the governing equations is
integrated over each control volume. Conservation laws in the resulting integral for each
control volume are exactly satisfied. At the centroids or nodal points of control volumes,
conversion of each integral term is done to achieve a discrete form which yields
discretised equations.

4.6.2 DISCRETISATION METHODS USED (Solver)

Solver variables in FLUENT, are stored at the center of the grid cells i.e control volumes.
Various interpolation schemes for this purpose are used, these are:

a. First-Order Upwind Scheme. These are easiest to converge as they are

only first-order accurate. Therefore, second order upwind scheme preferred. First
order forward difference scheme can be written as,

b. Second-Order Upwind. Uses larger stencils for 2nd order accuracy,

convergence may be slower. We determine (any required value for example ‘x’) from
the two cell values which are upstream of the face. This is more accurate than the
first order upwind scheme; the second-order upwind is one of the most utilized tool
numerical schemes because of its combination of accuracy and stability. The
simplified governing equations (shown above in form of Partial Differential
Equations) are then approximated by Taylor series polynomials. Second order
upwind scheme includes the first order derivative, but ignores the second order
derivative. These schemes are therefore considered second order accurate. Due to
availability of time and facility of HPC computer, the second order upwind scheme
has been utilized.

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆+=3𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸−4𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆−1+𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐸𝐸/ 2Δ𝜕𝜕

c. Quadratic Upwind Interpolation (QUICK). Can be applied to quad/hex
and hybrid meshes, suitable for swirling/rotating type of flows which are 3rd-order
 accurate on a uniform mesh. Highly complex and time consuming with nearly same
results as second order upwind scheme, therefore second order

4.6.3 SOLVING THE RESULTING NUMERICAL EQUATIONS

Two kinds of solvers that are available in FLUENT are pressure based and
density based.
a. Pressure Based Solvers. Their primary variables are pressure (pressure
correction) or momentum based. Pressure-velocity coupling algorithms are derived
by reformatting the continuity equation. As relevant to subject thesis, the fluid is
considered incompressible, therefore pressure based solver is appropriate.

b. Density Based Solvers. Their primary variables are density based.

4.6.4 INTERPOLATION METHODS FOR PRESSURE

For calculating cell-face pressures in fluent, interpolation schemes used are
pressure-based solver that are; Standard, PRESTO, Linear and SIMPLE.

a. Standard. This is the default scheme but it has lesser accuracy for flow
types that have greater surface area and pressure gradients that are normal near
boundaries

b. Pressure – Velocity Coupling. A permutation of momentum and continuity

equations is used in this technique while using the pressure-based solver to extract
an equation for pressure (or pressure correction). Five algorithms are available in
FLUENT for this scheme. Semi-implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equation
(SIMPLE) is suitable and considered applicable scheme in solving subject thesis.

4.7 FLUENT SIMULATION

Geometry Creation and Mesh generation is done in Gridgen (V.15). The
geometry is 3D with structured meshing. After importing the mesh geometry, the first
step taken in FLUENT involves scrutiny of the mesh/grid for errors. Checking the grid
ensures that all zones are integrated and all dimensions are correct. The solver
characteristics and boundary conditions of the system are fed and cases are run and
analyzed once the grid is approved by the solver.

4.8 DEFINING THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The material chosen for duct is iron with black chrome selective coating
(solid). Air is the running fluid. Properties are as in the table next page.

Values
S No. Properties
Air Iron
 1 Density 1.225 kg/m3 7.87 g/cm3
2 Specific heat Capacity, Cp 1.009 kJ/(kg K) 0.45 kJ/kg K
3 Thermal Conductivity 0.0271 W/(m K) 80W/(m K)
4 Viscosity 16.97x 10-6(m2/s) N/A

4.9 GRID INDEPENDENCE STUDY

A “grid-independent” solution implies that solution no longer changes with
further refinement of grid. An optimum mesh/grid size (number of cells) determination
is a compulsory step before proceeding towards simulation stage in any type of case study.
This helps in achieving the accuracy of results. Grid convergence criteria is determined in
terms of values of output pressure/temperature as compared to results of experiment
performed by Foued Chabane, Noureddine Moummi,, Said Benramache [1]

Initially the solar heater was modeled at a 1 million which was later raised to 1.5 million,
and finally 2 million cells. Results obtained with 2 million cells were quite close to our
reference research [1].
Figure .11 Grid Independence Study
 CHAPTER 5

5.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (FINDINGS)

Simulations of the two different cases (With fins &without fins) were carried
out with three different mesh sizes for each case. Convergence criteria for the flow were
set on the condition of conservation of mass that is when the inlet and outlet difference
became zero.

a. Validation of Numerical Results With Experimental Including Percentage

Deviation. Numerical results were compared with experimental under similar
conditions for evaluation and validity of results. Simulated and experimental values
are given in tables below.

NUMERICAL RESULTS
Grid Independence (appox) 1 Million 1.5 Million 2 Million
With Fins 26 28 40
∆𝐓𝐓(Tout -
Without
Tin)(oC) 24 26 34
Fins
With Fins 36.52 39.41 54.53
%Efficiency Without
33.72 36.53 44.84
Fins
With Fins 30.27 31.23 32.15
Nusselt No. Without
27.53 28.42 28.53
Fins
Table. 2

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS[1]
Deviation of Experimental
0.016
Mass Flow Rate Results from Numerical
kg/s Results
With Fins 51.52 9.5 %
%Efficiency
Without
43.92 10.8 %
Fins
Table.3

The disagreement between the calculated computational results and experimental

data is under 8.01%, therefore, the results produced in the subject CFD investigation are
quite closer to the experimental results of Foued Chabane, Noureddine Moummi, Said
Benramache [1]
 Figure. 12

Figure above illustrates the comparison of output temperatures of two types of study. The
results in figure 12 have been extracted from tables 5 & 6 that follow. The deviation in the
output temperature (simulation temperatures more than experimental) ultimately has
effects on efficiency (as stated in table 2&3). The difference in results is because the
numerical method does not cater for the losses once it has been given 'insulated wall
input' as boundary condition. On the other hand in the experiment the insulation does
have minor losses as the condition is real world and not ideal.

Max heated top plate Max heated top plate

Region (Original Setup Diag.) of

insulation Considered Wall in
simulation

Outlet Temperature Profile (With Out Fin Air Heater) Outlet Temperature Profile ((Finned Air Heater)

Figure.13

a. Discussion. Output temperature profile of the two cases (fig 13)

above illustrates clearly how the fins introduced in the design can make
difference by providing a larger surface area for heat exchange between the
 fluids. Moreover, the peaks of high temperatures in the figure (for finned
temperature profile) as compared to without fin setup, clearly depicts the heat
transfer augmentation in the finned absorber late setup. Therefore, the
Nusselt No. also increases as can be seen in table.2.Further, the temperature
contours (Figure 14) from the solver software(fluent) are also appended
below for better flow visualization.

Flow Direction Flow Direction

Inlet Inlet

Top Plate
Top Plate

Effect of fin can be seen

Effect of fin absent
Outlet
Outlet

Without Fin Air Heater Top Plate Temp Contours With Fin Air Heater 'Fin' Temp Contours

No fin effect
Effect of fin can be seen.
There are two turns in this
graph

(a) Figure .14 (b)

The difference of profiles of the two graphs in figure14 above is due to the
presence of fins on the geometry of right hand graph (b). As can be seen in
graph 'b' that there are two surfaces that take part in heat exchange with air.
The top surface that is the absorber plate receives the solar heat and the fins
increase the surface area as well as increase convective heat transfer
coefficient and thus the efficiency as compared to the case without fin (a).
 Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s

Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s

Figure.15 Air Temperature Trend Across the Setup

Across Length(Inlet Numerical With Out Fin Numerical With Fin

S No.
to Outlet) (m) Temperatures (oC) Temperatures (oC)
01 0.4 94 82
02 0.5 95 86
03 0.6 93 87
04 0.7 92 88
05 0.8 90 89
06 0.9 89 90
07 1.0 88 91
08 0.0 89 92
09 1.2 90 93
10 1.3 88.7 94
11 1.4 88.23 94
12 1.5 88.5 95
13 1.6 90 97
Table 4. Air Temperature Trend Across the Setup
Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s
 flowrate: 0.012 kg/s

Figure.16 Air Temperature Trend Across the Setup

Across Length(Inlet Numerical With Out Fin Numerical With Fin

S No.
to Outlet) (m) Temperatures (oC) Temperatures (oC)
01 0.4 93.8 79
02 0.5 94 85
03 0.6 93 88
04 0.7 91 91
05 0.8 90.8 92
06 0.9 89.98 94
07 1.0 89.8 96
08 0.0 90.3 98
09 1.2 90.6 100
10 1.3 91 102
11 1.4 92 104
12 1.5 91.8 105
13 1.6 92 105.6
Table 5. Air TempeFrla
otwurReatTer: e0n.0d1A
2 ckrgo/sss the Setup

Temperature profile across the length has also been studied (figures 15&16)
for both the flow rates i.e. 0.012 kg/s & 0.016 kg/s. The numerical study of
the case (with and without fin setups) is compared with experimental setup.
It can be seen that noticeable difference is there in the inlet and outlet regions.
Although the experimental results are closer to the true results than
numerical results, but still the experimental results depend on the time and
the type of equipment (in this case thermocouple) from which the
temperatures are measured. However in this particular case as far as the
scientific logic is concerned, the numerical solution is closer to the actual
scenario; in a sense that colder air enters the rectangular duct and hotter air
leaves it. Therefore, there is a greater heat exchange of the fluid with the wall
at the entrance than at the exit. For the same reason the absorber plates are
hotter at exit than the entrance region. The same can also be viewed in
temperature contours view in fig 14 above. Moreover, the numerical results
of all solar insolations against time for the two types of geometries are shown
at next page (tables 6 to 9).
 Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) Without Fins, According to Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow
Rate: 0.012 kg s-1) Corresponding to the Experimental Results of Reference Paper [1] (Table 3a)

t (h) Tin (oC) Tout (oC) Ta (oC) I (Wm-2)  (%) ∆𝑇𝑇 (oC)
9:00 14.6 26.9 12.40 421 25.5 12.3
10:00 17.2 39.2 13.10 627 31 22
11:00 19.10 47.1 15.30 783 33 28
12:00 23.10 58.8 20.20 867 35.1 35.7
13:00 23.80 59.2 21.40 895 36 36
14:00 24.30 59.3 23.00 847 36.5 35
15:00 24.40 56.5 23.10 725 36 32.1
16:00 23.00 51.2 19.80 485 36.3 28
Table 6.

Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) With Fins, According to Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow Rate:
0.012 kg s-1) Corresponding to the Experimental Results of Reference Paper [1] (Table 3b)

t (h) Tin (oC) Tout (oC) Ta (oC) I (Wm-2)  (%) ∆𝑇𝑇 (oC)
9:00 30.20 46.3 25.00 417 30 16.1
10:00 33.10 57.1 29.40 570 33.2 24
11:00 35.00 67.5 30.50 675 41.2 32.5
12:00 37.00 72 32.50 740 42 35
13:00 38.50 74.8 30.60 753 43.5 36.3
14:00 39.20 74.5 34.50 684 42 35.3
15:00 39.10 71.5 31.80 617 43 32.4
16:00 38.50 69.5 30.80 580 42 31

Table 7

Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) Without Fins, According to Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow
Rate: 0.016 kg s-1) Corresponding to the Experimental Results of Reference Paper [1] (Table 3a)

t (h) Tin (oC) Tout (oC) Ta (oC) I (Wm-2)  (%) ∆𝑇𝑇 (oC)
9:00 9.90 25.8 7.40 433 31 15.9
10:00 13.60 38.7 12.50 649 38 25.1
11:00 16.60 48.8 14.30 809 38.5 32.2
12:00 19.40 53.9 17.50 900 40 34.5
13:00 20.30 54.35 18.5 912 42 34.05
14:00 23.01 57.11 22.00 854 44.2 34.1
15:00 21.90 55.3 20.60 727 46 33.4
16:00 20.90 51 19.00 618 48.1 30.1

Table 8.
Numerical Results for Solar Air Heater (Collector) With Fins, According to Day Time 9:00 to 16:00 (Mass Flow Rate:
0.016 kg s-1) Corresponding to the Experimental Results of Reference Paper [1] (Table 3b)

t (h) Tin (oC) Tout (oC) Ta (oC) I (Wm-2)  (%) ∆𝑇𝑇 (oC)
9:00 30.30 49.3 26.3 437 37 19.0
10:00 31.80 55.6 28.6 566 50.4 23.8
11:00 34.70 66.2 29.40 683 52.3 31.5
12:00 36.60 74.1 31.80 744 55.1 37.5
13:00 38.00 78.5 33.40 755 55.53 40.2
14:00 38.10 77.2 34.20 701 55.79 39.1
15:00 39.20 74.2 36.50 589 55.8 35
16:00 38.00 72.0 35.50 480 55.95 34

Table 9.
Figure 17. Outlet Temperatures of Solar Heater

Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s

 Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s

Figure 18. Outlet temperatures of Solar Heater

Fig 17 & 18 above (values extracted from tables 6 to 9 for numerical graphs)
show the variations of the outlet temperatures vs time. It can be observed that
the outlet temperatures increase with higher solar insolations along the day.
Moreover, it can be seen that output temperatures of the setup with
longitudinal fins are higher than the setup without longitudinal fins. Further,
the outlet temperatures increase towards peak at 13:00 and decrease with
decreasing solar intensity.
Figure 19. Solar Intensity and Thermal Efficiency Vs Time of day
 Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s

Flow Rate: 0.016 kg/s

Figure 20. Solar Intensity and Thermal Efficiency Vs Time of day

Thermal efficiency increases with increasing solar insolation for with fins and
without fins (experimental & numerical) both setups. However the difference
in results as can be viewed in figures 19 & 20(values extracted from tables 6to
9 for numerical graphs) above is due to the fact that there is heat loss involved
 in actual(true) case scenario from the insulated surfaces as well. However, the
simulation software keeps all losses 'zero' at the insulated surfaces. The same
has also created effects on the net output results and deviation of results upto
8.5% between numerical and experimental techniques. Still, it can be easily
predicted with using numerical solution that the efficacy of adding fins to the
absorber plate geometry cannot be denied as compared to a flat-plate
absorber.

Outlet Inlet

Finned Air Heater Cut Away Sec Temp Contours Without Fin Air Heater Cut Away Sec Temp Contours
Figure.21

b. Findings. The 'Cut Away Sections' along the length of the both
type of flow setups give an insight of the reason of enhancement in heat
transfer with finned type of flows. The increase in surface are of the
absorber plates' contact with the fluid makes it possible to increase the heat
transfer efficiency of the flow with fins. Using fins with the absorber plate
certainly augmented/supplemented thermal performance of solar air heater.
Due to the introduction of fins, the heat exchange improves effectively along
the entire length of duct as depicted in the figure above.

Coming to the end of the article, having been proved that fins do augment heat transfer
but there is a further argument that adding fins to the geometry of absorber plate adds to
the pressure drop across the rectangular channel flow [2, 3, 4]. The question is whether
this pressure drop is significant enough to cause any demanding requirement of adding
to the power for force convection to maintain fluid flow? For the same reason the pressure
drop has also been analyzed across the rectangular flow channel as shown in figure 18next
page.
 Along the Length of Heater Along the Length of Heater

Outlet Inlet

With Fins Velocity (Boundary Layer) Contours Without Fin Velocity (Boundary Layer) Contours
Figure.22

Figure.23

Pressure drop both types of flow is measured in Pa and in gauge pressure. The graphs
above depict the difference of inlet outlet pressures of the two systems. This pressure is
too low to have any significant effect on the velocity of flow. However, this can also be
attributed to the fact that the designers make sure the surfaces of flow are as smooth as
possible and for the same purpose they apply special paints with sophisticated techniques.
In this case we have assumed the same paint coat as the reference document [1] that is
'Black Chrome Selective Coating'.

5.2 CONCLUSION
Keeping in view the subject CFD study, following pertinent conclusions can
be derived:
a. The maximum average Nusselt number ratio is found to be 32.15
corresponding to a Reynolds number of 718 that is increasing for the case of
(Air Heater) flow with fins as compared to without fins setup

b. It is found that the solar air heater roughened with longitudinal fins
provides a better thermo-hydraulic performance parameter and enhanced
heat transfer.

c. The predicted results by the subject CFD study are much closer to
the considered experimental [1] results (8% difference in results). It can,
therefore, be concluded that the results of the subject CFD analysis are found
to be in good conformance/agreement/validation with results of
experimental study [1] and also with the standard theoretical approaches.

d. Finned solar collectors/air heaters therefore possess higher thermal

efficiencies as compared to those without fins.

This numerical study compared a solar collector with and without using finned geometry
on the back of absorber plate. The study aimed to review design and analyze thermal
efficiency of solar air heater with longitudinal fins as compared to without fin setup. The
results proved that longitudinal fins do augment heat transfer process; moreover the
experiment that proved this was also validated. Therefore it can be easily established that
efficiency of solar air heaters do enhance due to the introduction of improved heat
transfer surfaces between heat source and the fluid flow.
REFERENCES:

1. Study Of Heat Transfer (Experimental) of Solar Air Heater setup having

Longitudinal Fins (Actual Experiment Reference Document Upon Which CFD Study Has
Been Carried Out In The Subject Thesis): (Authors; Foued Chabane, Noureddine
Moummi , Said Benramache).
2. Solar Dimple Plate Collector and Flat Plate Collector comparative study in CFD to
evaluate thermal efficiency: (Authors; Manjunath M.S, K. Vasudeva Karanth, and N.
Yagnesh Sharma).
3. Fluid Flow Heat Transfer Analysis of Solar Air Heater with Surface Roughness in
CFD: (Authors; Anil Singh YADAV, J. L. BHAGORIA).
4. Solar Air Heater With fins CFD analysis of heat transfer: (Authors; Dharam Singh,
Dr. V.N. Bartaria ).
5. Cfd Study of heat transfer for naturally convected of Vertical Pipe with longitudinal
fins: (Authors; Hyo Min Jeong1, Yong Hun Lee, Myoung KukJi, Kang Youl Bae and Han
Shik Chung ).
6. Heat Transfer Analysis of plate with Fins having circular profile : (Authors; Sunil
Chamoli, Ranchan Chauhan, N.S. Thakur).
7. Turbulent Flow Simulation and analysis in a Solar Air Heater Having artificial
Roughness: (Authors; Anil Singh Yadav and J. L. Bhagoria).
8. S. Kalogirou, engineering-processes and Solar energy systems, Elsevier, USA
(2009).
9. Solar heaters and applications, Elsevier, USA by Soteris A. Kalogirou10 February
2004
10. Air-heating in thermal solar collectors studied analytically. By
Ghasemi,M.Hatamiand D. D. Ganji.
11. Free Convection Boundary Layer Flow, Alzwayi, Ali Saad (2013) University of
Glasgow.
12. Renewables 2015 Global Energy Report.

13. World Energy Outlook 2008, 2009, 2010.

14. International Energy Agency, Heating Without Global Warming, 2014.

15. Convective Heat Transfer by M Latif Jiji.

16. Solar Collector with Triangular Enclosure: by Shafiq R. Qureshi.

17. Evaluation of solar hot water heating system applications to high-rise multi-family
housing complex based on three years of system operation by Jung-Hyun Yoo.

18. Reduction of CO2 emissions by using solar water heating systems Vanessa M.T.
Bessaa, and Racine T.A. Pradob.

19. Influence of location and design on the performance of solar heaters by Ciarán
Flynn.

20. Solar heating plants calculation methods by M. Guadalfajara.

21. Heat transfer study of solar air heater with flat plate CFD and experimental
analysis by Ch. Reichl .