Piping articles

The term "Piping Designer" as used in this document refers to that person
responsible for the overall plant layout, the Plot Plan, the equipment
location, the pipe routing, the development of the CAD models, the piping
isometrics. It does not refer to the Piping Material Engineer or the Pipe
Stress Engineer who each are involved in the "design" of a piping system
but in a totally different means and manner.

What does the Piping Designer need to know?

Piping design is more than just knowing how to turn on the computer,
how to find the piping menus and the difference between paper space and
model space. So, appropriately, what else does the designer need to
know about piping design besides how to operate a keyboard and a
mouse or connect a piece of pipe to a fitting?

Here is a list of the most basic of things that a good piping designer
should know.

Thinking about every one of these items should become as natural as

breathing for a good piping designer.

• Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves – All designers need to know and
understand the broad spectrum of items that make up the "vocabulary" of
the piping language. This includes the many types of fittings, the many
different schedules, the wide variety of common piping materials, the
flange class ratings and the types and function of the different valve
designs.

• Relationship of other Engineering groups – All designers need to

know and understand the relationship, activities and contribution of all the
other engineering and design groups on the project. These include:
Process, Civil, Structural, Mechanical Equipment, Vessels & Tanks,
Electrical and Instruments/Control Systems. These groups have a
responsibility for contributing to Piping's success just as Piping has a
responsibility for contributing to their success.

• Piping Execution – All designers must understand how piping design

progress is linked to P&IDs, equipment vendor drawings, instrument
vendor drawings, stress analysis and structural support design in order to
identify areas where the piping design is being held up.

• Process Documents – All designers need to be able to read,

understand and know how to use the two major documents produced by
the Process Engineering team. These documents are the PFD (Process
Flow Diagram) and the P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram). The PFD is
used by the more experienced Piping Designer early in the project for plot
plan development before the P&ID's are available. The P&ID's are used by
Piping Designers of all levels during activities throughout the Detailed
Design phase of the job; the drawing production phase and any possible
field follow up.

• Process Variables – All designers must know and understand the four
basic process variables: pressure, temperature, flow and level, and the
instrumentation used to regulate and/or measure these variables.

• Process Plant Equipment – All designers need to know and

understand what the different types of equipment are. They also need to
know and understand the piping related issues there are for each type of
equipment. They must know which types of equipment have the nozzles
fixed by the manufacturer and which types of equipment need to have the
nozzles located (by the piping designer). The designer also needs to know
and understand the operational, maintenance and
installation/construction issues for each type of equipment.

• Equipment Operation and Internals – All piping designers need to

understand the equipment process function and the equipment internals
in order to orient process and instrument nozzles/connections, and locate
manway, platform, ladder and staircase access.

• Equipment piping – All piping designers need to know the right and
the wrong way to pipe up (connect pipe to) different kinds of equipment
and for maintenance/disassembly space requirements. This includes
pumps, compressors, exchangers, filters or any special equipment to be
used on a specific project.

• Allowable pipe spans – All designer need to know and understand the
span capabilities of pipe in the different schedules for a wide variety of
common piping materials. When a new project introduces a new material
with severely reduced span capabilities; supplemental training may be
required.

• Expansion of pipe – All piping designers must understand that they

need to treat a piping system as though it is alive. It has a temperature
and that temperature causes it to grow and move. That growth and
movement must be allowed for and incorporated in the overall design.
Not just of that specific line but for all other lines close by. The process of
expansion in a pipe or group of pipes will also exert frictional forces or
anchor forces on the pipe supports they come in contact with.

• Routing for flexibility – All piping designers must understand how to

route pipe for flexibility. Routing for flexibility can normally be achieved in
the most natural routing of the pipeline from its origin to its terminus.
Routing for flexibility means (a) do not run a pipe in a straight line from
origin to terminus and (b) building flexibility into the pipe routing is far
cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints.

• Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) – All piping designers
need to understand the effects of weight and loading. They need to know
and understand that everything has a weight. They need to be able
recognize when there is going to be a concentrated load. They need to
have access to basic weight tables for all the standard pipe schedules,
pipe fittings, flanges, valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the
weight tables for other materials or a table of correction factors for these
other materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize when
downward expansion in a piping system is present and is adding live loads
to a support or equipment nozzle.

• Standards and specifications – All piping designers need to

understand the content and application of the client and engineering
company standards and specifications used on the project. In particular
the designer must have intimate knowledge of the primary standards and
specifications he/she will use; these being pipe supports and piping
classes.

• Vessel piping – All piping designers also need to understand about the
connecting, supporting and guiding of piping attached to vessels
(horizontal or vertical) and tanks. They need to know that nozzle loading
is important and does have limitations.

• Rack piping – All piping designers need to understand that there is a

logical approach to the placement of piping in (or on) a pipe rack and the
setting of rack elevations. It does not matter how wide or how high the
rack or what kind of plant, the logic still applies. Starting from one or both
outside edges the largest and hottest lines are sequenced in such a
manner that allows for the nesting of any required expansion loops.
Another good guideline is; Process lines on the lower deck(s) and Utility
Lines on the upper deck(s). The spacing of the lines must also allow for
the bowing effect at the loops caused by the expansion.
One rule of thumb for setting the distance between piping levels is three
times the largest pipe size.

• Expansion loops – All designer need to understand and be able to use

simple rules and methods for sizing loops in rack piping. This should
include the most common sizes, schedules and materials.

• Cold spring/Pre-spring – All piping designers should understand the

basics rules of cold spring and pre-spring. They need to understand what
each one is along with when to and when not to use each.

• Design production methods – All piping designers need to be able to

make all types of piping documents (sketches, layouts, detail piping
plans, isometrics, etc) using different methods. These methods include
first and most important, manually. Every piping designer must be able to
go to the field or sit in front of a client and make proper, intelligent, and
understandable piping sketches. They must also be able to produce
detailed final drawings manually. Today, piping designers also need to
know (or be able to learn) a wide range of electronic 2D or 3D design
tools.

• Fabrication and Construction methods – All piping designers need

to understand shop spool fabrication, modularization and field erection
construction methods, and be able to determine "shop' and "field"
material splits, shipping box sizes, field welds and field (or final) fit-up
welds.

• Heat Tracing – All piping designers need to understand the purpose of

process heat conservation, know the different methods (Jacketing, Tracer
Tubing or Electric), Tracer commodity (Steam, Oil, Hot Water, etc.) and
Tracer system requirements and be able to design heat tracing circuitry.

• Deliverables – All piping designers need to understand the purposes of

each of the piping deliverables, such as plot plans, key plans, piping plans
and sections, and isometrics.

• Drawing Content – All piping designers must understand how to

present their designs. Drawing content and dimensioning practices must
be well thought out in order to clearly communicate the designs to
construction personnel.

• Economics – All piping designers must be aware of economics. For

instance, move a piece of equipment to reduce costly high pressure and
alloy piping runs; reduce the number of fittings and welds, and eliminate
unnecessary supports whenever possible to save on material, fabrication
and erection costs.

Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then
consistently applies it is indeed a piping designer.

He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to

themselves in the market place.

On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply
the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work is
nothing more than a piping drafter or a CAD operator.

F: What does a Piping Material Engineer need to know?

By: James O. Pennock

The term "Piping Material Engineer" as used in this document refers to
that person responsible for the development and maintenance of all
Specifications related to the pipe, fittings, valves, bolts, gaskets, Paint,
Coatings, Insulation and any other piping related item to be used in the
design and construction of a Process Plant Project. It does not refer to the
Piping Designer or the Pipe Stress Engineer who are both involved in the
“design” of a piping system but in a totally different means and manner.

Piping Material Engineering is more than just opening a catalog and

picking a valve or fitting. So, appropriately, what else does the Piping
Material Engineer need to know?

 Client Interface – Every Piping Material Engineer must be able to sit

in front of a client and make proper, intelligent, and understandable
piping material decisions.

 Relationship of other Engineering groups – All Piping Material

Engineer need to know and understand the relationship, activities
and contribution of all the other engineering and design groups on
the project. These include: Process, Civil, Structural, Mechanical
Equipment, Vessels & Tanks, Electrical and Instruments/Control
Systems. These groups have a responsibility for contributing to
Piping’s success just as Piping has a responsibility for contributing
to their success.

 Piping Execution – All Piping Material Engineer must understand

how piping design progress is linked to P&IDs, equipment vendor
drawings, instrument vendor drawings, stress analysis and
structural support design in order to identify needs and the
contribution of the PME.

 Process Documents – All Piping Material Engineer need to be able to

read, understand and know how to use the two major documents
produced by the Process Engineering team. These documents are
the PFD (Process Flow Diagram) and the P&ID (Piping and
Instrument Diagram). The PFD is used by the more experienced
Piping Material Engineer early in the project for Line Class
development before the P&ID’s are available. Once the P&IDs are
developed they become the “Base” document for all piping material
selection.

 Process Variables – All Piping Material Engineer must know and

understand the four basic process variables: pressure, temperature,
flow and level, and the ramifications these variables have on a
commodity and the piping system.
 Chemistry – All Piping Material Engineers need to know and
understand the many different kinds of commodities found in a
process plant. They need to know and understand the
characteristics and dangers of these chemicals. They need to know
the dangers to humans and the reactions these chemicals have on
different piping materials (metallic and non-metallic).

 Materials of Construction – All Piping Material Engineers need to

know and understand the common metallic, special alloy and non-
metallic materials used for pipe, fittings, flanges and all the other
piping related items.

 Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves – All Piping Material Engineer

need to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that
make up the “vocabulary” of the piping language. This includes the
many types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide
variety of common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the
types and function of the different valve designs.

 Specialty Piping Items (SP Items)– All Piping material Engineers

need to know and understand the difference between normal piping
components (normally found in the Line Class Specifications) and
items that are considered “Special” or different and are therefore
called SP Items.

 Calculations – All Piping Material Engineer must know and

understand how to use the process variables and their affect on a
commodity and do the calculations to select the proper Pipe
material, Wall thickness, the correct Flange Class ratings and
Gaskets for each system.

 Piping Welding, NDE and PWHT - All Piping Material Engineers need
to know and understand the basics of pipe welding used for pipe,
fittings and flanges along with the requirements for Non-Destructive
Examination and Post Weld Heat Treatment.

 Insulation - All Piping Material Engineer must know and understand

the many types and the specific needs of insulation used for piping
systems

 Paint, Galvanizing and Coatings - All Piping Material Engineer must

know and understand the many types of Paints, Galvanizing and
Coatings used on piping systems and the special requirements of for
the application and handling.

 Fabrication and Construction methods – All Piping Material

Engineers need to understand shop spool fabrication,
modularization and field erection construction methods.
  Heat Tracing – All Piping Material Engineers need to understand the
purpose of process heat conservation, know the different methods
(Jacketing, Tracer Tubing or Electric), Tracer commodity (Steam,
Oil, Hot Water, etc.) and Tracer system requirements and be able to
select or specify the proper material for heat tracing circuitry.

 Process Plant Equipment – All Piping Material Engineer need to

know and understand what the different types of equipment are;
what they do and the piping material related issues.

 Standards and Specifications – All Piping Material Engineers need to

understand the content and application of the client and engineering
company Standards and Specifications used on the project. In
particular the Material Engineer must have intimate knowledge of
the primary Piping Standards and Specifications.

 Design production methods – All Piping Material Engineers need to

be able to make use of all types of piping documents (sketches,
layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics, etc).

 Software Database requirements - All Piping Material Engineers

need to understand the responsibilities of the PME in the
development of the 2D and 3D Design system material database.

 Deliverables – All Piping Material Engineers need to understand the

purposes of each of the piping material deliverables, such as
Specifications, Specialty Item Data sheets, outlines and the Project
Piping Commodity Code Catalog listing all Item Code Numbers.

 Economics – All Piping Material Engineers must be aware of

economics. This includes the material selection to reduce costly high
pressure and alloy piping runs and reduce the use of odd, high cost
fittings

Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then
consistently applies it is indeed a Piping Material Engineer.

He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to

themselves in the market place.

On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply
the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work is not
making a proper cost effective contribution to the Project, their
Company or to their own career.

B: Checking, Quality Assurance and Quality Control of Piping Drawings

By: James O. Pennock

Checking or the Quality Assurance & Quality Control (QA/QC) in process

plant piping engineering and design is a grossly misunderstood activity
that is performed (or should be performed) by every piping group on
every process plant project deliverable. Problems arise when checking is
not done and when it is done it is often done incorrectly. When it is done
incorrectly not only the end result (the document) suffers but the
designer who created the document suffers and the checker who does the
checking also suffers.
The document (the drawing or other deliverable) suffers because the
"Check" was ineffective or incomplete. In some cases the checker "thinks"
he or she is a better designer than the designer. So they turn the sheet
over and redraw the configuration in "red" and send it to the correction
group. The checker redraw is a document that in fact has never been
checked. In other cases even after a normal check, mistakes may remain
and this will cause another round of costs due to the re-checking,
correcting (revision), approval, printing in the office to the cost of reissue
handling in the field.
The document creator (the designer) suffers because he or she gets
blamed for every "red" mark the checker finds on a document. The
designer's reputation suffers and they get the feeling that the "Checker" is
out to get them. The truth is that most (if not all) of the "red" marks on a
check print are in fact not the designers fault. They are more often traced
to late changes to P&ID, vendor drawings or data from another discipline.
The document checker suffers because he or she gets a bad reputation
and people do not want to work with them. They do not learn to do it
right so they keep making the same mistakes. As a checker you may ask
the obvious question, how do you do it right? That is simple; when you
(as a checker) find a "red" mark (indicating a mistake) you should dig
deep and find out why is this "wrong." Is it really wrong and why? That is
the real purpose of checking.
"Why doesn't it work like this?" and the second: "Why is there so much
animosity between the designers and the checkers?" These are both very
good and very valid questions. The answer to both questions is the same.
The answer is the lack of training. There is not now nor has there ever
been proper training in what checking is or how to do checking. Before
you did your first checking did anyone give you receive any training or
any simple instructions about how to check or what to check?
What kind of (checking) training should be given? Who should be given
this (checking) training? The training given should include everyone in the
piping design department. It must include the definition of what checking
really is and what is the real target of the checking process.
Checking is really the last stage in the process normally called QA/QC.
QA/QC stands for Quality Assurance and Quality Control. QA or Quality
Assurance is the things that are done ahead of time during job set-up to
assure that things will be done a certain way. This includes filing systems,
procedures, and specifications governing the work as it proceeds forward.
QA is also the proper follow through during the work to remain in
compliance with the procedures. Example, you set up a filing system for
vendor data and the first drawings that came in got filed in their correct
places. But later when revisions came in they got "lost" and were not
placed in the correct file. This is not good.
QC or Quality Control (Checking) is the verification of the product of all
the accumulated data and work processes.
Our business is the process plant engineering and design business. In the
process plant engineering and design profession the deliverables are
drawings. For the piping design department the deliverables include
piping plan drawings and piping isometrics. The piping plan drawing (or
the 3D model) is important but it is just a means to an end. The isometric
is the end product and must contain all the information necessary to
purchase the correct material, fabricate the piping configuration, and
install the line or system complete with testing and check-out.
The training for Piping Checking (QA/QC) should cover both the Purpose
and the Process.

The Purpose

The purpose of checking as it applies to piping drawings in a Process Plant

Project is to verify that all the specifications, drawings and other
deliverables reflect the correct combination of the diverse issues
impacting the end product. These include but are not limited to:
· Safety
· Function
· Operability
· Maintainability
· Constructability
· Mechanical integrity
· Mathematical Accuracy

Piping Design and the deliverables of the piping design effort is an

important part of any process plant project and the checking of the piping
drawings cannot be diminished in its importance.
With the above in mind:
· "Rule #1" all products and deliverables from the piping design group
shall be checked.
· "Rule #2" checkers check the design, they do not do the design
· "Rule #3" all corrections shall be done by the original designer of the
document (when ever possible)

The Process

The Piping Design Supervisor for a project assigns the responsibilities for
checking to one or more individuals. These "checkers" are held
responsible for checking all (or a specific assigned group of) documents.
These checkers should be well trained and well experienced individuals
who can be fair, who can focus on quality and have a firmness of
conviction.
The process of checking includes:
1. Defining what is a "checkable" product
2. Freezing all work on the area that is in check
3. Becoming familiar with the assigned area
4. Defining what constitutes the source material for the assigned area.
5. Obtaining a copy of the current revision of each of all source material
6. Using a set (or standard) checking procedure
7. Diplomacy between the designer who made the drawings and the
checker
8. Fairness when determining right from wrong
9. Proper correction of the drawing(s) based on the checker's direction
10. Proper backing and support of the Piping Design Supervisor

You may question "What does all this mean?" Let's take each of the items
from this list and discuss them in detail.

"Defining what is a checkable product?"

This means that you should not spend hours/money checking work that is
not ready for check. This is the responsibility of the piping design
supervisor. If a drawing is not finished, not ready for check then it should
not be placed in the checking group. A checkable product in piping would
or should be all the piping plan drawings (or CADD models) and all
isometrics that are complete. They have been through all the required
reviews with all changes and comments incorporated. All activities
involving other groups such as stress analysis, or instrument checks have
been completed and comments incorporated. A checkable piping plan or
isometric is a document that, in the absence of checking should be
thought of as ready to go out the door. If it is not ready to go out the
door then it is not ready to be checked. A checkable product is also a
complete package of the check prints and all source material.

"Freezing all work on the area that is in check"

This again this is the responsibility of the piping design supervisor. When
all or a portion of an area is placed in the checking group for check then
all work on that portion should stop. It makes no logical or economic
sense to be changing what the checker thinks he or she is checking. Too
often a checker will have a question about something on an in-check
drawing and they go and seek a clarification from the designer only to be
informed that "Oh, its not like that anymore." This shows that the product
was not ready for check, or there is a lack of communication between the
supervisor and the checker or that there is a lack of support by the
supervisor for the checker and the checking effort.
"Becoming familiar with the assigned area"

This is a joint responsibility of the piping supervisor and the checker. The
checker (if done right) is someone who is totally new to the area being
checked. This would be someone who has not worked on the specific
assigned area drawings. They may even be someone new to the company
or the project and as such they do not have the history of the area. The
piping supervisor should provide (and the checker should demand) an
overview of the area including the basics of the process, the operation,
key maintenance issues and any constructability issues.

"Defining what constitutes the source material for the assigned

area" This again is a joint responsibility between the supervisor and the
checker. The source material to be used for the checking of the product
(the drawing) should be the same material that was used when the last
work was done to create the product (the drawing). Yes! There are times
when a later revision of a source document (such as a structural drawing
or an equipment outline) with changes will be received after the work was
completed. These changes need to be reviewed by the piping design
supervisor and a determination made as to whether the change requires
pulling the drawings out of the checking group/process for modification.
Remember checkers do not do the design. If the checker does the design
then who checks the checker?

"Obtaining a copy of the current revision of each of all source

material"

Having a copy of all the source material is one thing. Having the latest
copy/revision of all the source material is an all together different matter.
The checker needs to check with each discipline that created the source
documents to determine what the latest revision is. The checker needs to
check with the group responsible for vendor data to determine the current
revision of drawings for each applicable piece of equipment. Once this is
done and correct and up-to-date copies are in hand the checker should
review the revisions of these drawings against the revision used to
prepare the "in check" drawings. If it is found there are differences then
the piping supervisor should be notified and a decision as to the suitability
for check should be made.

"Using a set (or standard) checking procedure"

Using a standard checking procedure can be a company issue. Some may

have very well defined guidelines for checking while others will have little
or nothing. With or without the guidelines the checker himself or herself
should follow a well structured and methodical procedure when checking
piping documents. Piping documents as noted previously normally include
piping plans and isometrics. The isometric is recognized as the defining
deliverable of any piping effort. The checker should have a check list of
normal things to check on the everyday isometric and any project specific
items that exist.

"Diplomacy between the designer who made the drawings and the
checker"

This is a two way street. Both individuals should be motivated by the

same goal. That goal is the accuracy of the information, the quality of the
product (isometric), the reputation of the company and the interests of
the client. With the proper attitude about the common goals there needs
to be open and constructive communication between the checker and the
designer whose work is in check. It would not be proper for the checker to
"attack" the designer when seeking insight into why something was done
a certain way. It is also not proper for the designer to rebuff the checker
or be flippant with answers to the checkers inquiries.

"Fairness when determining right from wrong"

This is the checkers responsibility. The checker is a checker for now on

this job but on the next job they may be in a different position and
making enemies by arbitrary decisions would not prove to be productive
in the long run. When an apparent error is found the checker should try to
find out where the "error" came from not who made the "error." What
information did the designer use to create the document and what
information did the checker use to check the document. There may have
been a revision to the source information between the time the designer
did the original work and the time of the check. Decisions about right and
wrong should be made solely on the basis of the source documents and
issues such as safety, functionality, operability, maintainability and
constructability. When done with the checking the checker should sign
and date the check print and forward it for correction.

"Proper correction of the drawing(s) based on the checker's

direction"

The proper correction of the drawings includes who does the correction
and how the corrections are done. The first choice of who does the
correction is the person who made the drawing in the first place. This is
not always possible but where possible the originating designer gains
insight as to mistakes he or she might have made, thus doing the
corrections becomes a learning experience. When the originating designer
does the correcting it affords a chance to catch items that the checker
was not aware of that were deemed important to the original design.
"How" the corrections are done is of even more importance. The corrector
is to do the corrections completely and exactly as marked by the checker.
When the corrector has an issue with a mark or change made by the
checker then the corrector should discuss it with the checker. This
conversation should be conducted with the proper attitude on the part of
both parties. When done making the corrections the person doing the
corrections should sign and date the check print properly.

"Proper backing and support of the Piping Design Supervisor"

The Design Supervisor needs to remember he (or she) is responsible for

all of what the designer has produced. If the design is bad then it is the
Supervisor's fault not the designer's. The Piping Design Supervisor is the
supervisor of all of the piping design not just the good stuff. Proper design
supervision means that the Design Supervisor makes frequent and
detailed reviews of what each designer is doing and how they are doing it.
The Design Supervisor is also responsible for all instructions, data flow
and communications effecting information related to the design work.
Proper backing does not mean always taking the side of the checker. It
does mean backing the checker when the checker is right. When there is
an issue that seemingly cannot be resolved between a checker and
originating designer, a corrector or anyone else, the responsible piping
supervisor needs to get involved. He or she needs to determine the facts,
review the supporting source documentation listen closely to both sides
and make a decision consistent with the goals of the project.

If all of this is done, and done consistently everyone involved will

benefit. The most important one to benefit will be the company.
They will have a better trained, better functioning design group
and they will be more likely to get repeat business from satisfied
clients.

C: Piping Guidelines for P&ID Review

By: James O. Pennock

This document is intended to provide various members of the Piping

Department with suggestions of what to look for and what questions to
ask during a P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram) Review. The three
key Piping entities that should be present during a P&ID Review are:

 Piping Material Engineering – Focus on all data and comments that

will impact the development and or modification of the Piping
Material Line Class Specifications, The need for and the details of
“SP” Items, Insulation Specifications, etc.
 Piping Design – Focus on all data and comments that relate to the
actual routing of piping systems, including process requirements,
operations, maintenance and safety.
 Pipe Stress Engineering – Focus on all data and comments that
relate to factors that impact pipe stress including temperatures for
both normal operations and any upset condition that might occur.
Each of these individuals (and groups) will have distinct but interrelated
duties and responsibilities during the ongoing Detailed Design Phase of
the project that will follow the P&ID Review. The person who will
represent each of these groups (or functions) should be provided with (or
obtain) ahead of time a copy of all diagrams to be reviewed. These copies
should be studied and marked with questions and or comments before the
review. To be prepared is to be forearmed.

Here is something everyone needs to remember. A P&ID is a schematic

drawing of a process plant system. It has no relationship to scale, relative
dimensions or true shape or character. It has no relationship to north,
south, east or west. It has only a marginal relationship to up and down.
However, through the use of standard symbols, line conventions and
notes a level of understanding must be achieved and communication must
happen so that what is shown on these P&ID drawings in a schematic way
is converted to reality.

Areas of interest and suggested questions or items of interest:

P&ID Lead Sheet:

Does the project have a P&ID Lead Sheet? If possible the review should
start with the Lead Sheet that lists all the common General Notes and
may include a list of all P&ID’s and Utility Diagrams for the Unit or Project
depending on the project size. It should have project applicable acronyms
with definitions.

 Are all the Notes clear and understandable?

 Are all the notes applicable to the project?
 What else is on this sheet and what does it mean to this project?

P&ID Symbology Sheet:

Does the project have a P&ID Symbology sheet? If there is not a

Symbology Sheet, then ask why not? If there is a Symbology Sheet:

 Are all the symbols consistent with the ISA standard and known to
all present?
 Are there any new symbols required for this project?
 What are these new symbols and what do they mean?

P&ID Standard Detail Sheet:

P&ID’s on any project contain many situations that are repetitive and very
detailed. Many times there are details that are similar but have small
differences. These details, if repeated in full detail at every occurrence
can cause congestion and confusion to the person reading the P&ID. So a
full detail is drawn once and then a smaller and simpler symbol is placed
at the use point.

These common details might include:

 High Pressure Steam Trap Station – with bypass

 High Pressure Steam Trap Station – without bypass
 Medium Pressure Steam Trap Station – with bypass
 Medium Pressure Steam Trap Station – without bypass
 Low Pressure Steam Trap Station – with bypass
 Low Pressure Steam Trap Station – without bypass
 Utility Station Requirements – for Grade
 Utility Station Requirements – for elevated platforms on Vessels
 Utility Station Requirements – for at Heaters
 Safety Valve (SRV, PSV, PRV, etc) Manifold with bypass
 Safety Valve (SRV, PSV, PRV, etc) Manifold without bypass
 Steam-Out Connection – Hard piped, with double block valve, spec
blind, check valve and bleed
 Steam-Out Connection – Block valve w/ blind flange, swing ell to
valved steam line

P&ID Sheet Format:

P&ID formats are normally fairly standard and consistent with-in a specific
company. However the Client may ask for special additions, deletions and
or modifications that are new and different for a project.

 Is there anything new and or different about the P&ID Format for
this project?
 If so, what are they and what do they mean?
 Are there additional “Notes” for a specific P&ID in addition to the
“General Notes” on the common Lead Sheet?

P&ID Equipment Review:

The review for each type of equipment and each piece of individual
equipment should follow a consistent pattern. If the review does not
follow a pattern then things get forgotten.

 Is each equipment type and piece shown by a standard and

recognizable symbol?
 Is this symbol consistent with what is known about the actual
planned equipment?
 Is the equipment identified?
 Is there an appropriate Data Box at the top (or bottom) of the P&ID
for this type of equipment?
 Is all the Data Box information completed?
  If the Data Box information is not completed, when will it be
completed?
 For trayed vessels, are the trays at all side entry nozzles numbered?
 For Shell & Tube Exchangers, is the correct number of shells shown?
 For Air Coolers (Fin Fan Coolers) is the correct number of Cells and
Cell Nozzles shown?
 For Air Coolers, does the inlet and/or outlet headers need to be;
Balanced Flow? Symmetrical Flow? Other?

Line by Line Piping Review:

Piping on a P&ID is, as noted above, schematic. However, there are

certain absolutes that rule the interpretation of the pipe lines. These rules
apply to the sequence of appearance of the valves or other symbols on
any given line. With only a few exceptions what the P&ID shows that is
the way the finished physical piping shall be installed.

As you review each line you should look for the following:

 Does the line originate and terminate on the same sheet?

 If the line originates or terminates on another sheet does it have
connectors? Do both connectors for the line match?
 Is there a Line Identification (Line Number, Line Designation or
other) for the line?
 Is the commodity known?
 Have the Design Conditions been set?
 Is the maximum operation pressure known?
 Is the maximum operating temperature known?
 Is the line size known and shown?
 What is the specific function for “This” line?
 Are all special process required line conditions (Line Slope, Do Not
Pocket, Free Drain, etc) shown or noted?
 Are all valves shown?
 Are the valve type symbols consistent with the actual valve type in
the Piping Line Class Specification?
 What is the purpose and function of each valve?
 Is there a size on each valve? Or are all valves to be assumed to be
line size unless noted otherwise?
 If there are Line Class Spec Breaks are they on the correct side of
the valve?
 Are all Instruments in or on a line shown?
 If a Pressure instrument and a Temperature instrument are in close
proximity (10 pipe diameters or less) to each other is the
temperature instrument downstream (easy way to remember is
alphabetical order) of the pressure instrument?
 When reducers are shown does process really want a reducer or are
other common methods of pipe size changes (reducing TEE
branches from a common header) acceptable?
  Is the term or note “Min” used and what is specifically needed and
or to be avoided?
 Are all Process vents and drains shown?
 Are there any odd mechanical device requirements that are not in
(or will not be in) the normal Line Class Specifications? Are these
items identified as “SP” Items and details available?

Utility Distribution Sheet Review:

Utility Distribution Diagrams are also schematic drawings but they differ
from a P&ID in that they are somewhat Plot Plan oriented. This is required
and done so the supply and return headers can be properly sized.

Utility Distribution Diagrams may have all services on one sheet or may
have the services grouped by some “family” breakdown.

Steam Utilities may include:

 High Pressure Steam

 Medium Pressure Steam
 Low Pressure Steam
 Medium Pressure Condensate
 Low Pressure Condensate

Water Utilities may include:

 Cooling Water Supply

 Cooling Water Return
 Plant Water
 Potable (Drinking) Water

Air Utilities may include:

 Plant Air
 Instrument Air

Miscellaneous Utilities may include:

 Nitrogen
 Flare Header
 Slops Pump-Out

Specific items to question are:

 Is the Utility Distribution Diagram plot plan oriented?

 Are all Utilities shown?
 Are the branches from the Utility headers in the correct sequence?
 Are the sizes for all the branches all known and indicated?
 Are the main Utility header sizes correct for the number, size and
sequence of the branches?
 Is the number of Utility Stations correct?
 Are the Utility Stations numbered?
 Are the Utility Stations schematically located correctly?
 For Steam Headers, are steam trap manifolds shown at the correct
locations?
 Do the connectors from the Utility Distribution Diagram
match the connector on the P&ID?

 Is there a Line Identification (Line Number, Line Designation
or other) for each line?
 A: Introduction to Line Numbering
 By: James O. Pennock
 This article is intended to answer some of the questions that come
up about the subject of Line Numbers and Line Lists for a typical
process plant project.

Some of the questions that come up about Line Numbering include:
What is it? Why is it? What does it mean? Who does it? Another
question is that is often asked “is there a common pipe line
numbering system? Do engineering companies and clients have
different line numbering systems? Another question is: Does ASME
B31.3 or CSA (Canadian STDs), have a standard for line
numbering?
 These are all good questions and it is important for every piper to
know the answers to each one. I could be wrong but I think it is
safe to say there is no “common pipe line numbering system” in use
in the process plant engineering and design world. There are just
too many companies and people and clients and project types to be
able to achieve such commonality. I don’t remember seeing
anything in ASME B31.3 (or any other Code), but then again it is
not the purpose of the B31 Code to dictate a line numbering
system.

To properly discuss this subject we need to understand the purpose
of the “Line Number.” We also need to acknowledge that some
companies use the term “Line Designation.” Whether your company
uses the term “Line number” or the term “Line designation” the
purpose is still the same. It is the name for the line, it is for positive
identification. It is the same as for you your name is the way to
positively identify you. The pipe line identification is necessary
through out the project and is used for many purposes by many
different people or groups. The line numbering is an important
aspect of the piping on a project and should only be created and
controlled by the piping group for the project, specifically by the
piping material engineer for that project.

As with any of the other “gray hair” pipers, I too have seen many
different line numbering systems in my working past. Of all of them
I have determined that while there are some similarities there is no
totally common system.
 Here are some details that I have been able to determine for
myself. There are two basic areas that tend to govern line
numbering. These are the line number method and the line number
elements.
 * Methods - There are two basic line numbering “methods.” The
first method is based on the Purpose or Function of the line. The
second method is based on the line “Size.”
* Elements - There are many potential line identification elements
that may be included in a line numbering system. The elements that
are most commonly included in a line numbering scheme are: Plant
Location, Line Identity, Line Class (or Line Specification), Size,
Insulation Type (when required) and Heat Tracing Type (when
required).
 Methods
 The “purpose or functional” method of line numbering is where the
line is best defined as a single line having an origin and a terminus
consistent with a purpose or function. An example of this might be a
pump suction line. It might come from a Storage Tank, a Tower
Bottom or an Accumulator. It travels some distance and then splits
and connects to the two pumps designated for that one service or
function. This is one line, it serves one purpose or function therefore
it has only one line number. Another example would be the pump
discharge that leaves both of these pumps and join to form the
single pipe line that runs to the next piece of equipment. This line
also has one purpose or function therefore it has only one number.
 The “line size” method is where the line number changes whenever
and wherever the line size changes. When compared to the first
(purpose or function) method, the pump suction line might have
five line numbers instead of one. The pump discharge might also
have five or more depending on what happens at the destination
end of the line.
 One or the other of these two methods becomes the “Rule” for a
company, client or project. As we all know, for every rule you will
always be able to find an exception. One exception that is common
to both of these “Rules” is the rule of the change of line class (or
line specification). The change in line class is most often caused by
a change in pressure or material. A line might be the same size
from one point to another but includes a pressure control valve that
lets the pressure down to a level that allows a lower flange rating
and or another material therefore a different line class. There are
other line class change initiators but I think you get the idea. Any
change in a lines conditions or material causes a mandatory change
 in the line number no mater which line numbering method is being
used.
 Elements
 The elements of a line number might be arranged and look
something like this:

10-1021-CA1A-12”- IH -ST
 Where:
 10 = the plant Unit or Area (mandatory)
 1021 = the numeric line number (mandatory)
 CA1A = the line class (mandatory)
 12” = the line size (mandatory)
 IH = Hot Insulation (only when required) (1)
 ST = Steam Tracing (only when required) (2)

(1) Other types of insulation include IC = Cold Insulation, IS =
Safety Insulation, IA = Acoustic (or Sound) Insulation, etc.
 (2) Other types of tracing include: ET = Electric Tracing, CWT =
Chill Water Tracing, TT = Thermon (Hot Oil) Tracing, etc.

* In this case the “10” refers to a physical plant area as defined by
the project work breakdown structure document. Other Areas might
be 20, 30, 40 or 11, 12, 13, etc.
* The “1021” represents the twenty-first line in this area. All line
numbers on this project will be four place numbers starting with
1000 in each area.
* The “CA1A” represents the project piping material line class code
for: 300# (C), Carbon Steel (A), 1/32” corrosion allowance (1) and
a specific gasket type/material (A).
 I have no doubt that there are other items of information that could
be or are added in some form or another based on the preference of
a specific company of client. My credo is “Keep It Simple.” The
manner of arranging the Elements to form a line number is
something that is also dictated by the Company and or in some
cases the Client. The sequence that is shown above is in the order
of information priority that I am used to.
 The line numbering activity should only be done when the P&ID’s
are well along in the development process. The more complete the
P&ID’s are the less hours will be wasted and the better the results
of the line numbering effort. The degree of P&ID completeness
prevents recycle when new equipment or systems are added or
when equipment or systems are deleted.
 As the Piping Material Engineer (or designate) performs the line
numbering of the P&ID he or she also initiates the first draft of the
Line List (or Line Designation Table) data base. The resultant
document from this data base will be extensive for a whole project
but will be broken down by plant area.
 In addition to the line identification elements (indicated above), the
Line List (data base and document) will or should also include
important information for the design process and construction
process such as the following:
 * The line commodity
* The phase (liquid or gas)
* The origin of the line
* The destination of the line
* The line pressure, both the normal operating pressure and the
maximum operation (or Design) pressure
* The line temperature, both the normal operating temperature and
the maximum operation (or Design) temperature
* An indicator code for Stress Analysis requirements
* PWHT requirements
* The insulation thickness (optional)
* The line schedule (optional)
 The line list once initiated will have many additions, deletions and
be used by lots of people throughout the project both in the design
office and in the field.
 One of the first and most important activities where the line
list is used is when the definitive labor hour estimate is
generated. The number of lines on a project has a direct
bearing on the labor hours required. This is true for the
piping design activities in the home office, the pipe
fabrication shop and for the installation contractor in the
field. So it is very important to get it right.
 E: What does a Piping Material Controller need to know?
 By: James O. Pennock
 The term “Piping Material Controller” as used in this document
refers to that person responsible for the all activities related to the
identification of piping material and piping related material required
for a process plant project.

What does the Piping Material Controller need to know? Piping

Material Control is more than just knowing how to count pipe,
elbows and flanges. So, appropriately, what else does the Material
Controller need to know about piping besides how to operate a
keyboard and a mouse or total up a column of figures?

Here is a list of the most basic of things that a good Piping Material
Controller should know. Thinking about every one of these items
should become as natural as breathing for a good Piping Material
Controller.

• Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves – All Material Controllers need

to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that make up
the “vocabulary” of the piping language. This includes the many
types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide variety of
common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the types and
symbols of the different valve designs.

• Relationship of other Project groups – All Material Controllers need

to know and understand the relationship, activities and contribution
of all the other engineering and non-engineering groups on the
project. These include: Purchasing, Inspection, Expediting and
Traffic. These groups have a responsibility for contributing to
Piping’s success.

• Piping Execution – All Material Controllers must understand how

the total piping effort and the processes are linked to piping
material take-off and the total procurement cycle for the project.

• Process Documents – All Material Controllers need to be able to

read, understand and know how to use the major documents
produced by the Process Engineering team. These document include
the P&ID (Piping and Instrument Diagram) used by Piping Material
Controllers to establish Preliminary quantities for RFQ (Request for
Quote) pricing for items such as Valves, Specialty Items and Steam
Traps.

• Standards and Specifications – All Piping Material Controllers need

to understand the content and application of the client and
engineering company standards and specifications used on the
project. In particular the Controller must have intimate knowledge
of the primary standards and specifications he/she will use; these
being the Piping Standard Drawings and the Piping Material Line
Class Specifications.

• Design production methods – All Piping Material Controllers need

to be able to read and understand all types of piping drawings
(manual or CAD sketches, layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics,
etc) regardless of the manner of creation.

• Fabrication and Construction methods – All Piping Material

Controllers need to understand shop spool fabrication,
modularization and field erection construction methods, and be able
to determine “shop’ and “field” material splits.

• Heat Tracing – All Piping Material Controllers need to be able to

read and understand drawings that depict process heat
conservation, know the different methods (Jacketing, Tracer Tubing
or Electric) and Tracer material.

• Documents – All Piping Material Controllers need to understand

the purposes of each of the Piping Material Control documents, such
 as BOM (Bill of Material), Material Summary, RFQ (Request for
Quote), Quote Summary, PR (Purchase Request), PO (Purchase
Order) , PO Supplement, RFI (Request for Information), PMI
(Positive Material Identification), Material Certifications, .

• BOM (Bill of Material) Content – All Piping Material Controllers

must understand how to present their documents. BOM content and
posting practices must be well thought out in order to clearly
communicate the material requirements to Shop and Field
personnel.

• Economics – All Piping Material Controllers must be aware of

economics. An example being the Material Bump philosophy (the
amount added over and above the raw take-off quantity to cover
loss, pilfering and last minute additions). Too much of the wrong
material would be costly. The absence of even one single key item
could be very a costly delay to the timely start-up of a multi-million
dollar plant.
 Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge
and then consistently applies it is indeed a Piping Material
Controller.

He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and

to themselves in the market place.

On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the
knowledge about these issues while doing Piping Material Control
work is not making a rightful contribution to the Project, the
Company or to their own future career.
 What does a Pipe Stress Engineer need to know

The term “Pipe Stress Engineer” as used in this document refers to that
person responsible for insuring that the pipe routing done by the piping
layout designer is consistent with the allowables in the applicable piping
Code. This includes; the thermal forces and the live and dead loads the
piping system imposes on equipment, equipment nozzles and structures.
The Pipe Stress Engineer is also responsible for the selecting and
specifying stress related products including various types of Expansion
Joints, Constant Support Spring Hangers and Snubbers or Struts.

What does the Pipe Stress Engineer need to know? Pipe Stress
Engineering is more than just knowing how to turn on the Analysis
software in the computer, how to find the menus and the difference
between pass and fail. So, appropriately, what else does the Pipe Stress
Engineer need to know about piping?
Here is a list of the most basic of things that a good Pipe Stress Engineer
should know. Thinking about every one of these items should become as
natural as breathing for a good Pipe Stress Engineer.

 Piping Codes – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know about the
applicable Piping Codes for the different types of Process Plants and
have access to the most up-to-date copy so the proper data is used
and proper decisions can be made for the calculations and the good
of the project.

 Pipe, Fittings, Flanges and Valves – All Pipe Stress Engineers need
to know and understand the broad spectrum of items that make up
the “vocabulary” of the piping language. This includes the many
types of fittings, the many different schedules, the wide variety of
common piping materials, the flange class ratings and the types of
the different valve designs.

 Relationship of other Engineering groups – All Pipe Stress Engineers

need to know and understand the relationship, activities and
contribution of all the other engineering and design groups on the
project. These include: Process, Civil, Structural, Mechanical
Equipment, Vessels & Tanks and Instruments/Control Systems.
These groups have a responsibility for contributing to Piping’s
success just as the effort of the Pipe Stress Engineer also has a
responsibility for contributing to their success.

 Piping Execution – All Pipe Stress Engineers must understand how

pipe stress progress is linked to P&IDs, Plot Plans, equipment
vendor drawings, instrument vendor drawings and structural
support design in order to understand areas where the Project may
be impacted.

 Process Variables – All Pipe Stress Engineers must know and

understand the four basic process variables: pressure, temperature,
flow and level, and the effect these have on a piping system.

 Process Plant Equipment – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know

and understand the different types of equipment. They also need to
know and understand the pipe stress related issues that effect each
type of equipment.

 Equipment Operation and Internals – All Pipe Stress Engineers need

to understand the equipment process function and the equipment
internals in order to give proper consideration to the effect of piping
connected to and reacting on the various nozzles/connections.

 Equipment piping – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know the right
and the wrong way to pipe up (connect pipe to) different kinds of
 equipment and for maintenance/disassembly space requirements.
This includes pumps, compressors, exchangers, filters or any special
equipment to be used on a specific project.

 Allowable pipe spans – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to know and
understand the span capabilities of pipe in the different schedules
for a wide variety of common piping materials. When a new project
introduces a new material with severely reduced span capabilities;
supplemental training may be required.

 Expansion of pipe – All Pipe Stress Engineers needs to understand

that they should treat a piping system as though it is alive. It has a
temperature and that temperature causes it to grow and move.
That growth and movement must be allowed for and incorporated in
the overall design. Not just of that specific line but for all other lines
close by. The process of expansion in a pipe or group of pipes will
also exert frictional forces or anchor forces on the pipe supports
they come in contact with.

 Routing for flexibility – All Pipe Stress Engineers must understand

that the piping layout designer has routed the pipe for flexibility and
support. Routing for flexibility can normally be achieved through the
most natural routing of the pipeline from its origin to its terminus.
Routing for flexibility means (a) do not run a pipe in a straight line
from origin to terminus and (b) building flexibility into the pipe
routing is far cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints.

 Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) – All Pipe Stress
Engineers need to be able to calculate and analyze the effects of
weight and loading. They need to know and understand that
everything has a weight. They need to be able recognize when there
is going to be a concentrated load. They need to have access to
basic weight tables for all the standard pipe schedules, pipe fittings,
flanges, valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the weight
tables for other materials or a table of correction factors for these
other materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize
when downward expansion in a piping system is present and is
adding live loads to a support or equipment nozzle.

 Standards and Specifications – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to

understand the content and application of the client and engineering
company Standards and Specifications used on the project. In
particular the Pipe Stress Engineer must have intimate knowledge
of the primary Standards and Specifications he/she will use; these
being the Misc. (or Secondary) Pipe Support Standards and Piping
Material Line Class Specifications.
 Vessel piping – All Pipe Stress Engineers also need to understand
about the connecting, supporting and guiding of piping attached to
vessels (horizontal or vertical) and tanks. They need to know that
nozzle loading is important and does have limitations.

 Rack piping – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand that

there is a logical approach to the placement of piping in (or on) a
pipe rack and the setting of rack elevations. It does not matter how
wide or how high the rack or what kind of plant, the logic still
applies. Starting from one or both outside edges the largest and
hottest lines are sequenced in such a manner that allows for the
nesting of any required expansion loops. Another good guideline is;
Process lines on the lower deck(s) and Utility Lines on the upper
deck(s). The spacing of the lines must also allow for the bowing
effect at the loops caused by the expansion. One rule of thumb for
setting the distance between piping levels is three times the largest
pipe size.

 Expansion loops – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand and

be able to use simple rules, tools and methods for checking loops in
rack piping. This should include the most common sizes, schedules
and materials. They also need to be able to calculate forces of
individual line anchors and the combined forces of all lines at a
specific support.

 Cold spring/Pre-spring – All Pipe Stress Engineers should

understand the basics rules of cold spring and pre-spring. They
need to understand what each one is along with when to and when
not to use each.

 Design production methods – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to be

able to read of the various types of piping documents (manual or
CAD sketches, layouts, detail piping plans, isometrics, etc). Every
Pipe Stress Engineer must also be able to go to the field or sit in
front of a client and make proper, intelligent, and understandable
pipe stress decisions. They must also be able to produce detailed
final analysis packages. Today, Pipe Stress Engineers also need to
know (or be able to learn) a wide range of electronic 2D or 3D
design tools.

 Heat Tracing – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand the

effect of process heat conservation, know the different methods
(Jacketing, Tracer Tubing or Electric), Tracer commodity (Steam,
Oil, Hot Water, etc.) and Tracer system requirements and be able to
consider the heat tracing in the analysis process.

 Deliverables – All Pipe Stress Engineers need to understand the

purposes of each of the Pipe Stress deliverables, such as
 Specifications, Data Sheets, and System for individual line analysis
packages, Pipe Sress Logs, Vendor Drawings (Expansion Joint,
Spring Hangers and Struts).

 Stress Sketch Content – All Pipe Stress Engineers must understand

how to present their comments and instructions. Stress Sketches
become a part of the Legal Records for the Project. Therefore all
notes and comments on Stress Sketches must be well thought out
and clearly written in order to clearly communicate the required and
agreed to changes to the design.

 Economics – All Pipe Stress Engineers must be aware of economics.

Adding Expansion Joints at the expense of increased maintenance
may not be the most cost effective solution to a perceived stress
problem.

Any person that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then
consistently applies it is indeed a Pipe Stress Engineer.

He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their company and to

themselves in the market place.

On the other hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the
knowledge about these issues while doing piping work not making a
proper cost effective contribution to the Project, the Company or to their
own career.

Valves are used in a myriad of industrial, military,

commercial, and residential applications. There are
many different types of valves:

Ball valve, which is good for on/off control;

Butterfly valve, particularly in large pipes;

Gate valve, mainly for on/off control;

Globe valve, which is good for regulating flow;

check valve or Non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction
only;

A pressure relief valve or safety valve operates automatically at a set

differential pressure to correct a potentially dangerous situation, typically
over-pressure.
High purity valves, are flow control devices that meet the industry criteria
for purity of materials and de

Definition:
Pipe is a hollow "tube" used for conveying products and pressure. The
products include fluids, gas, slurry, powders, pellets and more. The
pressure is hydraulic power. We usually designate the "tube" as pipe in
the applicable line class but the definition includes any similar component
designed as tubing, which is used for the same application.

History:
One of the earliest methods of conveying fluids in the history of mankind
was by pipe. The earliest pipe on record was the use of bamboo for
moving small quantities of water as a continues flow. As man progressed,
he began using hollow logs for his piping needs. Probably the first
recorded use of metal in piping systems was the use of lead or bronze
during the "Bronze" age.
During the excavation at Pompeii, complete water distribution systems
fabricated from lead have been uncovered. These systems, include
probably the first use of metal plug valves, are still workable.
Without piping our modern civilization and their attendant conveniences
could not exist. Today piping is used in almost every aspect of our lives.
Our drinking water is produced in plants full of piping and then comes to
us through a vast network of pipes. The waste from our homes and
businesses flows away through another network of pipes and is then
treated in a plant full of piping. The fuel we use for travel or for heating
was collected, processed and distributed using pipe. No mater what you
think about, power, food, paint, medicine, paper products, plastics,
chemicals, and many more are all made in plants full of piping. Our safety
is also dependent on the piping in the fire water systems in our
neighborhoods and buildings.

Materials of construction:
The various kinds of material from which pipe is, or can be, made is
proved to be endless; among them are the more common carbon steel,
along with chromes, stainless steel, iron, brass, copper, lead, aluminum,
glass, rubber and various types of plastic material. Over the years some
of these materials have been combined to form lined pipe systems. These
include carbon steel pipe lined with glass, carbon steel pipe that is lined
with various plastics; carbon steel pipe lined with concrete. Each one,
plain or lined has certain advantages and disadvantages. Many things
enter into making a choice of materials. Among the most important of
these are commodity, pressure, temperature, size, ease of assembly
availability and economics.

Pipe sizes:
Many years ago pipe was sized by its true inside diameter. i.e., a 1" pipe
was actually 1" inside diameter. However, as time went on and the
methods of manufacturing were improved and made more standard, and
because it became necessary to increase wall thickness to accommodate
higher pressures and temperatures, it became necessary to size pipe by
"nominal" size rather than actual size. Because it was deemed too
expensive to have a set of thread dies for each wall thickness in the
smaller sizes, the outside diameter (O.D.) was held constant. Thus wall
thickness changes affect the internal diameter only and leave the O. D.
constant for standardized fitting engagements.
Nominal size refers to the name by which we call a particular size pipe.
Nominal size and actual outside diameter of a pipe differs for size 12" and
under. For sizes 14" and larger the actual outside diameter and the
nominal size are identical.
Pipe comes in a very wide range of sizes. It is not uncommon to see
piping as small as ½" or as large as 66". Pipe mills can and will make
almost any size for a price. This does not always prove to be the
economical choice because odd size fittings may not be available. It is
best to stick to the closest and most commercially available or common
size to meet the need.
The smaller common sizes in pipe include ½", ¾", 1", 2", 3", 4", 6", 8"
10" and 12". The larger sizes, 14" and above increase in 2" increments.
The Nominal size pertains to calling the pipe size by name only. The
actual outside diameter or O. D. is different for the 12" and under sizes.
Example:

Nominal Size Actual O. D.

1-
1"
5/16"
2-
2"
3/8"
3-
3"
1/2"
4-
4"
1/2"
12-
12"
3/4"
14" 14"

For all pipe sizes the inside diameter varies as the wall thickness
increases thus the thicker the wall, the smaller the inside diameter.

Weight:
Many years ago the only "weights" of pipe available were classed as
standard weight, extra heavy and double extra heavy. Within the last
seventy-five years or so it became increasingly evident that this system
was limited in scope and did not meet the needs of the growing state of
the industry. This was the direct result of the increasingly higher
pressures and temperatures of the commodities being handled.
Consequently the use of schedule numbers came into being. Today, both
weight and schedule are the way of identifying the wall thickness.

Length:
Based on common practice pipe usually can be furnished in "single
random" lengths, "double random" lengths, and under certain
circumstances (pipeline work for example) in even longer lengths. A
single random will run from about 16' to 22' in length. A double random
will run from about 35' to 40' in length. Pipe can be ordered to a specified
fixed length but this will cost more.

Methods of manufacture:
Pipe is made two ways. It is made by taking a flat plate, called a skelp,
and rolling it into a tube shape and then welding the two edges together
to form a tube. This pipe is commonly called "welded pipe" or ERW pipe.
The other way is to take a solid bar or billet and pierce a hole through the
length. This pipe is commonly called seamless pipe.

Determining wall thickness:

The wall thickness for pipe is generally covered in the piping material
specifications by calling out the Schedule Number for a large majority of
sizes. However, as pressure and temperature increase, and sometimes
the corrosion allowance, it becomes necessary to calculate the required
wall thickness for a specific case. Please note that generally as the
specifications change into higher-pressure classes, wall thickness
calculations must be made for smaller size pipe. Wall thicknesses are by
strict adherence to the rules set forth in the code for Pressure Piping. For
more detailed information on specific pipe sizes and it's various wall
thicknesses, schedules and pipe weights see the "tools," "piping", "pipe
chart" on this website

Grades:
In steel pipe, the word "grade" designates divisions within different types
based on carbon content or mechanical properties (tensile and yield
strengths). The tensile strength is the ultimate amount of stretching the
steel can bear without breaking. The yield strength is the maximum
amount of stretching steel can bear before it becomes permanently
deformed or before it loses its ability to return to its original shape.
Grade A steel pipe has lower tensile and yield strengths than Grade B
steel pipe. This is because it has a lower carbon content. Grade A in more
ductile and is better for cold bending and close coiling applications.
Grade B steel pipe is better for applications where pressure, structural
strength and collapse are factors. It is also easier to machine because of
its higher carbon content. It is generally accepted that Grade B welds as
well as Grade A.
Ends:
Steel pipe can generally be specified with a specific end preparation at the
time of purchase. Three end preps are standard. There is plain end (PE).
This would be the choice for small sizes where socket welded fittings will
be used to join pipe to pipe or pipe to fittings. This is also the default end
prep if no end prep is specified. There is threaded end (TE). This would be
the choice for small sizes where the pipe to pipe or pipe to fitting
assembly is to be threaded. There is also bevel end (BE). This would be
the choice for most all 3" and larger steel pipe (or other metallic pipe)
where "butt welding will be used to join pipe to pipe or pipe to fittings.

Discussion:
The information given above is what you should know about pipe. There
are also some things that you should understand about pipe. There is a
big difference between what you know about a subject and what you
understand about that subject.
With pipe, most novice designers think that all they have to do is "draw"
or "place" the pipe symbol (on that pipe support beam symbol) in
whatever CAD system they are currently using and they are done. They
do not understand what that pipe symbol really means.
That pipe is (or represents) what will be almost a living thing and as such
it will have a growing problem. It will be installed at a certain ambient
temperature and then on start-up it will operate at a totally different
temperature. That difference between the installation temperature and
the operating temperature will cause the pipe to expand or contract. No
matter what the designed tries to do he or she cannot stop this action.
This expansion (or contraction) will cause stress, strain and force in both
the piping system and the pipe support system.
This pipe will also have a weight problem. The pipe it self has a certain
weight. The pipe next to it may be the same size but it may not weight
the same. This pipe may be both high pressure and high temperature.
This means that the wall schedule may be much thicker therefore it will
weigh more. Let's say we do have two lines side by side. They are both
14", one (Line A) is a low temperature, low pressure cooling water line
and the other (Line B) is a high pressure, high temperature hydrocarbon
process line. The span for both lines is 25'.

Example:

Line Line
Item
A B
Pipe
54.6 189.1
weight/foot
Water
59.7 42.6
weight/foot
Insulation 0 15
weight/foot
Total
2857 6170
weight of
lbs. lbs.
span

This does not include any forces that may be imposed by the total piping
configuration on this specific pipe support. However, it does indicate that
there must be some close coordination with the structural department so
they do not assume that all 14" lines are equal.
As for the piping designer, does this line need extra space for movement?
Do either or both of these lines need a pipe guide at this specific pipe
support? Does either of these lines need anchors at this specific pipe
support? If an anchor is required will the anchor forces on each side of
the support be the same or will the anchor farces be unbalanced? Both
cases must be brought to the attention of the structural group.
With the hot line there is normally an insulation shoe required which is
added material and which changes the dimensional reference point for the
centerline of this line and can cause design errors if not understood and
allowed for.

For additional information about pipe see the "Standards" tab on this
website.

Definition:

A fitting is a pipe item used for changing direction, branching or

attaching in a piping system. There are many different types of
fittings and they are produced in all the same sizes and weights
(schedules) as the pipe. Fittings are commonly segregated into
three groups; Butt-weld, Socket-weld and Screwed. Only the most
common will be discussed in this article.

Materials of construction:

Like pipe, fittings are fabricated from several different types of material
and usually match the material of the pipe to which they are being
attached. Some fittings are Cast Iron, some are Malleable Iron, some are
Forged Steel and others are even fabricated from rolled Steel Plate. The
most used materials are again common carbon steel, along with chromes,
stainless steel, iron, brass, copper, lead, aluminum, glass, rubber and
various types of plastic and plastic lined metal materials.

Fitting Types:

Normally, fittings fall into three basic types or categories. These are In-
line, On-line and Closures. The In-line fittings include elbows (Ells), Tees,
Couplings and Reducers. The On-line fittings include a wide variety of "O-
Let" fittings used primarily for making branch connections. The closure
fittings are various types of caps and plugs used to close the end of a pipe
system. We also will discuss some cases where there are alternates to
these normal categories.

Butt-Welded Fittings

Elbows (Ells):

An Elbow is a piping fitting used for changing direction. There are five
basic versions of elbows. The first and by far the most common is the 90°
long radius Ell. The second is the 45° long radius Ell. The third is the 90°
short radius Ell. The fourth is the long radius reducing Ell. The fifth
version is the long radius 180° Return Bend. The basic Butt-Weld Ell is
manufactured in 90° or 45° configurations as a standard. However for
special order and extra cost, the large sizes can be made in other degrees
of turn.

The standard Butt-Weld elbows (90°, 45° and 180° ) can be altered to
meet any special angle needs of a piping system. Elbows like pipe can be
flame cut or machine cut to the required angle. The rough end is then
ground or machine beveled to the proper angle for welding. There is
normally no harm to the fitting when this is done.

The terms "Long Radius" and "Short Radius" are important to understand.
"Long Radius" means that the center to end dimension is one and a half
times the nominal pipe size.

Example:

Nominal Line Size Center-to-end

(and Center-tend of of long radius
short radius Ell) Ell
4" 6"
10" 15"
14" 21"
20" 30"
24" 36"

"Short Radius" means that the center to end dimension is equal to the
nominal pipe size. This means that the center-to-end for a 4" short radius
Ell is 4", for a 10" Ell the center-to-end is 10" and so on.
The long radius Ell is the default standard. All elbows shown in a system
are assumed to be long radius 90° Ells unless noted otherwise. This
means that the designer must call out any and all exceptions to this rule.
If the Ell is a 90° long radius Ell then the elbow symbol is all that is
required. However, if the Ell is a 45° Ell then the designer must add the
notation "45° Ell" next to the elbow symbol. If the Ell is a 90° short radius
Ell then the designer must place the notation S. R. next to the elbow
symbol. Also if the elbow has been trimmed to any odd angle this too
must be noted next to the fitting.

As stated above the 90° long radius Ell is the default standard and is the
most used. The designed should use the long radius Ell at all times unless
conditions exist that force another choice. The short radius 90° Ell should
only be used when tight space does not allow the long radius. The 45° Ell
is normally used where a simple offset is required for some purpose. The
180° Ell is used mostly by equipment manufacturers to form heating or
cooling coils. Return Bends are not normally required by the piping
designer unless there is a requirement to fabricate a complex
configuration.

The purpose of the 90° long radius Reducing Ell is to do the job of an
elbow and a reducer. (Reducers will be covered later.) As such this Ell is
made with one end of one size and the other end one or two line sizes
smaller. The using of the reducing Ell is not cheaper; it only takes less
room. The "long radius" dimension for the 90° long radius reducing Ell is
based on the size of the large end.

Because the long radius and short radius designation of the 90° Ells are
based on the nominal pipe size the designer quickly learns the center-to-
end dimensions. The center-to-end dimensions for the 45° Ell are
normally found only on a chart. However, there is a short-cut way to
"know" these dimensions. You see, these dimensions are also based on
the nominal pipe size. This short-cut method works for all 45° Ells from 4"
to 24" line size. You can do this in your head. You simply divide the line
size in half three times. Take the answer from the first time and the third
time and total them up. That will be the dimension for the 45° Ell fitting.

Example:

Column #5 -
Fitting
Column Column Column Column dimension
#1 (Line #2(½ #3(½ #4(½
size) Col. #1) Col. #2) Col. #3) (Total of
Col. #2 &
Col. #4)
4" 2" 1" ½" 2 ½"
8" 4" 2" 1" 5"
10" 5" 2 ½" 1 ¼" 6 ¼"
14" 7" 3 ½" 1 ¾" 8 ¾"
20" 10" 5" 2-½" 12 ½

Tees:

The primary purpose of a Tee fitting is to make a branch from a pipe line
(or run). The branch may need to be the same size as the run or it may
need to be one or more sizes smaller than the run. Because of economics
(the cost of special orders) the use of Tees is normally limited to size-to-
size or Straight Tee, (all three connections are the same size) or Reducing
Tees where the branch outlet is only one size smaller than run size.
Methods for making branches of other smaller sizes will be discussed
later.

The dimensions of Tees are not as simple as they are for Ells. For Tees
you must look them up on a fitting chart. The dimension found there is
however standardized between all manufacturers. For Straight Tees the
center-to-end dimension of both ends and for the branch outlet is the
same. For Reducing Tees the center-to-end of the branch outlet is
different from that of the run.

Reducers:

A Reducer is a fitting used to change the line size one or more sizes
smaller (or larger). There are two versions of Reducers. There is
Concentric Reducers- where the centerline of the inlet and the outlet are
the same. There is Eccentric Reducers- where the centerline of the inlet is
different than the centerline of the outlet. With the Eccentric Reducer, one
side is flat. Depending on how it is installed you may have bottom flat
(BF) or top flat TF). You may also have a need to have (*) side flat (*=
north, south, east or west). It is about a toss-up as to which is used
more. Concentric Reducers are used mostly in situations where the
reducer is in a vertical run of pipe. Eccentric Reducers are used in
horizontal runs of pipe such as pipeways or in pump suctions.

The dimensions for reducers must be looked up but are normally

standardized among the manufacturers for a given size. The length of a
reducer is the same for a range of sizes (Example: The end-to-end
dimension for 10" x 4", 10" x 6" and 10" x 8" reducers is 7"). As you can
see the length of a Reducer is very short in relation to the diameter.

Caps:

The weld Cap is a fitting used to close the end of a pipe. The closed end of
the Cap is semi-elliptical in shape. The dimension of a weld cap is a look-
up item. Weld caps are most often found at the bottom of a piping
configuration called a "Boot." A boot is a short length of pipe with a pipe
Cap that is attached to the bottom of steam line and provides for the
collection of condensate.

Alternates:

Here are a few alternates to the normal methods of doing business

discussed above.

Miters:

We talked about elbows as a way to change direction. You can change

direction without using elbows. You might do this with a Miter Ell (or
Mitre, both spellings are correct). A Miter Ell is where no fitting is used.
Miters are normally used in large size/low pressure piping.

You fabricate the Miter or change in direction from pipe segments (or
pieces) that are cut at specific angles depending on the number of pieces
and welds required. This is really effective when really odd angles are
required. Two of the pieces are the incoming pipe and the out-going pipe.
There may be no middle piece or there may be one (or more) other short
middle pieces depending on the angle of the turn. A simple turn of 45°
might be made with a two-piece/one weld miter. Other changes in
direction might be three piece/two weld miters, three piece/two weld
miters and so on. The number of welds is always one less than the
number of pieces.

Depending on the size and schedule of the pipe a Miter might be cheaper
than buying fittings. In small diameter piping the miter is more expensive
(labor costs) and there is more pressure drop through a small miter than
a small fitting. Miters are also not recommended for high temperature
lines because miters are more susceptible to overstressing.

Stub-in (Stub-on):

We talked about using Straight Tees and Reducing Tees as a way to make
branches from a line. For low pressure (or reasonably low pressure) there
is another way to make branches from a line. This method uses only pipe.
It is normally used only for low pressure/low temperature applications
where the branch is reducing. The ASME B31.3 (and other piping B31
Code sections) recognize two basic versions of the pipe to pipe branch.

One method is where the run pipe has a hole cut the outside diameter of
the branch pipe. This opening is then beveled for a "full penetration weld"
The branch pipe is saddle cut (with no bevel) to match the I. D. of the run
pipe. They are then fitted together and welded.
The second method is where the diameter of the hole in the run pipe is
the same I. D. as the I. D. of the branch pipe. This hole does not get a
bevel. The end of the branch pipe is saddle cut to fit the run pipe and is
then beveled for a full penetration weld.

With the first method, the branch pipe is inserted in the run pipe. With
the second method, the branch pipe is set on the run pipe. Both are still
commonly referred to as "Stub-ins"
Both of these can come non-reinforced (as described above) or
reinforced. The reinforced version is normally only required for higher
stress situations. The reinforcement is a "ring" plate cut from some scrape
run pipe or the same material as the run pipe. At the center is a hole the
same size as the branch pipe. If cut from flat plate it is then shaped to fit
around the run pipe. The width of the ring is normally one half the
diameter of the branch pipe. The ring is intended to replace the material
that was removed when the hole was cut in the run pipe. A small
diameter hole (1/4" NPT) is normally drilled (and tapped) in the ring to
act as a vent during the welding process and to allow for Hydrotesting of
the welds. The ring is then welded to the branch pipe and the run pipe
with full penetration welds. The small hole is fitted with a plug after work
is completed.

O-let fittings:

Another way to make branch connections on pipe and vessels is by using

an "O-Let" fitting. An "O-Let fitting is designed for use on 3" and larger
welded pipe. The main feature of the typical O-Let fitting is the built-up
base design which eliminates the need of any other form of branch
reinforcement. The O-let fitting is manufactured in a number of styles.

These are:

Weld-O-Let - (common) - This fitting is best described as an odd shaped

"donut." It's purpose is to make self-reinforced branch outlets on a larger
(one size or more) run of pipe. The base of the common weld-o-let has a
saddle shape to fit the run pipe. The outlet end of the weld-o-let has a
beveled-end allowing for butt welding a pipe or fitting. Weld-O-Lets come
in a wide range of sizes and materials. The size call-out is normally the
run (header) size by the branch size (Example: 24" x 4" WOL). It may be
of some interest to know that most O-Let fittings are made with the base
that covers a range of header sizes. This means that the 24" x 4" WOL
will also fit on all pipe sizes from 24" pipe to 36" pipe.

Thread-O-Let - The Thread-O-Let is made much the same as the Weld-

O-Let except that the outlet is threaded to match the normal tapered pipe
threads. The threaded outlet sizes are normally limited to the smaller (2"
and under) pipe sizes.

Sock-O-Let - The Sock-O-Let is also made much the same as the Weld-
O-Let except that the outlet has a socket to match the socket welded
piping fittings and pipe. The socket outlet sizes are normally limited to the
smaller (2" and under) pipe sizes.

Latrolet - A Latrolet is a weld on branch fitting that is attached to the run

pipe at a 45° angle. The angle attachment is sometimes required on high
pressure relief systems. A Latrolet may be ordered with; a Butt-weld
outlet end, a threaded outlet end or a socket weld end.

Elbowlet - The Elbowlet is made to be fitted on the back side of a long

radius 90° elbow. An Elbowlet may also be ordered with; a Butt-weld
outlet end, a threaded outlet end or a socket weld outlet end.

Nip-O-Let - A Nip-O-Let is a fitting that has the reinforced base for

attaching to the run pipe and then has a short pipe extension with a
threaded or plain outlet end. The Nip-O-Let does come in a range of sizes,
however they are limited to the smaller sizes. This fitting is normally used
for vent, drain and pressure gage connections.

Flange-O-Let - This fitting is much like the Nip-O-Let but has a flanged
outlet end. The purpose is the same as for the Nip-O-Let.

Couplings: (as a branch outlet fitting)

The common pipe Coupling (to be discussed later) can also be used in the
making of small size branches from a larger header or run pipe. One end
of the (Threaded or Socket Weld) Coupling is shaped to match the O. D.
of the larger pipe. This shaped end is then ground to form a beveled end
which allows for a full penetration weld.

Screwed and Socket-Welded Fittings

These fittings perform the same function as the Butt-Weld fittings. There
function is the same but the method of joining and the dimensioning is
different. Normally these fittings are used in sizes 1-1/2" (or 2") and
smaller. Welded fittings are specified the same as the pipe, by weight,
schedule or wall thickness. Screwed and Socket-Weld fittings are specified
per the pressure class.
Thread engagements as well as the depths of the sockets for different
pipe sizes are different and must be looked-up on an approved dimension
table.

Threaded fitting pressure classes:

· 125# Cast Iron
· 250# Cast Iron
· 150# Malleable Iron
· 300# Malleable Iron
· 2000# Forged Steel *
· 3000# Forged Steel *
· 6000# Forged Steel
* Most common

The Cast Iron and Malleable Iron fittings are basically used for air and
water services at a low temperature and pressure. Forged fittings are
normally used for higher pressures and temperatures as well as for the
more complex commodities.
The majority of the screwed fittings will have female (internal) threads
per NPT (National Pipe Thread). The exception will be the swages and the
plugs - they will have male (external) threads.

Socket-Weld fittings are manufactured in two classes.

· 3000# Forged Steel

· 6000# Forged Steel

Socket-Weld fittings have a deep socket into which the pipe slips and
aligns itself. The weld is then made on the outer surface of the pipe and
fitting. This eliminate the need for or use of special clamps or tack
welding for alignment prior to the final fit-up welding. At the bottom of
the socket a 1/16" gap is left to compensate for expansion when the weld
is made. This gap is called a root-gap. The swage does not have an
internal socket; it will fit into the socket of a fitting or be butt-welded to a
pipe.

The dimensions for screwed and socket-weld fittings must be looked up

on a standard fitting dimension chart. There are no dimension short-cuts
for these fittings.

Common Screwed an Socket-Weld fittings:

Elbows (Ells): Here again we have a fitting whose purpose is to change

direction. There are only two versions. There is the 90° Ell and the 45°
Ell. With the Screwed and Socket-Weld Ells there is no long radius or
short radius. They are just as they are and they cannot be "trimmed" to
allow for odd angles..

Tees: The Screwed and Socket-Weld Tee fittings are used for making
branches. They do come in straight and some reducing sizes.

Swages: The Screwed and Socket-Weld Swage comes in both the

concentric and the eccentric shapes. Swages do have an important
feature that every designer needs to know and accept. Where a Butt-Weld
reducer is short relative to the diameter, the swage is very long relative
the diameter. Screwed and Socket-Weld swages are made by the same
people and in some cases by the same machine. Some are then threaded
and some are left with a plain end or beveled for welding. The extra
length on the Screwed Swage allows space for the pipe wrench.

Caps and Plugs: Caps and Plugs are intended to provide for the closer of
the end of a pipe or fitting.

Nipples: A Nipple is a name given to a short length of pipe. It is not

really a fitting in the same context as an elbow or a Tee. Nipples are cut
from pipe and can be purchased in 4", 6" and 12" standard lengths. Pipe
Nipples can also be made by the piping crew in the field.

Unions: The Union is basically used as a dismantling fitting, and in many

cases it is necessary for assembly. The field crew may install extra Unions
at their own discretion to expedite and facilitate the construction of
socket-weld and screwed piping.

For additional information about fittings see the "Standards" tab on this
website.

Note: This article covers ASME B 16.5 Standard Piping Flanges up to 24"
NPS. Flanges larger than 24" fall under ASME B16.47 and while they have
the same attributes they will be covered at a later time.

Definition:
A flange is defined as a plate type device, normally round, that is
attached to the end of a pipe, fitting, valve or other object to facilitate the
assembly and disassembly of a piping system. For many years the only
practical method of joining steel pipe had been by connecting threaded
pipe ends with couplings. Improvements in the welding of carbon steel
reduced labor costs and provided a completely sealed and much stronger
joint. In most present day piping systems, threaded joints are usually
limited to pipe sizes 2" and smaller. Larger pipe (3" and larger) is
normally joined by butt-welding of continuous pipe and fittings or by
flanges at joints that may require dismantling. Flanges (3" and larger) are
also the default standard for connecting to most equipment connections
and valves.

Materials of construction:
Flanges are manufactured in all the different materials to match the
material of the pipe and fittings to which they are being attached. While
some flanges are made of Cast Iron. The vast majority of flanges are
forged carbon steel.
Forged Flange Ratings:
Forged steel flanges are made in seven primary ratings.

These primary ratings are as follows:

o Class 150
o Class 300
o Class 400
o Class 600
o Class 900
o Class 1500
o Class 2500
The Primary Rating is on a pressure/temperature relationship.

Example:

A Class 150 Forged Flange is used for 150 PSIG at 500º F. This same
flange may also be used for 275 PSIG at 100º F. This same flange could
also be used at 100 PSIG at 750º F. Note the inverse relationship. When
the pressure goes up, the temperature goes down and vice versa.
Pressure ratings are used as a guide to safely design piping systems and
also to standardize manufactured piping components. The same ratings
hold true for screwed and socket-weld flanges.

Cast Iron Flange Ratings:

The two most common ratings for Cast Iron flanges are Class 125 and
Class 250. Other flange ratings are available but are not as common. Cast
Iron flanges are generally found associated with low pressure cast iron
valves and nozzles on cast iron equipment such as some pumps and
turbines. Mating forged steel flanges to cast iron flange can pose a
potential for damage to the "weaker" cast iron. The main point to
remember now is that a Class 125 Cast Iron flange will mate to a Class
150 forged steel flange, and a Class 250 Cast Iron flange will mate to a
Class 300 forged steel flange. The solution to the potential damage
problem will be discussed later in flange facings.

Flange Dimensions:
A flange has many dimensions. The most critical is the "length" of the
flange. This dimension will vary with each type of flange and will be
covered in the section below covering Flange Types.
All other dimensions for a flange will normally be the same across all
flange types but will vary with each flange rating.

These common dimensions include:

o Flange Outside Diameter
o Flange Thickness
o Bolt Circle
o Number of Bolts
o Bolt Hole Size
o Bolt Size

Bolt Hole Location:

The ASME B16.5 has a standard for bolt holes that are used by all (US)
manufacturers for flange sizes up through 24" For instance; the number
of bolt holes required varies with the size and rating of the flange. But the
number and size is the same no matter the type of flange. The bolt holes
are evenly spaced around the flange on a concentric bolt circle. There will
always be an even number of bolt holes, in graduations of 4 (i.e., 4, 8,
12, 16, etc.).
Unless specifically noted otherwise by the piping designer (and then only
if for good reason) all flange bolt holes shall straddle the "natural"
centerlines. This is the flange bolt hole orientation rule. This "natural"
centerline rule for flange is known, understood and followed by all
responsible equipment manufacturers and pipe fabricators.

The rule is as follows:

o For a vertical flange face (the flange face in vertical and the line is
horizontal) the bolt holes shall be oriented to straddle the vertical and
horizontal centerlines.
o For a horizontal flange face (the flange face is horizontal and the line is
vertical up or vertical down) the bolt holes shall be oriented to straddle
the (plant) north/south centerlines.

Care must be taken to check all equipment vendor outlines to identify any
flange orientations that do not match this rule. When an exception is
found the vendor can be requested to change his bolt hole orientation.
This is not always successful and if not then the piping designer must
insure that the piping fabrication documents call for the correct
orientation.
This rule of bolt holes straddling the natural centerlines is sometimes
referred to as "Two-Hole" the flange. This means that the two of the holes
straddle the centerline. To "One-Hole" a flange means that the flange has
been rotated so that one hole is right on the natural centerline. I assure
you that 99.999% of the time that to "One Hole" a flange is a mistake
and will add cost to the field. It also makes the piping foreman very
unhappy.

Flange Types:
Weld Neck Flanges:
Weld Neck Flanges are distinguished from other flange types by their long
tapered hub and gentle transition of thickness in the region of the butt
weld that joins them to pipe or a fitting. A weld-neck flange is attached to
a pipe or a fitting with a single full penetration, "V" bevel weld. The long
tapered hub provides an important reinforcement of the flange proper
from the standpoint of strength and resistance to dishing. The smooth
transition from the flange thickness to the pipe wall thickness by the taper
is extremely beneficial under conditions of repeated bending caused by
line expansion or other variable forces, and produces an endurance
strength of welding neck flanged assemblies equivalent to that of a butt-
welded joint. This type of flange is preferred for severe service conditions,
whether loading conditions are substantially constant or fluctuate between
wide limits.

The weld neck flange is used in each of the seven flange ratings and has
the advantage of requiring only one weld to attach it to the adjacent pipe
or fitting.
The key dimension for a weld neck flange is the length through the hub
from the beveled end to the contact face of the flange. This "length"
includes the bevel, the tapered hub, and the thickness of the plate part of
the flange and the raised face. To obtain the correct dimension you must
look at a correctly constructed flange dimension chart (see the "Tools"
button on this website) or a flange manufacturers catalog. Electronic
piping design software will normally already have the correct dimension
built-in.

It is important to understand and remember that the (1/16") raised face

on the Class 150 raised face and on the Class 300 raised face flanges is
normally included in the length dimension. However, the ¼" raised face is
not included in the chart or catalog length dimension for the Class 400
and higher pressure rated flanges. The raised face dimension for Class
400 flanges (and up) normally must be added to the chart or catalog
length to arrive at the true total length of these higher-pressure flanges.

Slip-on Flanges:
Slip-On (SO) Flanges are preferred by some contractors, over the Weld-
neck, because of the lower initial cost. However, this may be offset by the
added cost of the two fillet welds required for proper installation. The
strength of the slip-on flange is ample for it's rating, but its life under
fatigue conditions is considered to be only one-third that of the weld-neck
flange.

The slip-on flange may be attached to the end of a piece of pipe or to one
or more ends of a pipefitting. The slip-on flange is positioned so the
inserted end of the pipe or fitting is set back or short of the flange face by
the thickness of the pipe wall plus 1/8 of an inch. This allows for a fillet
weld inside the SO flange equal to the thickness of the pipe wall without
doing any damage to the flange face. The back or outside of the flange is
also welded with a fillet weld.

A variation of the Slip-On flange also exists. This is the Slip-On Reducing
Flange. This is simply a larger (say a 14") Slip-On flange blank that,
instead of the Center (pipe) hole being cut out (or drilled out) for 14" pipe
it is cut out for a 6" (or some other size) pipe. The SO Reducing flange is
basically used for reducing the line size where space limitations will not
allow the length of a weld neck flange and reducer combination. The use
of the Slip-On Reducing Flange should only be used where the flow
direction is from the smaller size into the larger size.

Lap Joint Flanges:

A Lap Joint Flange is a two piece device that is much like a weld-neck
flange but also like a loose slip-on flange. One piece is a sleeve called a
'Stub-end" and is shaped like a short piece of pipe with a weld bevel on
one end and a narrow shoulder on the other end called the hub. The hub
is the same outside diameter as the raised face (gasket contact surface)
of a weld neck flange. The thickness of the hub is normally about ¼" to
3/8". The back face of the hub has a rounded transition (or inside fillet)
that joins the hub to the sleeve.

The other piece of a Lap Joint Flange is the backing flange. This flange
has all the same common dimensions (O.D., bolt circle, bolt hole size,
etc.) as any other flange however it does not have a raised face. One
side, the backside, has a slight shoulder that is square cut at the center or
pipe hole. The front side has flat face and at the center hole an outside
fillet to match the fillet of the "Stub-end" piece. The flange part of the
Lap-joint flange assembly is slipped on to the stub-end prior to the sleeve
being welded to the adjoining pipe or fitting. The flange itself is not
welded or fixed in any way. It is free to spin for proper alignment with
what ever it is joining to.

The "Stub-end" can normally be purchased in two lengths. There is a

short version, about 3" long and a long version of about 6" long. It is
prudent for the piping designer to know which version is in the piping
specification.

Because of it's two piece configuration, the Lap Joint Flange offers a way
to cut cost or simplify work. The cost saving comes when the piping
system requires a high cost alloy for all "wetted" parts to reduce
corrosion. The sleeve or Stub-end can be the required higher cost alloy
but the flange can be the lower cost forged carbon steel.

The work simplification comes into the picture where there are cases that
require frequent and rapid disassembly and assembly during the
operation of a plant. The ability to spin that backing flange compensates
for misalignment of the bolt holes during reassembly.

Screwed (or Threaded) Flanges:

Screwed flanges look very much like a Slip-On flange in some ways. The
main difference is the Screwed flange was bored out initially to match a
specific pipe inside diameter. The backside of this center opening is then
threaded with the proper sized tapered pipe thread. This flange is
primarily used to make flanged joints where required in small sizes in
threaded pipe specs

Socket Weld Flanges:

Socket Weld flanges also look very much like a Slip-On flange. Here the
main difference is the Socket Weld flange was also bored out initially to
match a specific pipe inside diameter. Here however, the backside of this
center opening is then counter bored to form the proper size socket to
take the pipe O.D. This flange is primarily used to make flanged joints
where required in small sizes in socket welded pipe specs

Blind Flanges:
Blind flanges are a round plate with all the proper bolt holes but no center
hole. This flange is used to provide positive closer at the ends of pipes,
valves or equipment nozzles.

Flange Faces:

Face Types:
Flanges faces come in different forms. Some forms are more common and
others are old and out of date forms. These old forms may be ordered but
possibly only to match an existing piece of old equipment.

Flange face forms are:

o Flat Face (FF) - The Flat Face is primarily used on Cast Iron flanges.
With this face the whole contact face of the flange is machined flat.
o Raised Face (RF) - The Raised Face is most common of all flange faces.
The flange has a raised area machined on the flange face equal to the
contact area of a gasket.
o Ring-type Joint (RTJ) - This is a form of flange face that is becoming
obsolete. This type has a higher raised portion on the face into which a
ring groove is then machined.
o Tongue and Groove (T&G) - This is also a form of flange face that in
becoming obsolete. With this type the flanges must be matched. One
flange face has a raised ring (Tongue) machined onto the flange face
while the mating flange has a matching depression (Groove) machined
into it's face.
o Male-and -Female (M&F) - This is another form of flange face that is
obsolete. With this type the flanges must also be matched. One flange
face has an area that extends beyond the normal flange face (Male). The
companion flange or mating flange has a matching depression (Female)
machined into it's face.

Dissimilar flange faces such as the RTJ, T&G and the F&M shall never be
bolted together. The primary reason for this is that the contact surfaces
do not match and there is no gasket that has one type on one side and
another type on the other side. Don't even think about it!
Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange. If you
need to bolt a Forged steel flange to cast iron then you must call for the
forged steel flange to be machined off to a flat face. For more information
on this see this link to Goulds pumps

Flange Face Finish:

The part of a flange where the gasket touches is called the contact
surface. This area is the most critical area to the prevention of leaks. This
area of a flange must be protected from the time it is machined clear
through all the various shipping, storage, fabrication and installation
periods. Flange faces are machined with standard finishes. No doubt your
piping material engineer could request another special finish but that
would only add extra cost. The most common finish for the contact face of
a flange is a concentric (or phonographic) groove. This pattern is
machined into the flange face and provides the grip for the gasket.

Gaskets:
You can have Class 600 stainless steel flanges and have the bolts fully
tight and if you do not have a gasket (or the proper gasket) you will have
a lot of leaks. Having the gasket and the right gasket is very important.
Gaskets provide the tight seal that retains the pressure and keeps the gas
or liquid in the pipe. In a vacuum system it keeps the outside air from
getting in. Gaskets are designed and later chosen considering all the
same issues as were used to select the pipe. These include pressure,
temperature, and corrosiveness of the commodity, among others.
Gaskets are made of a wide range of materials. These include rubber,
elastomers and graphite. The Spiral Wound gasket has a graphite or
Teflon material wound with a metal strip which is then held in shape by a
flat metal ring. This metal retainer ring also acts as a centering tool to
insure that the casket is not misaligned or blocks the product flow.

Gaskets for Ring Type Joint flanges are simply a solid metal ring. There
are two basic cross-sectional shapes for the RTJ gasket. These are "Oval"
and "Hexagonal."

Bolts:
Bolting is the final element of a complete flange joint assembly. Here
again we have some variations. The most common is the Stud Bolt. Next
is normally the Cap Screw. And finally we have the Machine Bolt.

Stud Bolts:
The Stud Bolt is a long threaded rod (with no head on either end) and two
nuts. The Stud Bolt is used in all locations where you have two normal
flanges with access to the backside of both flanges and both ends of the
stud.
Cap Screws:
The Cap Screw is a fully threaded rod with a head on one end. No nut is
used with the Cap Screw. The Cap Screw is normally used in all locations
where a flange is being attached to a piece of equipment where there are
only tapped holes (i.e.: no access to the backside). Cap Screws are also
used to attach threaded-lug type wafer valves (Butterfly Valves) between
a pair of flanges. For this application the length of the Cap Screw selected
is critical. Two Cap Screws are used at each lug position, one from one
side and one from the other side. The Cap Screw must be long enough to
go through the flange, the raised face and half of the threaded lug minus
1/16 of an inch. This leaves a 1/8 inch total gap between the ends of the
two cap screws when the screws are tight.

Machine Bolts:
A Machine Bolt is a rod with a hexagon head on one end and threads on
some of the length. Machine Bolts are normally made of a lower strength
material than Stud Bolts and are therefore considered only where low
strength bolting is required. These applications most often include Cast
Iron flanges.

For additional information about flanges, gaskets and bolts see the
"Standards" tab on the pipingdesigners.com website

Introduction

Now that we have covered the different types of flanges, let's briefly
cover the subject of gaskets and bolts.

We shall only cover what a piper is required to know.

We will first discuss gaskets and then bolts.

GASKETS

A gasket forms the seal necessary between flange connections to prevent

leaks;

There are different types of gaskets.

The type of gasket is dependent upon three things:

1. Pressure and Temperature of the line;

2. Commodity of the line;
3. Facing of the flanges they are placed between.

Example:
A line at 800° would take a different type of gasket than would a line
at150°, even though they both could have raised face flanges.
Also, it naturally follows that a flat face flange would take a different type
of gasket than would a ring joint flange.

Who Selects the Gasket Material? The Piping Material Engineer selects the
type of gasket necessary for a particular line and we find this information
in the Piping Material Specification.

There are three general types of gaskets.

1. Raised face
2. Full face
3. "Ring Joint Flange" gasket

Raised Face Gaskets

First, let's discuss the raised faced gasket.

It is used on flanges with raised faces.
It's outside diameter is fabricated so as to align itself within the bolts.

The material used may be either metallic or nonmetallic.

The most common metallic gaskets are:

Corrugated, metal, corrugated double jacket asbestos filled, and spiral
wound.

Non metallic gaskets would be of materials such as graphite, cardboard or

rubber.

Full Face Gaskets

The second type of gasket is the full face gasket.

They are normally used for flat faced flanges and the O.D. extends to the
outer edge of the flange face with holes provided for the bolts.

Why would we use a full faced gasket on flat faced flanges?

Flat faced flanges are sometimes made of cast iron, which is brittle.
Unless a full faced gasket is used, we run the risk of cracking the flange
as the bolts are tightened.

The common materials used for this type of gasket are:

Graphite, cardboard or rubber.

Both the raised faced gasket and full faced gasket have varying
thicknesses, based on pressures and temperatures.
In order to calculate the dimensions to flanges or valves on our isometric,
we have to know the thickness, so we can either add or subtract it to
arrive at a dimension on the iso.
The most common compressed thicknesses are 1/16" and 1/8".
The material specifications will indicate the gasket compressed thickness.

Metal Ring Joint Flange Gasket

The third type of gasket is the metal ring gasket.

The cross section of the ring is either oval or octagonal.
It fits into machined groves in the flange faces, namely ring joint.
This type of gasket is made of solid metal and is used in high pressure or
high temperature service.

BOLTS

In conjunction with gaskets, there are two different types of bolts that are
used with flanged connections.

Stud Bolts
Machine Bolts

The material of the bolts will not be important in Piping Design for the
most part, but there is a maximum temperature at which the machine
bolt can be used.
Above that, we usually go to stud bolts.
The temperature depends upon the material and it again is selected by
the Material Engineers.

Bolt Lengths
The Piping Designer needs to be aware of the length of the bolt for
material purposes and to verify there is adequate clearance for bolt
removal. Generally this length is pre-defined, but may need to be
adjusted in certain situations

Boss and Cap Screws

There will be particular instances when cap screws will be used instead of
bolts; for example, at a turbine or compressor where flange connections
may be the "boss type."
Here you would have just a machined surface with tapped holes to
accommodate cap screws.

BOLT IDENTFICATION

Machine Bolt: Machine bolts have a square forged head and requires
only one hex nut.

Stud Bolt: Stud bolts do not have heads. They are completely threaded
from end to end and require two hex nuts to install.
Cap Screws: Cap screws have hex heads on them and are stronger than
machine bolts and require only one hex nut.

Stud bolts are the most common type of bolt used in Piping.
They have these three advantages:

1. The stud bolt is more easily removed if corroded.

2. Confusion with other bolts at the site is avoided.
3. Stud bolts in the less frequently used sizes and materials can be readily
made from round stock.

In conclusion, the most important thing about gaskets and bolts is the
thickness of the gasket (as far as we in Piping Design are concerned).
This information is found in the Piping Material Specification.

General Guidelines for Equipment and Piping Location, Spacing, Distances and Clearances
By: James O. Pennock

this article should only be used as a guide. It's intended purpose

is to help the piping designer who is responsible for placement of
one specific item in a typical refinery, chemical or petrochemical
process plant or someone who may need help in developing a total
plot plan for a complex unit.

The guidelines given here are based on my many years of

experience with one of the world's largest engineering, design
and construction companies along with the U. S. OSHA Part 1910
and the NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Code No. 30.

The latest editions of these codes and any other applicable

national, regional and local codes should be referred to and used
because they may be more stringent.

The subjects covered in this article have been arranged in

alphabetical order in the hope it will make them easier to locate.

Access (See Maintenance)

Columns (See Vertical Vessels)

Compressors, Centrifugal
Locate centrifugal compressor as close as possible the suction source. Top
suction and discharge lines either should be routed to provide clearance
for overhead maintenance requirements, or should be made up with
removable spool pieces.
Support piping so as to minimize dead load on compressor nozzles; the
load should be within the recommended allowance of the compressor
manufacturer.
Centrifugal compressors should have full platforming at operating level.
Heavy parts such as upper or inner casing and rotor should be accessible
to mobile equipment. Review the equipment arrangement for access and
operation.
Locate lube and seal oil consoles adjacent to and as close as possible to
the compressor. Oil return lines from the compressor and driver should
have a minimum slope of 1/2 inch per foot to the inlet connection of seal
traps, degassing tanks, and oil reservoir. Pipe the reservoir, compressor
bearing, and seal oil vents to a safe location at least 6 feet above
operator head level.

Compressors, Reciprocating
Locate reciprocating compressors so suction and discharge lines that are
subject to vibration (mechanical and acoustical) may be routed at grade
and held down at points established by a stress and analog study of the
system.
Accessibility and maintenance for large lifts such as cylinder, motor rotor,
and piston removal should be by mobile equipment if the installation is
outdoors or by traveling overhead crane if the installation is indoors (or
covered).
Horizontal, straight line, reciprocating compressors should have access to
cylinder valves. Access should be from grade or platform if required.
Depending on unit size and installation height, horizontal-opposed and
gas engine driven reciprocating compressors may require full platforming
at the operating level.

Control Valves
Locate control valve stations accessible from grade or on a platform. In
general, the (flow, level, pressure, temperature) instruments or indicators
showing the process variables should be visible from the control valve.

Cooling Towers
Locate cooling towers downwind of buildings and equipment to keep spray
from falling on them. Orient the short side of the tower into the prevailing
summer wind for maximum efficiency. This means that the air flow (wind)
will travel up the long sides and be drawn in to both sides of the cooling
tower equally. When the wind is allowed to blow directly into one long
side it tends to blow straight through and results in lower efficiency.
Locate cooling towers a minimum of 100 feet (30m) from process units,
utility units, fired equipment, and process equipment.

Cradles (See Insulation Shoes and Cradles)

Equipment Arrangement (General)

Arrange equipment, structures, and piping to permit maintenance and
service by means of mobile equipment. Provide permanent facilities where
maintenance by mobile equipment is impractical.
Group offsite equipment, pumps, and exchangers to permit economical
pipe routing. Locate this equipment outside of diked storage areas.

Exchanger, Air Cooler (Fin Fans)

Air Coolers are in typically used in the cooling of the overhead vapor from
tall vertical vessels or towers such as Crude Fractionators and Stripper
Columns. The natural flow tends to follow gravity, where the tower
overhead is the high point then down to the Air Cooler, then down to the
Accumulator and finally the Overhead Product transfer pumps. With this
in mind the Air Coolers are normally located above pipeways. This
conserves plot space and allows the pipe rack structure with it's
foundation to do double duty with only minor up grade to the design. If
the pipe rack is not used then plot space equal to the size of the Air
Cooler is required. In addition a totally separate foundation and stand
alone structure is required.

Exchanger, "G" Fin (Double Pipe)

These exchangers can be mounted almost anywhere any they can be
mounted (with process engineer approval) in the vertical when required.
A G-Fin Exchanger is recognizable by its shape. One segment looks like
two long pieces of pipe with a 180 degree return bend at the far end. It is
one finned pipe inside of another pipe with two movable supports. This
type of exchanger can be joined together very simply to form multiples in
series, in parallel or in a combination of series/parallel to meet the
requirements of the process. This exchanger is not normally used in a
service where there is a large flow rate or where high heat transfer is
required. The key feature with this exchanger is the maintenance. The
piping is disconnected from the tube side (inner pipe). On the return bend
end of this exchanger there is a removable cover. When the cover is
removed this allows for the tube (inside pipe) to be pulled out. This
exchanger is normally installed with the piping connections toward the
pipe rack.

Exchangers, Reboiler (Kettle Reboiler)

Locate kettle reboilers at grade and as close as possible to the vessel they
serve. This type of reboiler is identifiable by its unique shape. It has one
end much like a normal Shell and Tube exchanger then a very large
eccentric, bottom flat transition to what looks like a normal horizontal
vessel. You could also call it a "Fat" exchanger. The flow characteristics on
the process side of a kettle reboiler are the reason for the requirement for
the close relationship to the related vessel.
Reboilers normally have a removable tube bundle and should have
maintenance clearance equal to the bundle length plus 5 feet (1.5m)
measured from the tube sheet.
Exchangers, Shell and Tube
Shell and tube exchangers should be grouped together wherever possible.
Stacked shell and tube exchangers should be limited to four shells high in
similar service; however, the top exchanger should not exceed a
centerline elevation of 18 feet (5.5m) above high point of finished
surface, unless mounted in a structure. Keep channel end and shell covers
clear of obstructions such as piping and structural members to allow
unbolting of exchanger flanges, and removal of heads and tube bundles.
Exchangers with removable tube bundles should have maintenance
clearance equal to the bundle length plus 5 feet (1.5m) measured from
the tube sheet to allow for the tube bundle and the tube puller.
Maintenance space between flanges of exchangers or other equipment
arranged in pairs should be 1'- 6" (0.5m) (min.). Exchanger maintenance
space from a structural member or pipe should not be less than 1'- 0"
(300mm) (min.).

Furnaces (Fired Equipment)

Locate fired equipment, if practical, so that flammable gases from
hydrocarbon and other processing areas cannot be blown into the open
flames by prevailing winds.
Horizontal clearance from hydrocarbon equipment (shell to shell) 50'- 0"
(15m) Exception: Reactors or equipment in alloy systems should be
located for economical piping arrangement.
Provide sufficient access and clearance at fired equipment for removal of
tubes, soot blowers, air preheater baskets, burners, fans, and other
related serviceable equipment.
Clearance from edge of roads to shell 10'- 0"(3m)
Pressure relief doors and tube access doors should be free from
obstructions. Orient pressure relief doors so as not to blow into adjacent
equipment.
The elevation of the bottom of the heater above the high point of the
finished surface should allow free passage for operation and maintenance.

Furnace Piping
Locate snuffing steam manifolds and fuel gas shutoff valves a minimum of
50 feet (15m) horizontally from the heaters they protect.
Burner Valving for a Floor Fired Furnaces: Combination oil and gas firing
valves should be operable from burner observation door platform. For
those fired by gas only, the valves should be near the burner and should
be operable from grade.
Burner Valving for a Side Fired Furnaces: Locate firing valves so they can
be operated while the flame is viewed from the observation door.

Flare Stacks
Locate the flare stack upwind of process units, with a minimum distance
of 200 feet (60m) from process equipment, tanks, and cooling towers. If
the stack height is less than 75 feet (25m), increase this distance to a
minimum of 300 feet (90m). These minimum distances should be verified
by Company Process Engineering.

Future Provisions
Space for future equipment, pipe, or units should not be provided unless
required by the client or for specific process considerations. When
applicable this requirement should be indicated on the plot plan and
P&IDs.

Insulation Shoes and Cradles

Locate Insulation shoes anywhere a line crosses a support for hot
insulated piping when the piping is 3 inch (80mm) and larger carbon and
alloy steel lines with design temperatures over 650 degrees F (350C).
Large diameter lines (20 inches (500mm) and over), stainless steel lines
where galvanic corrosion may exist, lines with wall thickness less than
standard weight, and vacuum lines should be analyzed to determine if
shoes or wear plates are needed.
Provide cradles at supports for insulated lines in cold service and for
acoustical applications.

Ladders & Cages

Maximum height of a ladder without a cage should not exceed 15'-0"
(4.5m)
Maximum vertical distance between platforms 30'- 0" (9m)
Cages on ladders over 15'-0" (4.5m) high shall start at 8'-0" (2.5m)
above grade.
Minimum toe clearance behind a ladder 0'- 7" (200mm)
Minimum handrail clearance 0'- 3" (80mm)

Level Instruments
Locate liquid level controllers and level glasses so as to be accessible from
grade, platform, or permanent ladder. The level glass should be readable
from grade wherever practical.
Wherever possible, orient level instruments on the side toward the
operating aisle.

Loading Racks
Locate loading and unloading facilities that handle flammable commodities
a minimum of 200 feet (60m) from away from process equipment, and
250 feet (75m) from tankage.

Maintenance Aisles (at grade)

Equipment maintenance aisle for hydraulic crane (12T capacity) should
have a horizontal clearance width of 10'- 0" (3m) (min.) and a vertical
clearance of 12'- 0" (3.5m) (min.). Where a fork lift and similar
equipment (5000 lbs / 230kg capability) is to be used the horizontal
clearance should be 6'- 0" (2m) (min.) and the vertical clearance should
be 8'- 0" (2.5m) (min.).
Where maintenance by portable manual equipment (A-frames, hand
trucks, dollies, portable ladders or similar equipment) is required the
horizontal clearance should be 3'- 0" (1m) (min.) and the vertical
clearance 8'- 0" (2.5m) (min.).

Operating Aisle (at grade)

Minimum width 2'- 6" (800mm)
Headroom 7'- 0" (2.1m)

Orifice Runs and Flanges

Locate Orifice runs in the horizontal. Vertical orifice runs may only be
used with the approval of Company Control Systems Engineering. Orifice
flanges with a centerline elevation over 15 feet (4.5m) above the high
point of finished surface, except in pipeways, should be accessible from a
platform or permanent ladder.
Locate orifice taps as follows:
Air and Gas
-Top vertical centerline (preferred)
-45 degrees above horizontal centerline (alternate)]

Liquid and Steam

-Horizontal centerline (preferred)
-45 degrees below horizontal centerline (alternate]

(Note: The piping isometrics should show the required tap orientations)

Personnel Protection
Locate eye wash and emergency showers in all areas where operating
personnel are subject to hazardous sprays or spills, such as acid.
Personnel protection should be provided at uninsulated lines and for
equipment operating above 140 degrees F (60 C) when they constitute a
hazard to the operators during the normal operating routine. Lines that
are infrequently used, such as snuffing steam and relief valve discharges,
may not require protective shields or coverings.

Pipe
Clearance between the outside diameter of flange and the outside
diameter of pipe to the insulation should not be less than 0'- 1"* (25mm)
Clearance between the outside diameter of pipe, flange, or insulation and
structural any member should not be less than 0'- 2"* (50mm)
*With full consideration of thermal movements

Platforms
Minimum width for ladder to ladder travel: 2'- 6" (800mm)
Headroom: 7'- 0" (2.1m)
Headroom from stairwell treads: 7'- 0" (2.1m)
Minimum clearance around any obstruction on dead end platforms: 1'- 6"
(500mm)

Pressure Instruments
Locate all local pressure indicators so they are visible from grade,
permanent ladder, or platform. Those located less than 15 feet (4.5m)
above high point of finished surface should be accessible from grade or a
portable ladder. Those located in a pipeway should be considered
accessible by portable ladder. Those over 15 feet (4.5m) above high point
of finished surface should be accessible from a platform or permanent
ladder.

Process Units
The relation of units, location of equipment, and routing of pipe should be
based on economics, safety, and ease of maintenance, operation, and
construction requirements. The alignment of equipment and routing of
pipe should offer an organized appearance.

Process Unit Piping

Locate all pipe lines in major process units on overhead pipeways. In
certain instances, pipes may be buried, providing they are adequately
protected. Lines that must be run below grade, and must be periodically
inspected or replaced, should be identified on the P&IDs and placed in
covered concrete trenches.
Cooling water lines normally may be run above or below ground, based
on economics.
Domestic or potable water and fire water lines should be run
underground.

Pumps
Locate pumps close to the equipment from which they take suction.
Normally, locate pumps in process units under pipeways.
Design piping to provide clearance for pump or driver removal. Similarly,
on end suction pumps, piping should permit removing suction cover and
pump impeller while the suction and discharge valves are in place.
Arrange suction lines to minimize offsets. The suction lines should be
short and as direct as possible, and should step down from the equipment
to the pump. Suction lines routed on sleeperways may rise to pump
suction nozzle elevation.
Orient valve handwheels or handles so they will not interfere with pump
maintenance or motor removal. Valve handwheels or handles should be
readily operable from grade.
Maintenance and operating aisles with a minimum width of 2'-6"
(800mm) should be provided on three sides of all pumps.

Pump Strainers
Provide temporary conical type strainers in 2 inch (50mm) and larger butt
weld pump suction lines for use during startup. Arrange piping to facilitate
removal.
Use permanent Y-type strainers on 2 inch (50mm) and smaller screwed or
socket weld pump suction piping.

Railroads
Headroom over through-railroads (from top rail) 22'- 6"** (7m)
Clearance from track centerline to obstruction 10'- 0"** (3m)
(** Verify conformance with local regulations)

Relief Valves (Pressure, Safety and Thermal)

Locate all relief valves so they are accessible. Wherever feasible, locate
them at platforms that are designed for other purposes. Relief valves with
a centerline elevation over 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finish
surface (except in pipeways) should be accessible from platform or
permanent ladder.
Pressure relief valves that discharge to a closed system should be
installed higher than the collection header. There should be no pockets in
the discharge line.
Safety relief valves (in services such as steam, etc.) that discharge to the
atmosphere should have tail pipes extended to a minimum of 8 feet
(2.5m)above the nearest operating platform that is within a radius of 25
feet (7.5m). This requirement may be waived, provided a review of the
proposed arrangement indicates that it does not present a hazard. Review
all pressure and safety relief valves discharging flammable vapors to the
atmosphere within 100 feet (30m) of fired equipment for vapor
dissipation.
Pressure and Safety relief valves, 1-1/2 inch (40mm) and larger, should
only be installed with the stem and body vertical position.
Thermal relief valves, 1 inch (25mm) and smaller, may be installed with
the stem and body in a horizontal position when it is impractical to install
it in the vertical position.

Roads
Major process plants normally have three classes of roads. They might be
called Primary roads, Secondary roads and Maintenance access ways.

Clearance or distance required

Side or
Road type Vertical Width Shoulder
off road
21'-0" 20'-0" 5'-0" 20'-0"
Primary
(6.5m) (6m) (1.5m) (6m)
12'-0" 12'-0" 10'-0"
Secondary (*) 3'-0" (1m)
(3.7m) 3.7m) (3m)
Maintenance 10'-0" 10'-0" (not 5'-0"
access (3m) (3m) req'd) (1.5m)
(*) Normally secondary plant roads may be used as tube pull areas.

Safety Access
Provide a primary means of egress (continuous and unobstructed way of
exit travel) from any point in any building, elevated equipment, or
structure. A secondary means of escape should be provided where the
travel distance from the furthest point on a platform to an exit exceeds 75
feet (25m).
Access to elevated platforms should be by permanent ladder. Safety
cages should be provided on all ladders over 15'-0" (4.5m)
The need for stairways should be determined by platform elevation,
number of items requiring attention, observation and adjustment, and the
frequency of items.
Ladder safety devices such as cable reel safety belts and harnesses, may
be investigated for use on boiler, flare stack, water tank, and chimney
ladders over 20 feet (6m) in unbroken lengths in lieu of cage protection
and landing platforms.

Sample Connections
Locate all sample connections so they are readily accessible from grade or
platform.
In general, where liquid samples are taken in a bottle, locate the sample
outlet above a drain funnel to permit free running of the liquid before
sampling.
Hot samples should be provided with a cooler.

Sleeper Pipe Supports

Normally, route piping in offsite areas on sleepers. Stagger the sleeper
elevations to permit ease of crossing or change of direction at
intersections. Flat turns may be used when entire sleeper ways change
direction.

Spectacle Blinds
Locate spectacle blinds to be accessible from grade or platform. Blinds
located in a pipeway are considered accessible. Blinds that weigh over
100 lbs (45kg) should be accessible by mobile equipment. Where this is
not possible, provide davits or hitching points.
Closely grouped flanges with blinds should be staggered.

Steam Traps
Locate all steam traps at all pocketed low points and at dead ends of
steam headers. Also, provide traps periodically on excessively long runs
of steam piping, for sufficient condensate removal, and to ensure dry
quality steam at destination. Steam traps should be accessible from grade
or a platform. Steam traps located in pipeways should be considered
accessible by portable ladder.
Tankage
Locate any tankage containing hydrocarbon or other combustible fluids or
gasses a minimum distance of 250'-0" (115m) from any process unit, rail
loading facility or truck loading facility.
The minimum spacing of offsite storage tanks and dike requirements
should be in accordance with the latest edition of the National Fire
Protection Association, Code No. 30, and OSHA part 1910.106 (b), where
applicable.

Temperature Instruments
Locate temperature test wells, temperature Indicators and thermocouples
to be accessible from grade or a portable ladder. Those located in a
pipeway should be considered accessible by a portable ladder. Those
located over 15 feet (7m) above high point of finished surface should be
accessible from a platform or permanent ladder.
Locate all local temperature indicators (TI) should be visible from grade,
ladder, or platform.

Towers (See Vertical Vessel)

Utility Stations
Provide and locate utility stations with water, steam, or air as indicated
below:
All areas should be reachable with a single 50 foot (20m) length of hose
from the station.
Provide water outlets at grade level only, in pump areas, and near
equipment that should be water washed during maintenance.
Provide steam outlets at grade level only in areas subject to product
spills, and near equipment that requires steaming out during
maintenance.
Provide air outlets in areas where air-driven tools are used such as at
exchangers, both ends of heaters, compressor area, top platform of
reactors, and on columns at each manway.
Hose, hose rack, and hose connections should be provided by the client or
be purchased to match the clients existing hardware.

Valve Handwheel Clearance

Clearance between the outside of hand wheel and any obstruction
(knuckle clearance) should be 0'- 3" (80mm)

Valve Operation
Locate operating valves requiring attention, observation, or adjustment
during normal plant operation (noted on the P&IDs) so they may be
within easy reach from grade, platform, or permanent ladder as follows:
- 2" (50mm) and smaller may be located reachable from a ladder.
- 3" (80mm) and larger must be reachable and operable on a platform
Operating valves with the bottom of handwheel is over 7 feet
(2.1m)above high point of finished surface or operating platform may be
chain-operated.
The centerline of handwheel or handles on block valves used for shutdown
only, located less than 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finished
surface, and those located in pipeways, may be accessible by portable
ladder.
The centerline of handwheel or handles on block valves used for shutdown
only and located over 15 feet (4.5m) above high point of finished surface,
except those located in pipeways, should be operable from permanent
ladder or platform.
In general, keep valve handwheels, handles, and stems out of operating
aisles. Where this is not practical, elevate the valve to 6'- 6" (plus or
minus 3 inches) clear from high point of finished surface to bottom of
handwheel.

Vents and Drains

The P&IDs should indicate, locate and size all vents, drains, and bleeds
required for process reasons and plant operation.
Provide plugged hydrostatic vents and drains without valves at the high
and low points of piping.
Provide valved bleeds at control valve stations, level switches, level
controllers, and gage glasses per job standard.

Vertical Vessel (Column) Piping and Platforms

Locate vertical vessels in the equipment rows on each side of the pipeway
in a logical order based on the process and cost. The largest vessel in
each equipment row should be used to set the centerline location of all
vertical vessels in that equipment row. This largest vertical vessel should
be set back from the pipe rack a distance that allows for; any pumps, the
pump piping, an operation aisle between the pump piping and any piping
in front of the vessel, the edge of the vessel foundation and half the
diameter of this the largest vessel. Set all other vertical vessels in this
same equipment row on the same centerline.
Provide a clear access area at grade for vessels with removable internals
or for vessels requiring loading and unloading of catalyst or packing.
Provide vessel davits for handling items such as internals and relief valves
on vessels exceeding a height of 30 feet (9m) above the high point of the
finished surface, and on vessels not accessible by mobile crane. Orient
davits to allow the lowering of appurtenances into the access area.

Walkways
Walkways should have a 2'-6' (1m) horizontal clearance (not necessarily
in a straight
line) and headroom of 7'- 0" (2.1m)

 Introduction
 Purpose of Piping Isometrics
 Brief Overview of Practices
 Procedure
  Current Practices

Introduction:
The word 'Isometric' has its origins in Greek which is the case with many
English words. It is derived from Greek word 'Isometros', of equal
measure (the objects measured using a fixed unit). It is one of the most
important outputs, if not the most important output of overall Piping
effort. Isometric is a comprehensive document that holds information that
is used by different people at varying stages of a project.

Purpose of Piping Isometrics:

The primary purposes of piping isometrics are enlisted below:
1. For preliminary Bulk Material Take Off (MTO)
2. For Stress Analysis
3. Issued For Construction
The level of isometric details may vary on the basis of their purpose.

Brief Overview of Practices:

Preparation of piping isometrics has seen the practices change as the
tools for generating them have been and are changing. Before advent of
computers from piping perspective, these sketches were prepared
manually by skilled hands, which meant assiduous work on board. The
arrival of computers (and Computer Aided Design), shifted most of this
work from board to computers. The work was in 2-Dimensional view and
still 2-D tools are used for small projects and for annotations in some
cases. Now there are various 3-Dimensional design tools which are widely
used to create the design. These tools have features that generate
isometric, once the model is 'built'.

In today's world, the means of selection of the method for preparing the
final isometrics (i.e. by hand / 2 - D / 3 - D), is driven by cost. However,
every piping designer needs to know how to draw a proper manual piping
isometric because the need for an isometric is often influenced by location
or time. Location, sometimes a project is done in the field (at the jobsite)
and is therefore all done manually. Time, for many of the "in the office"
CAD based projects, the requirement for an early preliminary material
take-off (Alloy, Large O.D., Lined pipe, Jacketed pipe, etc.) is before the
electronic model is even started, means that piping designers must be
able to draw manual isometric sketches.

Procedure:
The minimum inputs for isometric sketching are:
1. Plot Plan
2. Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P & ID)
3. Mechanical Data Sheets (MDS)
In some of the cases, more detailed Piping Layout will be available.
Before getting into the details of the different requirements, it is
imperative to identify and define the sections of a typical isometric sheet.
The isometric arrangement may differ from company to company based
as per internal standards. But, it will have following details on it typically
as shown in schematic below.

Now let us look into the detailed break-up of the sections mentioned
above.

1. North: The isometric always indicates Plant North which may or may
not be collinear with Geographic North. This is one of the better examples
of common sense. The Plant North is normalized with respect to
Geographic North so the sketching does not require unnecessary and
awkward orientation and angles.
2. Isometric Drawing: The Isometric sketch is drawn here.
3. Bill of Material: The Material Take Off for the sketch on the left hand
side reflects here.
4. Notes & Symbols: Weld symbols used on the isometric; Notes
regarding Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) etc. and Project related
notes are covered.
5. Line Data: Process data such as Line Number, Pipe Class
(Specification), Design and Operating Temperature / Pressure, Insulation
and Tracing etc. are covered here.
6. Project Nameplate: A detail indicating the Client, the Engineering
Contractor's Name and the Engineering Contractor's Logo and the project
Name is placed. Alongside this, the Document number, Purpose of Issue
(Information / Construction) and appropriate revision is indicated.
The above details cover most of the essential information that an
isometric should possess. However, requirements to provide additional
data might arise due to client or statutory requirement of the specific
country or region.

Now that we have seen the contents of isometrics, let us see how the
emphasis on different sections of isometric shifts as the purpose changes.

Preliminary Bulk Material Take Off:

This activity is done at the initial stages of the project. Since the data
available is preliminary, the activity needs sound engineering judgment
and experience. This Material Take Off is used preliminarily by
Procurement and Piping departments. So it is important to keep in mind:

 The quantities for procurement shall approximate closely so that

they align with the future deltas (Take off top-ups required) of
materials.
 The considerations shall be reasonable from Piping Design point of
view. Otherwise, it will lead to large differences in Initial Bulk MTO
and IFC stage MTO.

Therefore the isometrics shall be prepared with the following

considerations:

 They should cover major components and the holds as per P & ID.
 The scope of supply should be confirmed and marked clearly.
 The details of Typical Assemblies should be prepared and referenced
so the sketching duration is reduced with adequate accuracy.

Stress Analysis:

The stress critical lines are analyzed for flexibility. These isometrics are
issued to Stress Engineer. Incomplete information may result in increased
shuttling of document between the designer and Stress Engineer. For this
activity, isometrics shall be prepared keeping in mind:

 The Line Design conditions i.e. Pressure, Temperature and Pipe

Class (Material) shall be provided.
 Possible locations for supports, anchors and guides shall be duly
marked.
 Equipment connection references for nozzle loading check shall be
provided.
 Complete system sketches shall be provided i.e. all interconnected
lines comprising a single stress system.
Issued For Construction:

This is the most important stage in the isometric's life cycle. The
document is issued with external revision. It is used for fabrication and
erection. So every detail becomes significant in addition to the
requirements covered in above point's i.e.

 Shop and Field demarcation

 Each detail with respect to P& ID, MDS and Plot Plan taken care of.
 References:

a. Equipment Connection
b. Continuation Reference
c. Grid or Co-ordinates

 Reference Documents :

a. P & ID Number
b. Piping Plan Number

 Dimensions and Elevations

The IFC stage isometrics are issued to the Construction Contractors. The
construction site is abuzz with all sorts of Shop and Field activities. The
fabrication and erection at site sometimes requires changes be done to
the IFC isometric to suit the actual site conditions.

The isometric with such 'Field Revisions' is called as 'As Built'. The 'As
Built' document remains in archives to serve as reference point for future
modifications.

Current Practices:

Now that we have seen the relevant points pertaining to the preparation
of isometrics, let us see the current practices.

Preparing an isometric by hand could give you a potion of patience as you

have to pause for a moment to make a mental picture before you actually
start sketching.

However, the availability of modern day tools means preparing and

processing the isometric in its full 3D electronic form.

Nowadays, there are many 3-D Design modeling softwares that help you
build a virtual 3-D Model. These softwares come with in-built capabilities
to generate isometrics.
With proper administration, the interfacing with other softwares such as
Reviewing (e.g. Navisworks), Stress (e.g. CAESAR-II), 2-D (e.g.
AutoCAD) and Shop (e.g. SpoolGen) has become a part of modern
practices that is helping in faster and more efficient designing.

In essence, the practices for preparing the isometrics will keep changing
with the evolving technology and yet its core purpose and level of detail
will remain intact!

Section - II
C: Introduction to Vessels and Vessel
Orientation
By: James O. Pennock
The question on many minds may be "Why does Piping do Vessel Orientation?" We can answer that
question two ways. The first answer would be, because of the traditional role of Piper and the content of
the vessel orientation activity itself. The traditional role of the Piper has always been the bringing
together of multi-discipline information to create the plant layout and piping plans. The activity of vessel
orientation has the same multi-discipline focus.

The second way to answer the question is to ask "If not the Piper, then
who?" Civil? Structural? Electrical? Instrumentation? No, they are not
logical candidates. Structural? The structural engineer does engineer the
support for some vessels but they do not truly design the support.
Process? While the process engineer does have a great deal of interest
and input in the workings of a vessel, their interest is more from a
function and performance focus. Vessels? Why doesn't the vessel
engineer do the vessel orientation? Or better yet, why doesn't the Vendor
do the vessel orientation? The response to that is in all of the non-vessel
factors that influence the vessel orientation activity. What are non-vessel
factors?

Non-vessel factors include:

A. Site -- Vessel orientation is influenced by where the vessel is located
on the site
B. Relationship to related equipment -- Proper vessel orientation must
consider the location and method of connection to related equipment
C. Support -- Vessel orientation of many vessels includes the method of
support
D. P&ID interpretation -- The person responsible for vessel orientation
must be very proficient in reading and understanding a P&ID
E. Internals to external object relationships -- Internals effect the nozzle
locations that in turn connect to the piping. The piping is subject to
thermal expansion, and must be supported. The piping must meet all the
process requirements from the P&ID, and must be in compliance with the
Plant Layout Design Specification. The piping must also be supported, and
must meet the all the applicable Code criteria, etc.
F. Operations and Maintenance -- Vessel orientation must be compatible
with the requirements of the operators and the people who must maintain
the vessels.

This brings us back to answer number one. Vessel orientation requires the
bringing together of and the coordination of data and requirements from
many disciplines. Piping in their Plant Layout role is already functioning in
this mode. Most major engineering and design firms (in our Industry)
have found that Piping Design is the most logical and most efficient group
for developing complex vessel orientations.

The ideal scenario for the development of a vessel orientation is like a

chain. The links of the chain are like the steps required completing the
finished design. With the ideal scenario you would not start step two until
step one is completed and so on. The ideal circumstances means that the
Plot Plan has been firmed up and approved, the P&IDs have been
developed, reviewed, and issued approved for design (AFD). It means
that the unit piping transposition has been developed. It means that
Process has completed their input to the vessel datasheet and Vessels has
completed their preliminary work.

Occasionally, the piping designer has been required to initiate a vessel

orientation under other than the most ideal of circumstances. In some
cases the vessel orientation has been started before the P&IDs were
ready for the first Client P&ID review. Starting Vessel orientation before
the source documents are ready will expose the job to risks, errors,
recycle and increased costs.

As much as we try to avoid this situation, it can still happen. Premature

starts in vessel orientation are due to the requirement for early purchase
of vessels identified as long delivery. The Construction schedule of any
project is based on the delivery of key equipment and materials. The
construction schedule in turn will impact the start-up schedule. Once the
Client has awarded the project, they are anxious to get their plant "on-
stream" as soon as possible. The sooner they get on-stream, the sooner
they can recover the capitol investment and see the expected profits.

The delivery time for vessels such as: alloy reactors, heavy wall high
pressure vessels, or crude vacuum columns often take more than a year
from PO (purchase order) release to shipment. In the past, one way to
expedite the overall schedule, the Client has pre-purchased the vessels
prior to the award of the project. There is a potential risk for increased
cost in this scenario also.

Under normal circumstances a Vessel fabricator will not normally do any

rolling and cutting of plate until the order has reached a certain
milestone. They will need the final checked, corrected and approved
vessel drawings. This includes all the nozzles, pipe supports, pipe guides,
ladders, platforms, etc. The Vendor's fabrication and delivery performance
clock does not start ticking until they get the drawings back approved.

A project with a fast track schedule or pre-purchased vessels will put a lot
of pressure on the piping design group. Piping should normally have time
to properly develop the Plot Plan, the P&ID transposition, the other
related piping layouts, in order to come up with the best vessel
orientations for economics, operability, and maintenance.

As piping designers you owe it to the Client, your company, as well as to

yourself to do the best job you know how. This philosophy is true when
doing vessel orientations as with any other piping design activity. You
should check into all aspects of the vessel piping and the orientation. You
need to start by collecting, verifying, and using the proper information.

During Plot Plan development, the piping designer must take into
consideration many items that can also have a bearing on the vessel
other than the orientation itself.

Such items include:

Lay-down space -- Prior to erection, tall columns require space for final
assembly
Erection equipment -- The cranes (or other lifting devices) planned to lift
and set the vessels require vast amounts of space
Plant road limitations; Rack heights, shoulder clearances, logistics

Special vessels such as Reactors have several factors, which should be

kept in mind. The most important one, of course, is to keep the alloy
piping as short as possible by locating the Reactors near the Heaters.
Catalyst handling facilities is another important consideration. This is true
whether the catalyst is to be loaded by crane or by vessel mounted
monorail. The removal of spent catalyst, usually by tote bin, truck, or
conveyor, is another space consideration.
We all need to remember space is money to the Client. Wise use of plot
space can save the Client money by reducing installation costs and
operating costs.

Vessel Configurations

Vessels come in a wide variety of configurations. The variety is expressed

in their sizes, shape, and function. They also will have a wide range of
pressure, temperature and metallurgy. This list is only intended to
highlight the main examples.

Vertical Vessels with no internals

(A.k.a.: Tanks, Drums, and Pots)
Example: Mix Tank, Air Receiver, Volume Bottle, Flash Drums, Fuel Gas
K. O. Pot, Feed Surge Drum, and Dump Tank
Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be small (< 24" diameter x
3' - 0" T-T) to medium sized (24"dia to 48" diameter x < 10" - 0" T-T).
They may be mounted to the support surface (grade, floor, or platform)
via a traditional vessel skirt, attached legs, or lugs. When located at grade
this vessel may be mounted directly on the concrete paving or floor
depending on vessel weight and soil conditions.

Vertical Vessels with simple Internals

Simple internals such as Demister Pads
Example: Feed Knockout Drum, Separator Drum, Filter, and Coalescer
Drum
Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be medium (24"dia to 48"
diameter x < 10" - 0" T-T) to large sized (Over 48" diameter and over 10'
- 0" T-T). They may be mounted to the support surface (grade or
platforms) via a traditional straight vessel skirt, a flared skirt, attached
legs, or lugs. When located at grade this vessel will normally be mounted
on an octagon foundation.

Vertical Trayed Vessels with straight sides

Example: Fractionator, Contactor, and Stripper
Discussion: This type of vessel can be as small as two or three feet in
diameter or may be very large at 20' - 0" or more in diameter. The
diameter, height, number of trays, type of trays along with the other
related items depends on the function. These vessels will normally be
supported at grade via a traditional vessel skirt. This vessel will normally
be supported on the traditional 9" to 1' - 0" high octagon concrete
foundation.

Vertical Trayed Vessels - Coke Bottle (two diameters w/

transition)
Example: Splitter, Stabilizer, Lean Oil Still, and Absorber Column
Discussion: This type of vessel will have two diameters. The Coke Bottle
Vessel is a multi purpose vessel. The larger section will have different
internals and function differently than the smaller section. The bottom of
the Column will normally be the larger diameter with a conical transition
piece to join the two. This type vessel will normally be mounted at grade
via a traditional vessel skirt and be supported on an octagon foundation.
Variation: A variation of this type vessel is the Inverted Coke Bottle. The
Inverted Coke Bottle Vessel will normally have a short skirt at the
transition point and be mounted on an elevated platform in a structure.
The smaller (lower) section will hang down inside the structure.

Vertical Packed Tower Vessels

Example: Dryers, Feed Purifiers,
Discussion: these types of vessel will normally be medium sized. Packing
may be a manufactured mesh or a granulated natural material. The
location and orientation of this type of vessel must consider the loading
and removal of the packing. These vessels may operate at ambient,
temperatures, the lower normal process temperatures, or at high
temperatures. These vessels may be mounted to the support surface
(grade or platforms) via a traditional vessel skirt, attached legs, or lugs.
When located at grade this vessel will normally be mounted on an
octagon foundation.

Vertical (Refinery Type) Reactor Vessels

Example: Reactor, Converters
Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be medium to large sized,
high pressure (> 500 psig) and high temperature (> 600o F). These
vessels will be filled with one or more layers or beds of various materials
that will act as a catalyst. The sidewalls and heads on this type of Reactor
may be five to seven inches thick. Refinery Reactors may be mounted to
the support surface on a short vessel skirt, on lugs, or on legs. The
bottom head and nozzle must be elevated to allow for removal of the
catalyst. The location and orientation of this type of vessel must consider
the loading and removal of the catalyst. These vessels will normally
operate at very high process temperatures and will be located in close
proximity to fired heaters.

Vertical (PharmBio & Fine Chemical Type) Reactor Vessels

Example: Reactor, Mix Tank, and Cook Tank
Discussion: This type of vessel will normally have a diameter and height
of similar dimensions. The ratio of nozzles to vessel size will be very high.
These vessels will have added complexities with the requirements for
mixers and jacketing. These vessels will normally be mounted to the
support surface on lugs, a collar, or on legs. These vessels are normally
located on an upper level of an enclosed structure or building. The bottom
head and nozzle must be elevated to allow for operator access, gravity
flow to other equipment, or critical pump NPSH requirements.

Vertical Vessels - Bins and Silos

Example: Agricultural Product Storage, Dry Chemical Storage
Discussion: Bins and Silos are used for dry material storage. These
vessels are normally thin walled, operate at atmospheric pressure, and
made of materials other than carbon steel. These vessels will normally
have a cone bottom. The configuration of the cone is based on the angle
of repose of the commodity to be stored. These vessels may be supported
via skirt, legs, or lug mounted in an elevated structure. These vessels
may have flat, cone, or dome roofs.

Horizontal Vessels at grade

Example: Condensate Collection Drum, Separator, and Settler Drum
Discussion: This type of vessel will normally be small to medium sized.
They may be mounted to the support surface (grade or platforms) on
extended vessel saddles. The extended saddle allows for clearance for
bottom connections at a lower cost. When located at grade this vessel
may be mounted on a foundation or the paving (depending on vessel
weight and soil conditions).

Horizontal Vessels - Elevated without Boots

Example: Steam Drum, and Feed Surge Drum
Discussion: these types of vessel will normally be medium to large sized.
They will be mounted to the support surface (foundation or platforms) on
traditional vessel saddles. When located near grade this vessel will
normally be mounted on an elevated foundation. The NPSH requirements
of the related pumps are critical to setting of the support elevation.

Horizontal Vessels - Elevated with Boots

Example: Stripper Receiver, Accumulator, Interstage K. O. Drum, and
Flare K. O. Drum
Discussion: these types of vessel will normally be medium to large sized.
They will be mounted to the support surface (foundation or platforms) on
traditional vessel saddles. When located near grade this vessel will
normally be mounted on an elevated foundation. Access is normally
required for the Boot operating valves and instruments. The NPSH
requirements of the related pumps are critical to setting of the support
elevation.

Horizontal - Underground or Pit Vessels

Example: Dump Tank, Kill Tank, and Hazardous Material Storage Tank
Discussion: This type of vessel may be small, medium, or large in size.
They will be mounted to the support surface on traditional vessel saddles.
When located at grade this vessel will normally be mounted on a low
foundation. When located in a pit, the pit size must allow for safety,
operation, and maintenance. Pit mounted installations may also require
sumps and drainage pumps. Underground (buried) installations may
require double wall tanks with leak detection provisions.

API Storage Tanks

Example: Feed Storage, Intermediate Product Storage, Off-Spec Product
Storage, Finished Product Storage, Batch Storage, Fire (or other) Water
Storage
Discussion: These are the traditional Tank Farm tanks. There are a
number of sub-types, which include Cone Roof Atmospheric; Cone Roof
with captured venting, Open Floating Roof, Enclosed Floating Roof, and
Double Wall LNG Storage Tanks. These tanks have specific location,
support, piping connection, safety, and access criteria based on the
commodity to be stored.

Special
Example: Spheres, Spheroids, and Bullets
Discussion: These vessel types have special location and orientation
criteria and should be handled on an Ad Hoc basis.
Vessel Supports
There is a wide variety in the methods used to support vessels.
There include:
a. Skirts
b. Saddles
c. Ring Girders
d. Lugs
e. Legs
f. Portables on Casters
g. Pads
h. Direct Bury
Each of these support types may also have variations

Vertical Vessel Components

The pressure containment elements of the vessel are based of the process
requirements for pressure, temperature, commodity, corrosion rate, plant
life criteria, and the applicable Codes.
The Pressure containment components include the following:
a) Shell
b) Heads
c) Boot
d) Transitions (Coke Bottle Vessels)
e) Nozzles

The other components include the following:

a) Trays
b) Internal piping
c) Support
d) Load Handling Devices
e) Pipe supports and Guides
f) Platforms, Ladders, and Cages
g) Code Name Plate

Vertical Vessel Terminology

Normally vessel components are described using common terms such as
shell, head, nozzle, and support. Some vessels will also have special
terms based on function.
Typical special terms include the following:
a) Flash Section -- The area or zone of the fractionation vessel where the
primary feed enters the vessel.
b) Fractionation Section -- The portion of the vessel that includes the
trays.
c) Stripping Section -- A place in the vessel that includes the introduction
of supplementary heat such as high temperature steam
d) Surge Section -- The bottom portion of the vessel that normally
includes the main outlet nozzle which is connected to the bottoms pumps.
Shell
The shell of the vertical trayed vessel will have many variables including
the following:
a) Wall thickness
b) Metallurgy (May have different material at top vs. bottom)
c) Layers (single layer vs. multiple layer or cladding)
d) PWHT (Post weld heat treat) requirements for all or part
e) Vacuum reinforcement rings
f) Insulation support rings

Heads -- Top and Bottom

Heads for vessels will include the following shapes:
a) Dished -- The Dished head is a flatter version of the Semi-Elliptical
b) Semi-Elliptical -- The traditional type used on process plant pressure
vessels (2:1 SE Head)
c) Spherical -- This head is sometimes referred to as a round head or
Hemispherical-head

The top head and the bottom head may be the same shape but they will
have some differences.
The differences for the top head include:
a) Same material as top of Shell
b) May be thicker material for reinforcing
c) May be thinner material

The differences for the bottom head include:

a) Same material as bottom of Shell
b) May be thicker material for reinforcing
c) May be thinner material

Transitions
The cone or transition piece for regular and inverted Coke Bottle vessels
may come in the following shapes:
Flat side -- The cone is cut from flat plate and formed to a simple cone.
There is no knuckle radius at the top or bottom of the cone. The
connection to the straight shell of the vessel is an angled weld. Usually
there is a reinforcing ring on the shell very close to the shell/cone
junction.
Shaped side -- The cone is cut from flat plate and rolled to a shaped cone.
There is a knuckle radius at the top and bottom of the cone. The cone has
a straight tangent at the top and bottom to match the shells. The
connection to the straight shell of the vessel is a common butt weld.

Nozzles

Overhead Vapor Outlet Nozzles

The overhead vapor outlet nozzles on a vertical vessel can have some
latitude when it comes to attachment location. The attachment connection
can be direct to the top head of the vessel or may be from the side. When
the connection is from the side there will normally be a pipe inside the
vessel angled up to the top head area. Small vapor outlet nozzles from
small diameter vessels can be located out the side of the vessel and still
be cost effective. Large diameter vapor outlet nozzles on large diameter
vessels will be more cost effective if attached to the top head. The line is
then looped over to the selected pipe drop position to go down the vessel.

Heater/Vessel Feed Transfer (Feed Inlet) Nozzles

All vertical fractionation vessels will have a feed inlet nozzle. This feed
nozzle is special and critical on some vessels. Refinery Crude columns and
Vacuum columns are examples that have this type of nozzle. This nozzle
installation is characterized by the following:

a) Attached line originated at a fired heater

b) High temperature
c) High velocity
d) Mixed phase flow
e) May require internals such as a distributor pipe or impingement plate

A Feed Transfer nozzle will normally be the "Key" (Genesis) nozzle for any
large fractionation vessel. Normally any side inlet orientation is possible
but in most cases this will then dictate the tray orientation.

Liquid (secondary) Inlet Nozzles

A normal liquid feed nozzle will not have the same complexities as the
Feed Transfer type. This nozzle installation is characterized by the
following:
a) Attached line originated at an exchanger
b) Hot but not overly high on the temperature scale
c) Some may have potential for mixed phase flow
d) Normal line velocity
e) May require vessel internals such as a distributor or inlet pipe
f) Watch Instrument connections in relationship to Inlets and reboiler
returns.

Reflux Nozzles

A normal reflux nozzle will not have the same complexities as other
nozzles.
This nozzle installation is characterized by the following:

a) Attached line originated at a pump

b) Low on the temperature scale
c) All liquid flow
d) Normal line velocity
e) May require internals such as a distributor or inlet pipe. Multiple pass
trays will require a more complex distributor or inlet pipe than a single
pass.

Draw-Off Nozzles

The purpose of this nozzle is to draw-off or remove the primary product.

They are also used to Draw-off a secondary product to side stream
stripper. May be installed with a sump to remove unwanted water in the
process stream.
This nozzle installation is characterized by the following:

a) Located in the downcomer area of the column

b) May be in a sump
c) May be a larger size than the normal attached line size (Some of the
initial vertical drop will be the larger size)
d) All liquid flow
e) Normal line velocity May require internals if multiple pass trays

Bottom Reboiler Feed Nozzles

The liquid outlet nozzle will normally be in the center of the bottom vessel
head.
This nozzle installation is characterized by the following:

a) Located in the bottom of the surge section of the column

b) May be a very large size and all liquid flow
c) Normally very low line velocity

Side Reboiler Feed Nozzles

This is also a potential Key Nozzle. The liquid outlet nozzle must be
oriented in the same quadrant as the bottom downcomer.
This nozzle installation is characterized by the following:

d) Located in the downcomer area of the column

e) Will be in a sump
f) May be a larger size than the normal attached line size (Some of the
initial vertical drop will be the larger size)
g) All liquid flow
h) Normal line velocity
i) Relationship to elevation of associated Reboiler is critical to nozzle
elevation and internals

Side Reboiler Vapor Return Nozzles

One of the primary issues with this nozzle is the orientation relative to the
other internal items and nozzles. If not placed in the right place the
velocity of the return can blow liquid out of a seal pan or can affect the
readings of any instruments attached to the far wall.
This nozzle installation is characterized by the following:

a) Attached line originated at a thermo-siphon or kettle type reboiler

b) High temperature
c) Moderately high velocity
d) All vapor flow
e) May require internals such as a pipe or impingement plate
f) Relationship to elevation of associated Reboiler is critical to nozzle
elevation and internals

Bottoms Out and Drain Nozzles

The bottoms-out nozzle is normally a pump suction source. The standard

type is located in the bottom head then piped through the skirt with a
drain nozzle off the bottom out line nozzle. This would be a combination
nozzle. A variation of the bottoms nozzle is the siphon or winter type. This
type may be used (with process approval) when bottom clearance is a
problem.

Note: It is common industry practice to avoid locating any flanged

connections inside the vessel support skirt. All flanges are subject to
leaks, and vessel skirts are classified as a confined space.

Level Instrument Nozzles

Extreme care must be used when locating level instrument nozzles. There
are access and clearances problems that must be considered on the
outside of the vessel. There are sensing location and turbulence problems
associated with the inside of the vessel.
These nozzle installations are characterized by the following:

a) Must be attached in the same pressure volume of the vessel

b) Lower nozzle in liquid of the surge section, upper nozzle in vapor space
c) Located in static area (or with stilling well)
d) Requires external access for operation and maintenance

Pressure Instrument Nozzles

Pressure readings are normally taken in the vapor area of a vessel.

Pressure connections shall be located in the top head area, 3" to 6" under
a tray, or well above any liquid level in bottom section.
These nozzle installations are characterized by the following:

a) Located in a vapor space of the vessel

b) Requires external access for operation and maintenance
Temperature Instrument Nozzles

Temperature readings are normally taken in the liquid area of a vessel.

Temperature connections shall be located 2" to 3" above the top surface
of a tray, in the downcomer, or well below any liquid level in bottom
section.
These nozzle installations are characterized by the following:

a) Located in liquid in the downcomer area

b) Requires external access for operation and maintenance
c) Interference with internals

Vapor temperature readings may be required for some situations. When

required the preferred location is in the downcomer area half way
between the two trays.

Tangential or Hillside connections may be required due to the thermowell

length or to accommodate access from the ladder and platform
arrangement. With the Process Engineer's approval investigate the
possibility of raising or lowering the temperature point one tray for better
ladder and platform arrangement.

Steam-Out Nozzles

Process plant vessels that contain hydrocarbon or other volatile fluids or

vapors will normally have a Steam-Out Nozzle. This nozzle has a number
of options such as:

a) A simple blind flanged valve on the nozzle -- After the plant is shut
down by Operations, the maintenance group would remove the blind
flange from the valve. They then attach a temporary flange fitted with a
hose coupling and proceed to steam out the vessel by connecting a hose
from a utility station.
b) A blind flanged valve and hard piped steam line configured with a
steam block valve and a swing ell.
c) A fully hard piped connection from a steam source. This method would
have double block valves, a bleed, and a spec blind for positive shutoff.

The vessel steam-out nozzle should be located near the surge section
(bottom) Manhole on vertical vessels.

Manholes

Manholes are also considered a nozzle. They just do not have any pipe
attached to them. They are however, a very complex piece of the vessel
orientation puzzle. The types of manholes normally relate to the method
of cover handling provided.
Manholes come in the following types:
a) With Hinge -- A Manhole may be hinged for side mount, for top mount,
or for bottom mount
b) With Davit -- A Manhole may have davits for side mount or top mount
only
c) Plain -- A Plain Manhole may be for side mount, for top mount, or for
bottom mount

The manhole orientation in top or non-trayed section of a vertical vessel

is somewhat flexible. Normally any orientation is possible; however, the
orientation of the manhole should be checked to insure that the entry
path is not blocked by any internals.
The Manhole may be located in the top head on large diameter vessels if
there is a platform that is required for other items. Top Manholes on large
diameter vessels have their built in good points and bad points. The good
point is that during shutdown the open manhole provides for better
venting. It also allows for a straight method for removal and reinstallation
of the trays. The bad point is that ladder access must be provided down
to the top tray, and the manhole is competing with the other nozzles for
the space on the vessel head.

Orientation for manholes that are located in the trayed section of the
vessel is more complicated. The location of between the tray manholes
has a number of restrictions. These restrictions include the type of trays
and the tray spacing. The first choice for the location of a manhole is
between the down comers. The last choice is in the downcomer space, but
behind the downcomer. The downcomer would be fitted with a removable
panel to allow further access into the vessel. The location to be avoided is
above a downcomer where there is the potential for falling down in the
downcomer space and injury. It would be better to seek approval to move
the manhole up or down one tray than placement over a downcomer.

Manhole orientation in the surge section of a vessel is not as restrictive.

The surge section of a vessel is the bottom portion that, during operation
will contain a large volume of liquid. Any orientation is possible for a
manhole in this section. However, the location of all manholes should be
in the back half of the vessel away from the pipeway. The surge section
may have a large baffle plate bisecting the diameter of the vessel and
extending vertically many feet. A removable plate or hatch may be
installed in this baffle (by vessels) to allow access to the far side. The
vessel orientation of the manhole should not hit the baffle or be located
so close to the baffle that entrance is obstructed.

Trays

The type of trays, the number of trays, and the number of passes are not
the specific responsibility of the piping layout designer. However, there is
the need to know factor. A common understanding of terminology will
improve communications and prevent errors. The common tray parts are:
a) Tray (support) Ring -- The tray support ring (or Tray ledge) is
technically not a part of the tray itself. The tray support ring is only there
to support the tray. If there are no trays, then there is no need for tray
support rings, therefore tray rings are linked to the trays. Tray support
rings are normally a simple donut shaped strip welded to the inside of the
vessel. They could also be in the shape of an inverted "L" welded to the
vessel wall. Problems arise when the Designer does not allow for the tray
support device.
b) Trays (or Tray Deck) -- One or more sections, consisting of plates,
forming a horizontal obstruction throughout all or part of the vessel cross
section. The trays will normally be constructed to form flow patterns (one
or more) called passes. The purpose of tray deck is to provide a flow path
for the process commodity and contain the fractionation or separation
device.
c) Weir -- A low dam (on a tray) to maintain a liquid level on the tray
d) Downcomer -- The primary liquid passage area from one (higher) tray
to another (lower) tray
e) Valves -- Tray hardware device
f) Bubble Caps -- Tray hardware device
g) Draw off - A way to remove liquid from the vessel
h) Trough - A way to collect and move liquid from one point to another
i) Riser - A device to channel vapor from one lower point to a higher point
j) Seal Pans - A device (with a liquid seal) that prevents vapors from
passing
k) Beams & Trestles - Devices that support trays (or other types of
internals) in very large diameter vessels
l) Baffles - A separation device inside a vessel
m) Chimneys - (See Riser)

Tray Pass Patterns

The trays and the related down comers can be arranged in a wide verity
of patterns.
Typical Tray arrangements are:

a) Cross Flow, Single Pass -- (Common) this tray pass arrangement has
one feed point, one flow direction, and one downcomer. The single pass
tray will normally be used on small diameter vessels and the smaller
diameter of a Coke Bottle vessel.
b) Cross-Flow, Multiple Pass -- (Common) the multiple pass trays will
come in two pass, three pass, four pass, and on and on. These will
normally be found in the larger diameter vessels. Multiple pass trays
require multiple feed and draw off arrangements. The more passes, the
more complex the orientation problems.
c) Reverse Flow, Single Pass -- (Rare)
d) Radial Flow -- (Rare)
e) Circumferential Flow -- (Rare)
f) Cascade Flow -- (Rare)

The single pass tray will have a single downcomer. The 2, 3, or 4-pass
tray will have the same number of down comers as passes. The number
of passes (number of down comers) will have a big effect on the
orientation. Some towers may have more than one Tray pass
configuration. They may have single pass in the top Trays and two-pass
Trays in the bottom. The change from one pass configuration to another
is chance for error. The alignment of the single pass tray will normally be
perpendicular to the two pass trays.

Tray Types

There is what would be considered "Standard" Trays, and there are also
"High efficiency Trays".

a) "Standard" Trays -- This tray will have an open downcomer with no

separation occurring in the downcomer area. This tray is the old stand-by
and has been used for many, many years.
b) "High efficiency Trays" -- This tray will have a sealed downcomer with
separation occurring in the downcomer. This tray type is fairly new. It will
most likely be used on most new vessels in the future. It is also the type
of tray that is favored on revamp projects to get more out of an existing
tower.

Tray hardware devices

The normal trays inside the typical vertical vessel will contain openings
(or holes) and may be fitted with a fractionation or separation device.
This device is what will accomplish the purpose of the vessel. If these
devices are not present or do not function properly then the product is not
made.
The common tray devices are:

a) Bubble Cap (Used mostly on revamps) -- Simple, and common method

to facilitate the separation process. The Bubble Cap will normally be a
round (cup shaped) cap inverted over a short and smaller diameter
chimney. The skirt area of the inverted cap may be plain or have (open or
closed) slots.
b) Box Cap -- This cap is very much like the common Bubble Cap except
it is square.
c) Tunnel Cap -- This will be a long narrow rectangular shape
d) Uniflux Tray -- This is a series of overlapping and interlocking plates.
In cross section the Uniflux tray will have the shape of a reclining squared
off "S".
e) Valve (Most common) -- The valve tray will have small flat metal plates
fitted over the holes in the trays. The plate is loose to move up and down,
but is retained in position by a clip type device. Vapor pressure under the
"Valve" plate causes it to rise and gravity brings it back down.
f) Sieve (2nd most common) -- The Sieve tray will have holes and nothing
else. The hole size is calculated to provide a fragile balance between the
liquid head above the tray and the vapor pressure under the tray.

Weirs

There may be a number of places where weirs are used. The simple weir
to provide proper tray flooding will normally not cause any design
problems. There are also some special purpose weirs that may effect the
location of nozzles. In most cases the existence of special purpose weirs
will not be known at the start of the Vessel orientation activity. It is
however, a good idea to ask the question anyway.

Down comers

Down comers can come in a verity of shapes also. They straight across in
the horizontal direction, or they can be bent. They can be straight up and
down in the vertical direction, they can be sloped or slanted (tapered), or
they can be a combination. These variations will all impact the orientation
to some extent. The major impact, by the downcomer on the orientation
is the geometry or location of the vertical plane itself. The orientation of
the down comers will have a direct relationship to the orientation of
certain nozzles and manholes.

Other Tray Terms

Some other terms that will be found relating to trays.

a) Sump -- This is a sealed downcomer type area that is designed to

provide a retention volume for some purpose.
b) Seal Pans -- This is a portion of a tray that is set deeper than the rest
of the tray to form a seal for the downcomer from the tray above.
c) Side Draw Tray -- A tray arrangement that allows the removal of a
specific liquid product
d) Chimney Tray -- A full circumference tray fitted with long open pipes to
allow vapor to pass from below the tray to the space above.
e) Baffles -- Plates installed in the vessel for a specific purpose
f) Impingement Plates -- Somewhat like a baffle but normally a plate
installed in the vessel at the inlet to prevent blowout to devices located on
the opposite side of the vessel.
g) Tray manholes -- Most, if not all, trays will have a removable panel
(somewhere in the tray) to allow inspection passage without dismantling
the total tray

Vessel Support
The method of vessel support depends on various factors. These factors
include process function, operation access, maintenance clearances, ease
of constructability, and cost. Meeting the positive criteria for all or the
majority of these factors will drive the support method.
The primary methods of support are:

a) Tall Skirt on foundation at grade (Most common)

b) Short Skirt on elevated pier foundation, table support, or structure
c) Legs on foundation at grade
d) Lugs on elevated pier foundation, table support, or structure
Each of these vessel support methods has their own good points and bad
points. The Tall Skirt is the most common because it meets more of the
"preferred criteria" than the others do.

Skirt Vessel Support

The minimum height of the skirt is normally set by process based on the
NPSH requirements of the pumps or for the reboiler hydraulic
requirements. The designer may need to increase the skirt height due to:

a) Vertical distance required by pump suction line geometry

b) Vertical distance required by reboiler line geometry
c) Operator aisle headroom clearance
d) Suction line entering the pipe rack without pockets

The approval of the Process engineer, Project Manager, and the Client will
be required for any increase to the skirt height.

The skirt will have one or more access openings and will have skirt vents.
Skirts of vessels in refineries or other plants processing flammable
commodities will normally be fireproofed. The fireproofing is normally a
two-inch (2") thick layer of a concrete type material applied to the outside
of the skirt. Check for the specific type. Some materials may require up to
6" to obtain the required fire rating.

Load Handling Devices

Load handling devices are required for Vertical Vessels if:

a) The vessel is over thirty feet (30') tall

b) The vessel has removable trays and internals
c) The vessel has components that require frequent removal for routine
maintenance (PSV, control valves)
d) The components weigh 100 pounds or more

Methods of load handling include:

a) Davit -- A small somewhat inexpensive device used for lifting and
supporting heavy objects up and down from elevated platforms. Limited
to a fixed reach.
b) Monorail -- A more expensive method
c) Crane -- A far more expensive method and is dependent on availability

If a davit or monorail is not installed then a crane with the required reach
and load rating must be rented or an alternate method must be jury-
rigged. Any jury-rig method will have a high potential for accident and
injury.
When a Davit is to be included the following must be determined and
furnished to Vessels:

a) The location
b) The swing
c) The clearance height (including lifting device)
d) The reach - the removal items (e.g... PSV, Control Valve, Block Valve,
Blinds, etc.) and the drop zone
e) The maximum load of external items (Vessels will determine weight of
internals)

When a Monorail is to be included the following must be determined and

furnished to the Vessels engineer:

a) The platform, and monorail support configuration

b) The clearance height (including lifting device)
c) The reach to the drop zone
d) The maximum load of external items (Vessels will determine weight of
internals)

Pipe Supports and Pipe Guides

The Pipe Supports and Pipe Guides (PS & PG) for the piping that is
attached to the vessel is the responsibility of the Piping Group. You're the
Piper, that's pipe, and you need to make sure it is properly supported and
guided. The rule is (or should be) that all lines shall be properly supported
and guided. One key element of the PS & PG is the "L" dimension. The "L"
dimension is the distance from the O. D. of the back side of the pipe to
the O. D. of the vessel. This dimension should be as small as possible but
not less than required for maintenance. The rule of thumb for the "L"
dimension is 12" minimum and 20" maximum. Dimensions of under the
12" and over the 20" are sometimes allowed. For example, if fitting make
up results in an "L" dimension of 11 13/16" do not add a spool piece and
extra weld.
Lines should be supported as close to the nozzle as possible. The type of
support is based on the weight of what is being supported. It may be just
a straight pipe dropping down the side of the vessel. Or, it may be much
more.
The requirements for pipe supports attached to a vessel must be
evaluated for the following:
a) The shell thickness
b) Orientation
c) Elevation
d) The "L" dimension
e) The weight of the basic pipe and fittings (based on size and wall
schedule)
f) The weight of the water during hydro test
g) The weight of the insulation (if any)
h) The weight of any added components (block valves, control valve
stations, relief valves, etc.)
i) The clearance to other objects (Seams, Stiffener rings, Nozzles, Clips,
Pipe Lines, Platforms)

The requirements for pipe guides attached to a vessel must be evaluated

for the following:
a) The shell thickness
b) Orientation
c) Elevation
d) The "L" dimension
e) The size of the line at the point of guiding
f) The distance above the horizontal turn out (allow 25 pipe diameters +/-
)
g) The maximum allowable span between guides
h) The clearance to other objects (Seams, Stiffener rings, Nozzles, Clips,
Pipe Lines, Platforms)

Pipe supports and guides should be staggered vertically for clearance

from supports or guides on other lines running parallel.

Platforms, Ladders, and Cages

Platforms with access ladders must be provided as required for access to
manholes, operating valves, and instruments as defined in the project
criteria. Normally objects below 15' - 0" from grade will not require
permanent platforms and ladders. These objects are judged assessable by
portable means (Check the Project design requirements).

Platform spacing shall be even foot increments when multiple platforms

are serviced from a single ladder. The platforms shall be arranged to
allow the following:
a) Minimum 7' - 0" headroom to underside of any obstruction
b) Minimum 2' - 6" radial width for primary egress path (I. D. of platform
to O. D. of platform)
c) Minimum 2' - 6" clear distance between ladders
d) No obstructions in path between primary egress ladders
e) Maximum 30' - 0" vertical travel length of ladder between platforms
f) Side step off at all platforms (Step through ladders are considered
dangerous and therefore should be avoided). This requirement should
have been reviewed with the Client and defined in the Design Criteria.
g) Combining with platforms on other vessels when potential for improved
operations or maintenance exists
h) Flanges of top head nozzles shall be extended to provide access to
bolts
i) Minimum 1' - 6" clearance around objects if for maintenance access
only

Code Name Plate

Every vessel will have a Code Name Plate. On a vertical vessel the code
name plate must be on the (pressure containment) part of the shell. It
cannot be attached to the skirt. The best place for the code name plate on
a vertical vessel is 2' - 6" above the horizontal centerline of the surge
section manhole. Make sure the location selected is accessible on grade or
on a platform.

Common problems with vertical vessels

a. Schedule crunch - Vessels scheduled for purchase too early requiring

firm orientations with very little backup information.
- Approved and Issued for Design P&IDs
- Exchanger type and location
- Flare header and PSV location
b. Thin wall vessels not able to support load on pipe supports
c. High wind presence requiring extra guides
d. Late changes to PSV sizing prompting changes to pipe support and
guides on line to flare
e. Late change to control valve location criteria (Flashing service now
required to be located to elevated platform on vessel with line
downstream of valve self drain to vessel)
f. Reboilers requiring spring mounted supports due to tight piping and
differential growth
g. High steam-out temperature requiring extra flexibility in the piping
h. Extra heavy object removal in excess of Davit load capabilities

Vertical Vessel Orientation

Recommendations
Uniformity
a. The ladder approach at grade should be free of obstructions and easily
accessible (Verify preferred location with Project requirements).
b. The Manhole orientation should be oriented in the back half of the
vessel toward the access way. The manholes should be arranged with
consideration to the type of load handling device (One centerline if
monorail, one or two centerlines if davit, no specific restriction if crane).
c. Load drop area should be located on the main access side
d. Level instruments should be located on or near the front half of the
vessel and visible from the main operating aisle
e. The piping risers to and from the vessel should be located to the front
half of the vessel for easy routing to the pipeway and equipment

Manholes
a. Manholes will influence the entire vessel orientation to a certain
degree. The location of the manholes must be compatible with the
location of the tray down comers. The down comers in turn influence the
location of the process and instrument nozzles.
b. The preferred elevation of manholes above the platform is 2' - 6" from
the centerline. The limits are; 6" minimum from the top of the platform to
the bottom of the flange, or 4' - 0" maximum from the top of the platform
to the bottom of the flange (Verify preferred location with Project
requirements).
c. Platforms may not be required for manholes that are 15' - 0" or less
above grade, unless a platform is required for another reason such as an
instrument (Verify preferred location with Project requirements).
d. Space and clearances are important around manholes. Check flange
swing and tray lay down space.

Ladders and Platforms

a. Check to see that the approach to the ladder at grade is clear of all
obstructions and hazards.
b. Check to see that the entry onto each platform is clear and not blocked
by level or other instruments.
c. Check to see that the entry onto each platform is clear and not blocked
by an open manhole flange.
d. Check to see that there is a clear path from one (down) ladder to the
next (down) ladder for unobstructed travel during emergencies.
e. Platforms may need to be added or extended for access to operating
valves, spec blinds, or instruments.
f. Special platforms are often required at the channel end of a thermo-
siphon reboiler or other equipment that is mounted directly into (or onto)
the vessel.
g. Investigate lining up and connecting platforms servicing equipment
(Reboilers or Accumulators) located in adjacent structures but related to
the vessel.
h. Maintenance criteria at Reactors often require platforms large enough
and strong enough for large flange or head lay down in addition to
catalyst storage and handling.
i. Check the location and size of the pipe penetration holes through
platforms. The opening is to be one inch larger (in diameter) than the
flange or pipe plus insulation, which ever is greater (Verify preferred
location with Project requirements).
j. Provide proper routing and support for all lines regardless of size. Do
not route small lines vertically behind the ladders. Do not route small
lines vertically between the vessel shell and the inside radius of the
platforms. Do not route small lines vertically up the outside of the
platforms in line with or close to the manholes.
k. Ladder access openings must be fitted with a safety gate. Check for
proper clearance for gate swing.
l. Some processes are subject to periods of hazardous operations. Ladders
and ladder cages may need to be designed for operators with self-
contained suits and air packs (SCBA).

Skirts
a. The minimum skirt height is set by Process and indicated on the P&ID.
b. The skirt height is normally based on the minimum NPSH of the bottom
pumps.
c. The skirt height may be influenced by the physical requirement of a
thermo-siphon reboiler.
d. The final skirt height needs to consider and be adjusted for; physical
configuration of the bottoms nozzle, any headroom clearance required
over operating aisles, vertical fitting geometry of the piping configuration,
and the pump suction nozzle location.
e. As a general rule no flanged connections are allowed inside the skirt of
a vessel. This area is considered a confined space in most plants and
flanges will tend to leak over time.
f. Increasing the Skirt height may be considered when adjacent vessels
warrant lining up and connecting platforms.

Reboilers
a. Reboilers will be one of the following; Fired (Heater Type),
Thermosiphon (vertical or horizontal shell & tube), or Kettle type
(horizontal shell & tube).
b. Fired Reboilers shall be located a minimum of fifty feet from the vessel.
c. Piping to and from any type of reboiler will be hot, and have sensitive
flow conditions.
d. The Kettle or Thermosiphon Reboiler elevation is set by Process and
indicated on the P&ID.

Pipe Supports and Guides

a. Piping is responsible for locating the pipe supports and guides on
vessels
b. Piping is responsible for defining the size and loads on the pipe
supports on vessels

Piping Flexibility
a. Piping must determine the operating thermal growth of the vessel. The
vessel will have a series of temperature zones from the bottom to the top.
b. The differential expansion between the piping risers and the vessel
must be checked to prevent over stressing the piping or the vessel shell.
c. The routing of cooler reflux lines must consider the total growth of the
hotter vessel.
d. Potential for differential settlement needs to be investigated
e. Each piping system or line needs to be considered individually
Instrumentation
a. The HLL, NLL, and LLL need to be carefully considered because they
will set the elevations of the level instruments
b. Orientation of level instrument connections needs to consider the
internals
c. All instruments shall be accessible
d. Watch out for space requirements for gage glass illuminators.
e. TI and TW connections will require removal space

Electrical
a. Space shall be allocated for conduit runs up the vessel. These conduits
will carry power to platform lights, gage glass illuminators, and in some
cases electrical tracing.
b. Conduits are also required for controls (instrumentation)

Piping Valves
a. Valves are meant to be operated and to be operated they must be
accessible.
b. Small valves (2" & smaller) may be considered accessible from a
platform or ladder. Large valves (3" & larger) shall be accessible on a
platform.

Misc. Piping issues

a. Lines to and from vessels may be subject to conditions such as 2-phase
flow or vacuum.
b. Some PSV relieving to atmosphere will require snuffing steam. The
steam pressure (in the line) must be adequate to reach the top of the
vessel.
c. Large overhead lines vs. PSV location require special attention for
function and support.
d. Vertical vessel piping needs to be checked for heat tracing
requirements. A tracer supply manifold may need to be added at the top
of the vessel.

Constructability
All vertical vessels shall be reviewed for constructability. This review
needs to consider receiving logistics lay down orientation, lifting plan, pre-
lift assembly items (piping, platforms, ladders, internals, etc.)
- Pre-lift assembly items may include the following:
a. Piping
b. Platforms
c. Ladders
d. Internals
e. Paint
f. Insulation

Fire Protection
a. Some vessels may require special insulation for fire protection.
b. Some vessels may require fire monitor coverage
c. Some vessels may require sprinkler systems

Misc.
Some vessels will be lined. Linings may be metallic, plastic, or glass.
Welding to the vessel shell after initial fabrication is not allowed.
Some vessels will have flanged connections that are larger than 24".
These connections will occur at connections for piping, reboilers, or other
equipment. Flanged connections over 24" do not have a single standard
and need to be defined for specific type (API or MSS).

The following article was prompted by questions from a young piping

designer. He wrote:
-------------------------------------------
Hi
I am getting ready to do my first vessel nozzle orientation. The vessel is a
Stripper Tower (a). Can you help me? First, what are the things I have to
take into consideration? Second, what are the key steps in the process for
doing a vessel nozzle orientation?
Regards
XXXXXXXXXXXX
---------------------------------------------
(a)The name/function of the vessel has been changed.

For your first question: "What are the things I have to take into
consideration?"

The answer to this question is very simple; you must take everything in
to consideration. Everything is important! Someone may tell you that
some things do not matter but this is not true, everything matters.

You need to consider the following:

a) Timing: Vessel orientation is normally the only equipment related

layout activity that can be done without specific input from a vendor. All
of the information required for vessel orientation is generated on the
project in the form of P&ID data and project standards. It is also one of
the few activities that will feed one or more other downstream groups
whose work is critical to the project schedule. With this in mind this
activity can and should be started as soon as the P&ID reaches
"Approved-For-Design" (AFD) status. Te vessel orientation activity can be
started manually or on basic 2D CAD before the 3D PDS data base is fully
loaded and checked. There is some logic to doing this activity manually or
in 2D CAD because of the amount of trial and error required to finally
achieve an acceptable and approved orientation. Once the orientation is
approved and the PDS data base is ready the 3D model can be built with
no recycle.
b) The Plot Plan (Note 1): The plot plan is required to identify the
location of the vessel and its related equipment. The related equipment
includes the equipment that feeds the vessel (is up-stream) and also the
equipment that the vessel feeds (is down-stream). It shows and locates
adjacent, non-related equipment. It also shows adjacent structures that
may support the related up-stream or down-stream equipment. It also
indicates the plant features such as pipe racks, operating aisles,
maintenance access areas and the direction of Plant North.

c) The project foundation criteria: Vertical vessels normally sit on an

octagon pad foundation with the top of grout at EL101' - 0" (high point of
finished paving = EL 100' - 0"). You need to have and understand the
type and elevation of the foundation for this vessel.

d) The P&ID's (Note 1): The P&ID's are required to show the process
streams that connect to the Stripper Tower and its related equipment. In
my experience P&ID's are much like the pages in a book. Some
equipment (the heater) starts or shows on sheet one P&ID the story
continues with the key item (the Stripper Tower, Thermosyphon Reboiler
and Bottoms Pumps) showing on sheet two and then continues to some
conclusion (the overhead condensers) on sheet three. You will need all
three process system P&ID's. The Stripper Tower P&ID will show a graphic
of the column along with all the piping connecting to the vessel. There will
also be a data block at the top of the page. This data block should include
the vessel number, the vessel name and the basic size. It will also
indicate the design temperature and the insulation requirements (if any).
The graphic of the vessel should also indicate the basic type of internals
(Trays or Packing). If the internals are Trays then the number of trays
should be indicated. The trays just above or just below where a line is
connected should be numbered. If the internals are some form of packing
then the extent of the packing beds should be indicated.

e) The project Line List (Note 1): The line List is required to give you
specific and critical key data about the lines such as the Line Number, line
class, maximum operating temperature and insulation requirements,

f) The project Piping Material Specifications (Note 1): The Piping

Material Specifications are required to give you the data about metallurgy
and any specifics about fittings, flanges, valves or requirements for PWHT
(post weld heat treatment).

g) The Vessel Drawing (Note 2): The vessel drawing at this time will
most likely be marked "Preliminary." It will give you; the inside diameter
(I.D.), the tangent-to-tangent shell length, the shape of the top and
bottom heads and the skirt height. This drawing should also have a table
showing all the nozzles with the basic information such as: identification,
quantity, and size, flange rating, the elevation above (or below) the
bottom tangent line for each nozzle, the purpose for the nozzle and any
special instructions. The vessel drawing needs to also indicate where the
internals start and end inside the vessel.

h) The Internals (Note 2) (Trays or Packing) A tower can have a number

of different types and configurations of internals. It may be Trays or it
may be some form of Packing.
- Trays: If you have Trays then you need to know: the number of trays,
the spacing of the trays, the number of passes for the trays (1-pass, 2-
pass, 3-pass etc.). You also need to know if there are any "draw sumps,"
baffles or other special features.
- Packing: You need to know the number of "Beds," the depth of the beds
and the method of installing and removing the packing material. You also
need to know and understand about the type of feed distributor(s) to be
used. You need to know about the packing discharge nozzles.
For the purpose of this article we will assume we have 35 single pass
trays.

i) The Thermosiphon Reboiler data sheet (Note 1): This will give you
the preliminary size and type information. The P&ID indicates that this
vessel has a vertical Thermosiphon reboiler fitted to it. Some discussion
should normally take place to determine the optimum tube length and the
proper support elevation and support method.

j) The project Vessel Platform Standards (Note 1): This will give you
the required information about the minimum vertical spacing between
platforms. It will also give you specific details about platform supports
and how to make the openings where pipes must pass through a
platform. This drawing will (or should) also give you specifics about
handrails.

k) The project Vessel Ladder Standards (Note 1): This drawing will
give you all the required information about ladder construction and more
important the limits for the maximum vertical run for a single ladder.

l) The project Vessel Nozzle Standards (Note 1): This will give you all
the normal options for un-reinforced and reinforced nozzles. It may also
show you some options for internal nozzle piping.

m) The project Vessel Davit Standards (Note 1): A davit is a small

device permanently mounted on the vessel that acts as a crane for lifting
heavy objects such as tray sections.

n) The project Vessel Pipe Support and Guide Standards (Note 1):
These are devices attached to a vessel that support and/or guide the
vertical runs of pipe. This drawing also defines the minimum distance
from the outside of a vessel shell to the back of an adjacent pipe. Where I
came from this was called the "L" dimension. The "L" dimension was
normally 12" (adjusted as required for insulation) The maximum was 20"
without a special design. The key was to have a minimum of 7" clear
between two co-existing insulations. These supports and guides also
require a wider than normal line spacing in the vertical plane as the lines
go up or down a vessel. This is mainly due to the configuration of the
Trunnion (Note 3) support attached to the pipe and the pipe clamp used
for the guide.

o) The project Piping and Vessel Insulation Specification (Note 1):

From this document you will get the thickness of the insulation needed for
the pipes and vessel at the operating temperature.

(Note 1): These items are normally created by your company for the
project and should be "Approved for Design" (AFD) quality documents.
This means that they have been through all of the proper in-house
reviews and checks and have then been approved by the Company and
the Client for use in the design of the work.

(Note 2): These documents will initially come from the project Vessel
Engineer. They will normally be marked "Preliminary" until they receive
and process your orientation drawings. Later you may receive the vessel
fabricator's detail drawings for "Squad Check" (review and approval).

(Note 3) For more information about a Trunnion support see

www.pipingdesigners.com look under Training and Secondary Pipe
Supports

There may be other documents that are required due to a specific

company's method of operation.

The next things you need to consider is; functionality, safety, operation,
maintenance and constructability.

Functionality: No matter what, this vessel must do its job. You must
know and understand what that intended job is. You do not need to be a
process engineer but you should be involved in the review of the P&ID for
this specific vessel. You need to hear what the critical issues are relating
to this vessel and the connected piping. If your company does not include
piping in the formal review of the P&ID's then you need to seek out the
process engineer and ask him or her to explain the function, key points
and any critical issues relating to this vessel.

Safety: This is the other important issue relating to vessel orientation.

The operation must be able to be done in a safe manner. The same must
be said for both maintenance and constructability. To achieve this goal
the locations of nozzles relative to the placement and arrangement of the
ladders and platforms must be carefully considered. The travel path
(access and egress) must be arranged so the main travel path cannot be
blocked by open manholes, scaffolding, tools, tray parts, valves or piping.
The basic rule here; a: ladder #1 comes up with a side step-off (right or
left) on to platform #1. Then b: there is a minimum rest space equal to
one ladder width. Then c: the next ladder (#2) continues up to the next
platform. Platform #1 can continue beyond ladder #2 around the vessel
to provide access to nozzles and manholes. This arrangement does not
impede or obstruct the clear path for rapid escape from the vessel for
anyone from a higher elevation. Other safety issues include one or more
skirt access openings located near grade which should be located with
clear access. There will also be four or more skirt vents located high near
the skirt-to-vessel attachment which also should not be blocked.

Operation: Process plants need to be operated. Most operation is

concentrated around valves and instruments. These items must be
accessible. Accessible means reachable. This reachable is conditional.
Nozzles with a nominal size of 2' (NPS) and smaller can be reachable from
a ladder or from a platform. Nozzles 3" (NPS) and larger shall be
reachable on a platform. In this context the from means that the object is
not more than 18" (one arms length) from the ladder or platform and the
on means the object must be fully inside the platform. There is normally
only one exception to this rule. That is for valves or nozzles that are
located less than 20 feet from grade and can be accessed with scaffolding
or a "Man-Lift".

Maintenance: All the accessibility issues that apply for operations also
apply for maintenance. In addition don't block access to manholes with
control valve assemblies or other piping. Make sure the Electrical and
Instrument people don't locate a panel or a transmitter assembly in the
operations or maintenance access ways.

Constructability: This vessel needs to be erected and therefore it will

need Lifting Lugs. These are normally very large steel shapes with "eyes"
welded to the top head. They will normally not interfere with your
orientation, however you should check to make sure.

Your second question: "What are the key steps in the process for
doing a column nozzle orientation?"

The key steps in the process are:

(You may choose for some reason to do something in a different order,
but this is how I think I would do it. It should be noted that I like to be
able to have all things numbered from the bottom up. This includes trays,
nozzles, ladders, platforms, etc. However, sometimes due to company
preference or the tray manufacturer standards the trays are numbered
from the top down.)

1. Data collection - Collect a copy of all the drawings listed above. Make
a folder file (or a stick file) to keep them in. Mark all the drawings
"Stripper Tower Orientation Master" (STOM). This STOM file is your
justification for everything you do or did. If anyone has reason to
question why you did what you did then you have a file of the source
material you based the work on. It is your responsibility to use the proper
information and to properly file and incorporate changes from all new
revisions when received.

2. P&ID conditioning - Take your STOM P&ID and pick-up any marks
from the Project Master copy. From time to time as you work, go back
and recheck the Project Master P&ID for any new marks (i.e.: line size
changes, additions, deletions, etc.). Study the Stripper Tower and identify
all the related equipment and all connecting lines. Study the lines for
valves and instrumentation.

3. Plot Plan conditioning - Take the STOM Plot Plan and with a yellow
high-lighter identify the Stripper Tower and all the related equipment.
Related equipment means that which is directly connected by pipe to the
Stripper Tower. I prefer to work with Plant North up or towards the top of
the paper (CAD screen). When I do a vessel orientation I consider the
pipeway to be in "front" of the vessel. I call the maintenance area the
"back" of the vessel or equipment row. For the purpose of my instruction
here I am going to assume that 0º is "up" and "up" is north. Maintenance
is on the north (back) side and the pipe way is on the south (front) side.

4. Prepare preliminary elevation - Manually or by CAD, create a scale

drawing of the vessel elevation (side view) Locate the bottom tangent line
and in phantom (dotted line) the bottom head. Accurately locate the top
tangent line from the bottom tangent line and draw in the top head. We
will assume that this vessel is a skirt supported vessel and that the skirt is
20 ft high. (If not skirt supported then Leg or Lug supported will require
optional considerations that we can discuss if applicable.) At the bottom
accurately create the skirt (vessel support). Check with the Structural
department and find out how high the foundation is for this vessel. Make
sure they give you the top of grout (TOG) not just top of concrete. They
are not the same. I will assume that the TOG is EL. 101' - 0." Now
indicate the high point of finished paving (HPFP). I will assume that the
HPFG is EL. 100' - 0." Now from this HPFP line, draw a light line to
indicate the projects minimum head clearance.

5. Prepare preliminary plans - Manually or by CAD, create a scale

drawing of a number of plan views. The plan views will be where you will
do most of your work so make one for each ten feet +/- (3 to 4 meters)
of vertical elevation ending with one above and showing the very top
platform. These starter plans should have crossed center lines and the
actual I.D. of the vessel. (We are using 8' - 0" for this article). Mark the
location of Plant North on each mini-plan. Normally plant north is the
same as 0 degrees on the vessel shell. East is 90 degrees, South is 180
degrees and all additional orientation is clockwise from north and 0
degrees. Don't worry about the O.D. or the wall thickness. Now, look at
the platform drawing and get the clearance from the vessel shell and the
inside edge of a platform. Draw a very light circle (different color and/or
layer) on each mini-plan to indicate where the inside edge of a platform
might be. Now draw another very light circle 3'-0" (1meter +/_) more in
diameter to indicate where the outside of a platform might be. These are
not real platforms yet they are just guide lines to remind you of platforms
as you do other work. Now mark the "Front" (pipeway side) of the vessel
and the "Back" (maintenance side) of the vessel.

6. Thermosiphon Reboiler: The Reboiler for our sample vessel has a

42" shell, 24 ft fixed tube (vertical mount) shell and tube exchanger.
The shell side is high temperature steam. The tube side is the process
fluid from the bottom of the tower which enters at the bottom end of the
reboiler. The process vapor exits the top end of the reboiler and returns
to the tower below tray #1. The placement and support of the
Thermosiphon Reboiler is the next thing we should cover. Because of the
plot plan placement of our Stripper Tower the Thermosiphon Reboiler will
be mounted directly to the tower at the 270 degree point. It will have a
knee braced cantilevered support that is attached to the vessel. The
exchanger needs to be supported so the top tube sheet is at the same
level as the high liquid level inside the vessel.

7. Bottoms section baffle - Because of the way this vessel works there
is a baffle dividing the bottom section of the tower. The baffle can not be
on the centerline of the vessel because the reboiler feed nozzle is
centered on the bottom head. Therefore the baffle must be offset to miss
that nozzle connection. The height of the baffle is the same as the "High
Liquid Level." All of the liquid that comes off the downcomer from tray #1
goes into the "large" side of the bottom section. It then goes through the
reboiler and returns to the vessel as vapor. Excess liquid from the "large"
side overflows the baffle and becomes the "Bottoms" and is drawn off by
the bottoms pumps. The connection for the bottoms nozzle "B" is on the
"small" side of the baffle.

8. Check for nozzle continuity - Look at the STOM P&ID and the table
of nozzles on the vessel drawing. They should match in number and size.
In pencil mark each line connecting to the P&ID vessel with the nozzle
number from the vessel nozzle table. Do they match in number? Do they
match is size? If not, go see the Process Engineer and ask for clarification.

(Sample) Stripper Tower Nozzle Table

The bottom tangent line elevation = 121' - 0"

The top tangent line elevation = 232' - 8"
 Dimension
Elevation
Name or Size (from
# Rating (plant Comments
Function (NPT) tangent
datum)
line)
300#
V1 Vapor Out 14" 113' - 6" 234' - 6"
RF
300#
V2 PSV 6" 113' - 6" 234' - 6"
RF
300#
V3 Vent 4" 113' - 6" 234' - 6"
RF
300# w/internal
R Reflux 6" 106' - 6" 227' - 6"
RF pipe
300# w/internal
F Feed 8" 73' - 0" 194' - 0"
RF pipe
300#
B Bottoms 10" 7' - 0" 117' - 3"
RF
300# nozzle on
D1 Drain 6" 8' - 0" 116' - 2"
RF nozzle B
300# nozzle on
D2 Drain 6" 8' - 2" 115' - 9"
RF nozzle N1
Reboiler 300#
N1 14" 7' - 0" 116' - 9"
Feed RF
Reboiler 300#
N2 16" 29' - 3" 150' - 3"
Return RF
300#
M1 Manhole #1 24" 2' - 0" 123' - 0"
RF
300#
M2 Manhole #2 24" 73' - 0" 194' - 0"
RF
300#
M3 Manhole #3 24" 107' - 0" 228' - 0"
RF
300#
S1 Steam Out 2" 0' - 6" 121' - 6"
RF
300#
S2 Steam Out 2" 71' - 6" 192' - 6"
RF
300#
S3 Steam Out 2" 105' - 6" 226' - 6"
RF
L1 0' - 6" 121' - 6"
Level Gage 300#
& 2"
Bridle RF
L2 25' - 0" 146' - 0"
L3 0' - 6" 121' - 6"
Level 300#
& 2"
Transmitter RF
L4 25' - 0" 146' - 0"
 Temperature 300#
T1 1" 30' - 0" 151' - 0"
Element RF
300#
T2 (Ditto) 1" 72' - 0" 193' - 0"
RF
300#
T3 (Ditto) 1" 107' - 0" 228' - 0"
RF
Pressure 300#
P1 1" 28' - 0" 149' - 0"
Element RF
300#
P2 (Ditto) 1" 74' - 0" 195' - 0"
RF
300#
P3 (Ditto) 1" 108' - 0" 229' - 0"
RF

9. Check for nozzle temperature - You now have all the nozzles
connected or identified to its specific line. Now look at the line list and fine
the maximum operating temperature for each of the flowing lines (feed
and main outlet lines). Don't worry about vents and drain. In pencil, mark
these temperatures onto the STOM P&ID at the point where the line
connects to the vessel. You now have the vessel identified, the line from
somewhere connecting to the vessel, you have the connection point
identified with a nozzle number and you have a temperature at that
nozzle.

10. Locate nozzle elevations - Based on the elevation for each nozzle
(given in the Nozzle Table on the Vessel Drawing) locate all the nozzles on
the scale vertical view (side view) of the vessel. Most of these flowing
lines will be above the bottom tangent line. What this means is that all
things connected to the nozzles above the bottom tangent line will grow
up when the vessel is hot and in full operation. Only four of the nozzles
are located below the bottom tangent line and these nozzles (and their
attached piping) below the bottom tangent line will grow down when the
vessel is hot and in full operation.

11. Establish temperature zones - The next step is to calculate the

incremental and total vertical growth of the vessel. The incremental
growth means the growth for a specific section of the vessel. Trayed
vessels do not have the same operating temperature from bottom to the
top. They have a graduated temperature. You may be asking what
temperature you use for this operation. DO NOT USE THE VESSEL
DESIGN TEMPERATURE. The vessel design temperature may be
something like 500 degrees F. If you use this number along with the
height of the vessel and the coefficient of expansion for the vessel
metallurgy you would end up with a total expansion that would be
incorrect. You look at the temperatures you marked for each of the
Flowing lines. You take two adjacent Flowing nozzles that have a
temperature. Let's say we take the Feed nozzle and the Bottoms Out
nozzles. (I am assuming there are no other flowing nozzles between these
two nozzles. If there are then make the appropriate adjustment). These
two nozzles and their temperatures form a zone. You add their two
temperatures together and divide the answer by 2 to get an average
temperature for the zone (example: (475 degrees F and 395 degrees F)/2
= 435 degrees F). You use this 435 degrees F figure for the maximum
operating temperature along with the zone length and the coefficient for
the vessel shell material for the calculation of the incremental expansion.
Do the same for each set of flowing nozzles and calculate the incremental
expansion for each zone. The overhead vapor line temperature may be as
low as 180 degrees F. Somewhere lower down the vessel there is another
flowing nozzle with its operating temperature. This forms the top zone in
the group. For talking purposes let's say we have five zones. Let's say
that Zone one expands a total of 1", Zone two expands ¾". Zone three
expands ½", Zone four expands ½" and Zone five expands ¼" for a total
of 3". You need to mark each of the incremental expansions at the
appropriate place. Now take each of the incremental expansions and add
them together as you progress up the vessel. Part of Zone one is below
the support point so some of the expansion grows up and some of it
grows down. Because of this let's say that the top of Zone one only grows
up 5/8" during operation. The top of Zone two grows up a total of 1-3/8".
Zone three grows up a total of 1-7/8". The top of Zone four grows up a
total of 2-3/8'. And the top of Zone five grows up a total of 2-5/8". You
also need to mark each of the accumulated expansions at the appropriate
place. You now have a basis for the preliminary pipe flexibility work you
will do later.

12. Locate manholes - We have three manholes and they are only used
during maintenance. These manholes will be the hinged type and for our
situation they will all open to the right. They are identified as M#1
(bottom section) through M#3 (top section). They are not used or needed
during operations. So Manholes should normally be located on the "back"
side of the vessel. This is logical and it works 90% of the time. One of the
times it does not hold true is for the lower shell manhole when there is a
vertical Thermosiphon reboiler attached to the back of a vessel. So you
can start with all of our Manholes on the back centerline of the vessel.
This may not be the final location but it is a starting point. From the
bottom of the vessel M#1 is in what is called the "surge" section. There
are (normally) no internals in this section. So if we need to we can locate
M#1 at any orientation. M#3 is in the very top section above the top tray
so it also has few limits to its orientation. Manhole M#2 is located
between trays at a maximum spacing of (say) twenty trays. In our case
M#2 is on tray #19. The side manholes need to enter on a tray, not
behind the downcomer.
13. Steam out nozzles: Along with each manhole there will also be a
steam out nozzle. This nozzle will be fitted with a valve which will be blind
flanged. During shut-down the blind flange is removed and a flanged
spool with a steam coupling will be installed. Prior to any entry into the
vessel the steam will be turned on for 12 to 24 hours to remove (steam-
out) hydrocarbons. The steam-out nozzle will be located in close
proximity to the manhole. The recommended placement for the steam-
out connections on our vessel will be to the right and 1' - 6" below the
manhole center line.

14. Set tray orientation - As we said above, we have 35 single pass

trays. Tray #1 is 35' - 10" above the bottom tangent line of the tower and
tray #35 is 104' - 10" above the bottom tangent line. Since we have trays
that have only a single pass (downcomer) then we have almost 270
degrees of orientation with which we can place the manholes. However
that 270 degrees of orientation needs to be in the right quadrant. If the
excluded part of that circle is centered on 0 degrees (North) then we need
to ask if that manhole can move up one tray or down one tray. If we have
trays that are two pass or three pass then we need to find ways to orient
the manholes, nozzles and trays so they co-exist. We have located all our
manholes on the maintenance (north) side centerline at 0 degrees. We
will then place the orientation of the trays on an East/West center line.
We then insure that we adjust the vertical location of the manholes (up or
down one tray) to enter on to a tray.

Up to this point you have doing the very important background work that
is required before you can do the actually vessel orientation. Next you
need to locate the nozzles, determine where the pipes will travel up or
down the vessel and establish the support and guide points for each line.
As you do that you also need to establish the ladder and platform
requirements to provide proper access for operation and maintenance.
So let's move on to the next task.

15. Nozzle placement - As we stated before large nozzles need to be

accessible "on" a platform. So keep that in mind as you proceed. Start
with the nozzles at the top of the vessel and work down. Here is a key to
remember, the line (up-or-down the vessel) and the nozzle do not need
to be at the same bearing point. By this I mean that the line up-or-down
the vessel can be at one point, say 196 degrees, and then wrap around
the vessel to where the nozzle is on the other side of the vessel say at
315 degrees. The line would rise up the vessel and then turn horizontal to
go around the vessel. It would then turn vertical again, go through the
platform required for nozzle access and then enter the nozzle. This allows
the nozzle to be "on" a platform but the line does not penetrate all the
other platforms. Nozzles "F" and "R" on this vessel might be done using
this method. The other lines from the "V1' nozzle and the PSV can simply
drop down the vessel at the most convenient point. The lines to and from
the Thermosiphon Reboiler will connect almost fitting to fitting with no
valves. The bottoms line to the pumps is also a simple routing and might
exit the vessel skirt at the 90 or 180 degree point depending on where
the pumps are located. Instrument connections need to be placed so they
perform their function and so they are accessible from a ladder or a
platform. They do not normally extend far from the vessel shell thus do
not cause an obstruction so with care they may be positioned on the
vessel in the space between two ladders.

16. Pipe Supports - Each line that travels up or down the vessel will
need one or more pipe supports. Lines that travel up-or-down the vessel
at the same bearing point as the nozzle only need one pipe support. For
side mounted nozzles this support will be located a short distance below
the top elbow. For top mounted nozzles the support will be located a short
distance below the vessel top weld seam. Lines that travel up-or-down
the vessel at a different bearing point as the nozzle need to be considered
for two supports. One below the nozzle elbow and a second support below
the elbow where the line drops down the vessel.

17. Pipe Guides - Each line that travels up or down the vessel will need
to be considered for pipe guides. The two factors in determining the
number of guides a line requires is the wind force at the jobsite and the
length of vertical travel. Some lines require only one guide and others
require more than one pipe guide. Each line that travels up-or-down the
vessel normally turns (elbows) horizontal at some lower elevation. The
bottom guide should not be placed closer than 50 pipe diameters above
this elbow. Other guides for a line may be spaced by taking the elevation
of the support (at the top of the line drop) and then deduct the elevation
of the bottom guide. The space remaining is then considered for one or
more additional guides. Guides should be spaced every 20 to 30 feet.

18. Ladder placement - All of the ladders should be placed in the same
general quadrant of the vessel. It is simple to work out the minimum
spacing from one ladder to another. As stated before the minimum space
between two ladders should be equal to one ladder (measured at the
center of the cage). So if the ladder (with cage) is 2'-6" +/- wide then the
space between two ladders is also 2'-6"+/-. This makes the center to
center between two ladders 5'-0"+/-. Most of the ladders on this vessel
can be in the quadrant from 45 degrees to 135 degrees. For a vessel 8' -
0" in diameter this would mean:
- Ladder #1 would be at 135 degrees
- Ladder #2 would be at 90 degrees
- Ladder # 3 would be at 45 degrees.
- Ladder #4 is back at 135 degrees.
- Ladder #5 is at 90 degrees and
- Ladder #6 is at 45 degrees.
- There will be a ladder #7 on this vessel which we will discuss when we
talk about platforms.

19. Platforms - Platforms are the next thing to be defined.

Dimension
from Project
Platform
tangent Elevation
#
line (in (in feet)
feet)
#1 1' - 0" 120' - 0"
#2 24 - 0" 145' - 0"
#3 45' - 0" 166' - 0"
#4 70 - 0" 191'- 0"
#5 90 - 0" 211'- 0"
#6 103 - 0" 224'- 0"
#7 113 - 0" 234'- 0"
#2a 19 - 0" 140' - 0"
#2b 27' - 0" 148' - 0"

Platform #1 would start at the step-off from ladder #1 (135 degrees) and
wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to about the 350 degree
point, beyond Manhole #1.
Platform #2 would start at the step-off from ladder #2 (90 degrees) and
wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to ladder # 7 located at 315
degrees. Ladder #7 goes both up and down to provide access to two
auxiliary platforms #2a and #2b. These small maintenance platforms
provide access to the head flange of the reboiler and to nozzle N2. They
must be sized to meet the criteria that the nozzle and head flange is "on"
the platform.
Platform #3 would start at the step-off from ladder #3 and wrap around
the vessel (clock wise) to and under ladder #4 at 135 degrees.
Platform #4 would start at the step-off from ladder #4 and wrap around
the vessel (counter clock wise) to about the 315 degree point for access
to Manhole #2 and to provide maintenance access for nozzle "F".
Platform #5 would start at the step-off from ladder #5 and provide a
minimum platform (counter clock wise) for access to ladder #6
Platform #6 would start with a side step-off from mid way up ladder # 6
and wrap around the vessel (counter clock wise) to about the 315 degree
point for access to Manhole #3 and to provide maintenance access to
nozzle "R".
Platform #7 is a "Top" platform supported from the vessel head. This
platform must be sized to allow space for the piping off the vessel head,
access to the Davit and room for maintenance people to work during turn-
around.
The imaginary vessel we have been discussing above is really a very
simple vessel. After you read all of this you may think that vertical vessel
orientation is very complex. You are right! However, I think vessel
orientation is also the most fun there is in all of piping design.
For those of you who may want to try this vessel as a trial run I say give
it a shot. Please feel free to E-mail me at (jopennock@netscape.net)
when you start and maybe I can offer some suggestions.
Good luck to all of you who get a chance to do an actual vertical vessel
orientation.

Section - II
D: Piping Fit-Up, The difference between Optimism and Reality
By: James O. Pennock

Recently, on one of the leading internet technical forums, a person posted

a concern about a perceived engineering problem. Their concern was
about the relative settlement between different objects that would effect
the fit-up of the connecting pipes. The person gave a list of the related
objects and the perceived differential settlement as follows:

• Vessels to / from Pipe Rack Bents: ¼"

• Pumps to / from Pipe Rack Bents: ¼"
• Tanks to / from Pipe Rack Bents: ¼"
• Pumps to / from Tanks: ¼"
• Pumps to / from Pressure Vessels ¼"
• Pumps to / from Drums ¼"

This ¼" may sound like a lot. It would indeed be a lot if you were dealing
with the fit-up of internal components in say, the watch on your wrist or
your new Lap Top Computer.

Let's talk about the subject of settlement. Settlement is a fact of life for
process plant projects, it is a reality. It is going to happen in 99% of all
projects and it will affect piping fit-up. Geological settlement will not all
happen the day of start-up but it will happen over a long period of time
during construction and during the working life of the facility. How much
and how fast? That is a question you must ask the Civil Engineer on each
project. Every type of soil in every different geographic location will have
its own characteristics and problems. In every case I would say in the first
five years there will be way more than a ¼" of differential settlement
between objects of both major size and minor size at any Process Plant
facility. You ask "What about that 1%?" Well maybe you get to work on a
project that is built on solid rock that is very thick and spreads out under
the whole site. It will probably not have the problem of differential
settlement. But you will have all the other construction "tolerance
realities" of any other project.
Settlement is not the only problem and a quarter of an inch is not a lot
(vertically or horizontally) when you are dealing with the real world of a
major Engineering and Construction project. Everything that goes into
such a project will have a tolerance applied to it in every axis. The
Fabrication of all the equipment and structural elements listed above are
affected by vertical, horizontal and angularity "tolerance realities".
Positioning in the field of all the equipment and structural elements listed
above are also effected vertically (including settlement), horizontally,
angularity by the reality of construction "tolerance realities" both in the
locating and the assembly. Another word for "tolerance realities" is
"Margin of error".

Margin of Error is a term that is commonly used. It can also relate to

"Tolerance" in fabrication or other work related issues. In the Engineering,
Design, Fabrication and Construction of a complex process plant there are
many facets. All of these facets have their own margin of error. Some are
very small because of good standards, strict controls and extensive
quality assurance. Others however, do not have good standards, are not
so well controlled and do not have the required quality assurance
programs to back them up.

When building a process plant there are many facets affecting fit-up
including the Ground it is built on. Next there are the Foundations. Then
there is the equipment; the Pumps and Compressors; the Exchangers;
the Vessels and the Tanks. Along with all the equipment there are the
support components such as Multi Level Structures and Pipe Racks. Then
you have the Piping that connects it all together. All of this is impacted by
the final facet called "human error" which is unpredictable. Last of all
there is "Nature" itself.

In the engineering and design office all the groups work to pretty much
the same level of detail, the same measurement and the same
expectation of quality. However, when all the drawings go out in all
directions to the manufacturers or fabricators the margin of error
increases and the level of quality will suffer.
Worst yet, at the job site the system breaks down more because of
circumstances that are beyond the designers control.

Each of the facets listed above has their own "standards" of quality. Some
of these quality standards are better than others. None of them are
perfect. Some facets do not seem to have any standard at all for final
installation in the field.

My area is piping. I spent many years in the design office as a piping

Designer and piping Supervision. I had time in the Pipe Fabrication Shop
as the Engineering manager. Later I also had time at the jobsite as a
Piping Field Engineer. Over these many years (45) I saw and heard about
many situations where things did not go right and in every case the Piper
got the blame. Please let me relate to you just three of them.

1. Project "X" – A multi-level structure supporting an Exchanger on Level

3. Next to the structure is a grade mounted vertical vessel. Connecting
these two is a 10" pipe that attaches to the outlet nozzle on the bottom of
the exchanger and drops through the platform under the exchanger; exits
the structure and then drop to the level of the vessel nozzle and elbows
into the nozzle then connect to the vessel with a bolted flange connection.
The exchanger, the exchanger nozzle, the hole in the platform, the 10
foot diameter vertical Vessel and the vessel nozzle were all on the same
(true North/South) center line on all the design documents from the
office. In the field the pipe missed the vessel nozzle by 1-1/2". That is
twelve times
the allowable piping fit-up tolerance. Piping was initially blamed for bad
design and bad quality. A proper survey was initiated post-mortem and
the results showed that a) the vessel foundation was out of place
(surveyor error), b) the structure was not plumb (no standard for vertical
alignment), c) the vessel nozzle which was supposed to be on the
North/South center line, was off by 1 degree with a nozzle projection of
5'-8", d) The piping was within the design accuracy allowance and the PFI
(Pipe Fabrication Institute) ES3 tolerance standards of +/- 1/ 8". Piping
got blamed anyway.

2. A four story structure with a close fit vertical pipe chase. On installation
the pipes down on the first level were hitting the steel beams. The post-
mortem showed that the structure was out of plumb by 6" from grade
level to the roof beams. Piping got blamed anyway.

3. A twenty foot (20'-0") wide central pipe rack between two rows of
identical Reactor Vessels.
The design documents (Plot Plan, Foundation Location Drawing, and
Piping Plans) all have the center line of the vessels 20"-0" from the near
centerline of the pipe rack columns on each side. So then, the plan shows
a row of vessels, then 20' to the center of the pipe support
column, then 20' to the next pipe support column, finally 20' to the next
row of Vessels. When the pipe installation was started in this area, the
field reported that design "had screwed up again." All the pipes
connecting to the vessels on one side of the pipe rack were 1'-0" too short
and all the piping connecting to the vessels on the other side of the rack
were 1'-0" too
long. The post-mortem survey showed that the Surveyor had located the
pipe rack 1'-0" out of place. Piping got blamed anyway.

In first case above (#1) most of the deviations were in the same direction
and so they were accumulative making the problem progressively worse.
The best case scenario would be if dimensional deviations off-set and
cancel out each other. However, that is a lot to wish for.
You may ask now, "What is the moral of this story?" Well, the moral of
this story is "keep things in proper perspective." Consider the whole story,
the whole picture, and the whole process from the striving for design
perfection in the office, to the stark realities of the final constructed plant

Section - II
E: Tracing - Guidelines for Planning, Staffing
and Executing the work
By: James O. Pennock

Tracing overview

Tracing (commonly referred to as "Heat Tracing") is one of the most

maligned and misunderstood activities the piping designer is asked or
required to perform. Many pipers consider it to be "scutwork" and either
refuse to do it or grumble as they put forth a less than their best effort.
The definition of the term scutwork is "(–noun) menial, routine work, as
that done by an underling. Example: the scutwork of scrubbing pots and
pans." This attitude needs to change.

The word "Heat" as used in this application is a relative term. The actual
heat application may be "Hot" or "Cold". Most applications are "Hot"
tracing to prevent freezing due to weather conditions or unwanted cooling
of the product and the resulting lowering of viscosity. On the other hand,
there are also some fluids/processes where the fluid is "Exothermic" and
needs constant cooled. The identification of weather related tracing
requirements is both the Process and Piping Department responsibility.
The identification of all other heating or cooling tracing requirements is
the responsibility of the Process Engineer. The tracing need and
identification is communicated via the P&ID (Piping & Instrument
Diagram) and must clearly define the type, manner and temperature for
all pipe line tracing requirements.

The amount of heat tracing on some projects may be minimal or even

nonexistent. On other projects, heat tracing may be required on as much
as 40 to 50 percent of the process lines. Heat tracing on these projects is
vital for the successful and cost effective operation of the plant. This can
mean, if the heat tracing is not done properly the plant will not work at
all, or the plant will be strangled by the excessive cost of down time and
expensive maintenance.

Properly designed and installed heat tracing systems are the piping
designer's responsibility. It should not be assigned just to "underlings" as
suggested in the definition of the term "scutwork". It is okay to have a
few people involved in the work who have no prior heat tracing
experience with only two or three years experience in piping, but the total
effort needs to be staffed by mostly experienced piping designers with 10
to 15 years in the piping business including heat tracing. The leader of
the heat tracing effort (large or small), needs to have extensive
experience on one or more projects with extensive heat tracing.

What is "heat tracing"?

Heat tracing is the supplemental application of heat (or cooling) to a
primary piping system, vessel, pump or other object to ensure
temperature control.

Supplemental heat is used for two reasons:

1) Environmental (Winterization) - to keep a fluid from freezing caused by

atmospheric conditions

2) Process – the control of the process viscosity so it can be pumped

without setting up in the pipe or equipment.

The manner and medium are two factors of prime importance in Heat
Tracing. The application of the heat for the Tracing includes the manner of
delivering the heat and the fluid media is the heat source to be delivered.

Manner (noun) "the style or customary way of doing or accomplishing

something" is the hardware that becomes the tracer that physically
transports the heat medium fluid.

Manner types may include:

 Single bare tube tracer (tubing 1/2", 3/4" etc).

 Multiple bare tube tracers (tubing 1/2", 3/4" etc).
 Single or multiple tube tracers with a Heat Transfer compound.
 "ControTrace," formed channel shaped to fit the pipe.
 Jacketed Pipe, pipe inside another pipe.
 Electric Tracing, electric resistance cable wrapped around pipe or
strapped to pipe and valves.

Medium (noun) "an intervening substance, as air, through which a force

acts or an effect is produced" is the fluid used to provide the
supplemental heat. Each media may have one or more levels of
temperature. Each of these media will also have both a supply and a
return for each temperature level. On very complex Heat Tracing projects
it is not unusual to have 5 or 6 tracer media.

Media types may include:

 Steam – There could be two or more temperatures of Steam

 Hot Oil – There could be two or more temperatures of Hot Oil
 Hot Water – There could be two or more temperatures of Water
  Chilled Water – There could be two or more temperatures of Chilled
Water

Key Issues related to the design of Heat Tracing

Piping Tracing Team Supervisor: This effort needs to be lead by the most
experienced designers available. The person in the position to lead the
Heat Tracing Design Team needs to be assigned early and be active on
the project. This means they are busy with other piping activities until it
is time for the actual tracing work. But when there is a task related to
Tracing, the person must be able to drop what ever task they are doing
and give attention to the Tracing issue. The other people assigned to
tracing only need to be present when it is time to start the actual Tracing
work. The proper time to do the Tracing work is when the fabrication and
installation piping Isometrics have been issued.

Staffing: Who should be assigned to do Heat Tracing? Heat Tracing is not

a simple task and should not be all assigned to lower skilled pipers. It
can be a learning experience for some but 50% or more of the people
assigned should have past experience in Heat Tracing.

Scheduling: When to start the Tracing design? If there is tracing on a

project it should be discussed early and often. Questions for the early
discussions regarding Tracing should include the actual installation
responsibility, the level of design detail, purchasing responsibility, etc.

Who is going to install it?

Will this be by direct hire specialist under the supervision of

someone on the EPC Construction Superintendent's staff?

Will this be a Sub-Contract let to a Contractor qualified and

experienced in doing Tracing?

Will the design and installation be Sub-contracted to a Specialty

Company that does this and only this?

What level of detail is required on the Tracing Isometrics? Who will

do the MTO (material take-off)?

Who will purchase the material?

The answer to these questions will impact how the in-house work is
executed. Regardless of who executes the actual installation, the Heat
Tracing will have a prominent place in the Project Scope of Work (SOW).
It also will need to have sufficient definition so as to be included in the
piping Labor Estimate (Man hour) and the piping Control Level Schedule
of piping activities.

Scope: For the purpose of this article we need to create a hypothetical

project. This Project is intended to help you to understand the magnitude
of effort involved where there is a lot of tracing. Here is our sample
project criterion. The total plant is a mega-project "Grass-Roots" (Green
Field) chemical complex. There are seven major units including the Utility
Complex plus Feed Tankage, Intermediate Product Tankage along with
Storage for bulk and bagged palletized finished product. We will focus on
one of the major processing units. Unit 16 is the largest unit and has
complex equipment and 3550 line numbers. The breakdown of these
lines is shown in Table "A" & "B" (See Appendix).

Tables A & B reflect the number of lines and tracer isometrics for our
project. It also shows the number of Supply and Return manifolds
required. The number and type of manifolds allows for 25% futures
tracers and 8 connections per manifold. Once these numbers have been
determined, even if they are estimates, additional planning can be done.

Defining the number, manner of tracer systems and media (High Pressure
Steam, Low Pressure Steam, High Temp Water, Glycol/water, Hot Oil,
Chilled Water, etc.) is very important. This needs to be defined early in
the project and has an impact on the planning of the number of lines on
the pipe rack, the sizing of the rack and number of levels of the rack.
Each of these commodities is the first required in the unit for start-up and
the last needed for shut-down. If you have five (5) tracing mediums
there will be ten (10) additional lines not showing up on the average
P&ID. The tracing media lines are all insulated. These lines are all going
to be subject to thermal expansion. These lines will have anchors and
guides that will result in loops and added forces to the pipe rack design.

Pay particular attention to the total manifold requirement. Each manifold

will require a minimum footprint of 3'-0"x 1'-6" (1meter x .5 meters).
This space is defined as the space for just the hardware. Operator and
maintenance space in front of the manifold is required but can be
coexistent with an aisle or other clear space. This is important because
space must be allowed for and reserved during Plot Plan development and
not used by normal piping layout. The manifold space must be protected
from infringement and use by other disciplines during the design process.
If a 3D CAD system is used for the design, a blocked out area (with a
designated color) should be inserted into the plant layout and identified.

Heat Tracing Specification and Standard Details: Regardless of who

installs the tracing (direct hire or Sub-contract) the Specification and
Standard Details need to be well written detailed and complete.
Tracing Files & data: There are multiple items necessary and helpful to
the Heat Tracing activity. These may include:

 P&ID's: For a unit the size of our sample project there may be as
many as 80 to 90 (or more) P&IDs. All issues and revisions must
be collected, properly controlled and reviewed for Tracing related
changes
 Client criteria (Tracing related) : What does the Client want or not
want. Does the Client have existing Standards? All such items
should be requested from the Client and evaluated for the project.
 Correspondence (Tracing related): The Tracing Team leader should
be on distribution for all correspondence (letters, memos, etc)
related to Tracing.
 Specification (Tracing related): Normally this is a modification and
update making a generic Tracing Specification specific for the
current project. If the Engineering Company does not have a basic
generic specification then one needs to be developed. Nothing
should be left to interpretation. Items that need to be covered in
the Specification include; material for each type of tracing
mediums; manner of the tracing; if Heat transfer compound is to be
used; how much compound and how the compound is applied.
 Standards (Tracing related): The objective is to have a Standard to
refer to, eliminating the need to detail repetitive situations on every
Tracing Isometric. These may include Manifold Support; Manifold
Piping and Valving; Supply/Return Tracer Supports; Single Tracer
Positioning; Multi Tracer Positioning; Tracer Expansion Loops; Valve
Tracer Positioning; and any other repetitive situation. The Standard
Details need to show placement of the tracer on the process pipe;
maximum distance a tracer can travel; design of tracer expansion
loops; locating jumpers around non-traced objects etc.
 Vendor Data and Drawings (Tracing related): Example:
Prefabricated Manifolds, Steam Traps, etc.
 Heat Tracing Isometric Samples: Develop a sample of different
situations, use them for team orientation and require compliance for
quality & unity of design.
 Sample Tracing Supply & Return lines: Show how the tracing
supply/return line attaches to the manifold. Include the Manifold
number and the connection "Letter" designation, show how the pre-
insulated tubing is supported and how it connects to the "on-pipe
tracer". Be sure to include proper reference to the continuing
documents.
 Project specific statistical data (see Table A & B, Appendix)
 Tracing Circuit Index Form: This is an issued document that the
Client (Operators and Maintenance Staff) will use in the operation of
the unit. (See sample Index Form, Appendix)
  Isotrac: This is not the same as the Tracing Circuit Index. Isotrac is
the control document used for listing and tracking development and
issue of all piping isometrics on the project.

Source of Tracing Media: The source of tracing media may be from

inside the unit but more likely it will come from outside the unit. If more
than one unit requires tracing then it is logical that a central site (Utility
Plant or other) would be dedicated to providing the required services. An
example of this is the Steam for Steam Heat tracing. The Main Steam for
the plant is generated in the Utility Plant and supplies the total facility.
Steam at various pressures is created in the Utility Plant. It may be
generated specifically for tracing or thru a reducing station used to create
medium or low pressure steam for the other uses. The requirement for
tracer steam could be supplied from outside the unit via a dedicated line
with a pressure control station and pressure relief valves to guarantee the
supply and protect the tracing systems. The tracer condensate may be
collected inside the unit and exported from the unit via a dedicated line.
Each of the other commodity mediums may also be supplied from a
central source and have a dedicated supply and return line in the unit.

Identification of lines targeted for tracing: A task normally

accomplished by the Unit Process Engineers while developing the P&IDs.
However, they are human and will often miss little things that will cause
trouble. These "little" things include equipment items such as pumps and
instrumentation. Piping should do an extensive survey of the P&IDs
looking at all instrumentation and equipment to which traced lines are
associated.

Identification of maintenance breaks of the pipe lines or

equipment: This is the piping designer's responsibility. The designer
needs to look at any line or part of a line that can or will be removed as a
part of routine maintenance. An example of this is found in pump suction
and discharge lines at paired pumps. If one pump breaks down the spare
pump must take over and the damaged pump must be taken out of
service. When this situation is present, the common suction line, the
operating pump and the common discharge lines must continue to
operate. Therefore, the tracing for these must also continue to operate.
The suction line and discharge lines inside the block valves must be shut
down, drained and cleaned. The tracing is then shut off so the pump can
be disassembled or removed completely. In a case like this there is one
tracer circuit on the common suction line (from the source tank to the
suction block valves at each pump. There are two tracer circuits; one on
each suction/discharge lines inside (pump side) the block valves. Then
there are one or more tracer circuits on the common discharge line
depending on the length and complexity. At a control valve manifold
there is one tracer circuit on the common line to cover both up stream
and down stream piping including the bypass. The part of the manifold
inside the block valves including the control valve itself must be on a
separate circuit so it can be removed in case major maintenance or
replacement is required. Similar thinking must be carried out for every
line and each piece of equipment.

Some design options that should be considered in any Unit with heavy
tracing involve piping or instrument components.

 Strainers in pump suction lines should be the "T" type or "Y" type
strainers. These allow the changing or cleaning of the screen
without dismantling the suction line (and the tracing) when the
"Conical" type strainer is used.
 Drilling of a small (¼" +/-) hole in the pump discharge check valve
to allow some backflow through the pump when it is on "Standby"
mode.
 Discussions with the Instrument Engineer need to cover all
instruments including Pressure Instruments (PI's). PI's should be
looked at with the possibility using only the "Diaphram" protected
type so the critical process fluid does not get into the "PI" piping
and require heat tracing.

Defining the number of tracing circuits: The number of tracing

circuits required in each Unit is determined by a detailed review of the
P&IDs by the piping designer. The number required is a constantly
moving target. Early in the project a count for the purpose of the SOW
(Scope of Work) and estimate will executed. P&ID development is a
dynamic activity and therefore two or three months later another count
should be completed to update the number of circuits and prepare a RFQ
(Request for Quote) for Manifold assemblies. If the updated number is
significantly different (higher or lower) than the SOW count it is
appropriate to follow the procedure to adjust the piping labor estimate.

Defining the number of supply and return manifolds: As shown in

Table "B" (Appendix), some very simple math will accomplish this task.
The math considers the total number of tracer circuits, the number of
connections on each standard manifold and the percent utilization for
initial installation vs. future needs. Table "B" uses an eight (8) connection
standard manifold. Manifolds with 8 connections, 10 connections or 12
connections are available. However, there is a trade off that must be
considered between using fewer manifolds and longer supply and return
runs.

Location of supply and return manifolds: All supply and return

manifolds should be located as close to the user as is reasonably
possible. It may be better to have more but smaller (fewer connection)
manifolds than fewer larger (more connection) manifolds. Fewer
manifolds will automatically lengthen the supply and return run causing
more heat loss.
Design of Tracing hard piping: Hard piping (Tracing media supply and
return headers in the pipe racks; the branches to & from the supply
headers and the manifolds) can and should be designed along with all
other piping in the Unit. Pipe runs will likely be shop fabricated and
shipped to the field.

Manifold identification: Identification of manifolds is not a standard and

is usually what the Client /Operator requests. It may be something they
are accustomed to and use in one their existing plants. If there is no
Client preferred system, a system must be developed. Whatever system
that is utilized, it needs to be simple, logical and consistent. A simple
system you might consider is the following:

 If a plant is a horizontal plant having all (or most) equipment grade

mounted. Consider starting with SM 001, S= Supply, M= Manifold,
001= simple numeric identification for the manifold. Return
Manifold would start with RM 001.
 If a plant is a vertical plant having equipment on multiple levels,
consider a manifold designation structured for ease of the operators
locating the manifolds. For multiple level plants you might use SM
1-001 for the first or ground level and SM 2-001 for the second
level, etc.

Next is the need for a designation system for each manifold connection
point. The best way for this is, as you face each manifold (Supply and
Return) start at the upper left connection with "A" then across from that
is "B" at the upper right and so on down the manifold. Each of the
manifolds shown in Illustration 1, would have tracer connections labeled
"A" through "H". See "Sample Tracer Numbering" (Appendix).
Illustration 1
Steam Tracer Manifolds
Supply Manifold (left) & Return Manifold (right)
8 connections each
(Note: individual tracer block valves are not shown)
From Spirax Sarco

Executing the Tracing work

How do you do this? I could start by saying "Very Carefully" but I am sure
that you will do that. So the real answer is, don't start until the piping
Isometrics have all been issued for construction. You do not want to have
some Tracing work done and then find that the piping design has been
revised and tracing must be redesigned. Also, now that the piping is
complete, designers will be available for the Tracing effort. The "How To"
includes creating the Tracing Supply isometric, locating the tracing on the
process line and creating the Tracing Return isometric.

The Tracing Supply isometric is very much like a standard CAD or manual
drawn isometric but is shown as pre-insulated tubing. The tubing must
be supported and must have basic dimensions for material purchase and
the installer can estimate the work giving a realistic price. The tracing on
the actual process line is bare tubing running the length of the pip[e
(considering breakout sections) and then connecting to the return
isometric. The Return Tracing Isometric is similar to the Supply
Isometric. It shows pre-insulated tubing, supports and basic dimensions.

As each Tracing Circuit is being designed, the "Heat Tracing Index" must
be filled out to document the complete system for Client operators. In
addition to the Tracing Index, there needs to be a simple tool to organize
and control the work and prevent multiple designers from using the same
manifold connection on different tracer circuits. This is achieved by
creating a simple sketch of a standard manifold. Example: If using the
numbers shown in Table "B" (Appendix), print out one copy for each
Supply and Return manifold and label them sequentially. When a
designer starts a circuit he or she is required to sign out the two
connections required. No exceptions Use it or Lose it.

After reading this article it should be clear that Tracing is not "Scutwork".
Tracing is complex and demands experience, planning, organization and
proper execution. When the Tracing effort is completed and installed, the
next thing is the successful start-up. If all the recommendations of this
article were followed you can be assured that the start-up will be smooth
and the Client will be happy.

Acknowledgements: With deep appreciation to A. R. Legvold for the

significant technical input and for the editing of the whole article, thank
you.

James O. Pennock has more than forty-five years in the process plant
design profession. He has been involved in both home office and job site
assignments on refinery, chemical, petrochemical, power and other
projects. His experience ranges from entry level designer to engineering
manager. Much of this was with Fluor. He is also the author of the book
"Piping Engineering Leadership for Process Plant Projects." He is
now retired, living in Florida, USA and does only occasional consulting
work. Mr. Pennock can be contacted via E-Mail at
jopennock@netscape.net.
Appendix:

Line Count

Pipe Line Breakdown Gross Numbers Percent

Total Line Count 3550

Total Process Lines 2130 60%

Total Utility Lines 1420 40%

Total Lines Traced 639 18%

Percent Process lines Traced 30%

Table "A"

Tracing Media Type Breakdown

Manifold Manifold
Minimum Estimated Req'd Req'd
Lines Percent Iso's per Tracers
per Per Line Iso's Supply Return
Media Type
Tracing Tracer Positions Positions
Type Type
(1) (2) (5)
(3) (4)

H. P. Steam 202 39.6% 4 808 269 45 269 45

L. P. Steam 182 28.5% 4 728 243 40 143 40

Hot Oil 127 19.9% 3.5 445 169 28 169 28

Hot Water 63 9.9% 3.5 221 84 14 84 14

Warm Water 65 10.2% 3.5 228 87 14 87 14

Glycol
0 0.0% 0
(30 degree F)

Chilled Water
0 0.0% 0
(42 Degree F)

Other 0 0.0% 0

Total 639 100% ---- 2429 852 142 852 142

Table "B"

Table “B” notes:

 1. Minimum tracing isometrics per line includes one (1) tracing isometric from the Supply Manifold to the
Process Line, a minimum of one (1) tracing isometric for the tracing on the Process Line and one (1) tracing
isometric for the return line to the Return Manifold. Process line tracing requires one tracing isometric for
every original construction isometric.
2. Some process lines may require more than one tracing circuit depending on the length, complexity or
temperature requirements.
3. Supply Manifold requirements are based on 8 connection manifolds and 75% initial utilization with 25%
future.
4. Return Manifold requirements are based on 8 connection manifolds and 75% initial utilization with 25%
future.
5. Manual vs. CAD execution methods may result in differing quantities of fabrication isometrics and tracing
isometrics.

Sample Tracer Numbering

16 – 1234 – 1/3 – SM22 – C – RM40 – D

Legend:

16 – Unit number

1234 – Process line number

1/3 – Number of circuit / total circuits required for this process line

SM22 – Number ID of Supply Manifold for this circuit

C – Supply manifold connection letter designation for this tracer

RM40 - Number ID of Return Manifold for this circuit

D - Return manifold connection letter designation for this tracer

Min.
Supply Return Process Ass
Tracing Supply Return Line
Unit Line Manifold Manifold Heat Process Line
Circuit Manifold Manifold Req’d Remarks
No. No. Conn. Conn. Media Commodity
Count Number Number
Position Position D
(Deg. F)
Hot A
16 0011 1 of 3 SM34 A Rm29 C Raw Feed 180
Water 25
HP Stage 1 Base Critical
16 0012 4 of 4 SM02 B RM03 F 400
Steam Prep Line
HP
16 0030 3 of 3 SM02 B RM20 A Stage 2 Base 400
Steam
A
16 0048 1 of 1 SM60 D RM68 B Hot Oil Poly Prop. 300
25

Sample Tracing Circuit Index

(Index Title, Document Number and Project Identification omitted here)

Note: An excel work book containing Tables “A” & “B” and the Tracing Circuit Index (w/ 1000 circuits) is available
by contacting J. O. Pennock at jopennock@netscape.net
 Section - III
A: Pipe Supports, Part - 1
By: James O. Pennock
The subject, "Pipe Supports" is a much more complex subject than the
term suggests. There are so many situations that a pipe can find itself in
and in every case it will need to be supported. Pipe supports is a general
term that actually is split into two families. There is what I call the
primary pipe support systems, and then there are the secondary pipe
support systems.
The primary pipe supports systems are those supports that are a part of
the infrastructure and fall under the prime responsibility of the structural
department. The secondary pipe support systems are more a part of the
piping systems and as such fall under the prime responsibility of the
piping department. You notice I used the words 'prime responsibility' with
each of these there is still a cross over responsibility to provide proper,
accurate and timely information and then action.

Primary Pipe Support Systems

As noted above the primary pipe supports are a part of the infrastructure.
This is true of most all projects. For simplicity the emphasis here will
focus on "Grass Root" or new construction plants. These primary pipe
supports systems may also be referred to as piperacks, pipeways, pipe
alleys. These support systems may be major or minor and they may be
overhead or sleeper pipe racks. It is important to understand that even
though they are called pipe racks they support and carry more than just
piping. These other items may include the cables for electrical and
instrumentation services.

For clarification, overhead pipe racks are elevated to the point where you
can walk and/or drive under the supported piping. Sleepers or sleeper
ways are low to the ground so there is no passage under the supported
piping.

Pipe racks (overhead or sleeper) are normally established and sized early
in the preliminary engineering phase of a project. This time of the project
is normally called the plant development phase or the plot plan
development phase. Once they are established and sized they are one of
the first things the structural department can work on. The terms
'establish' and 'size' requires a lot of wisdom and work.

The wisdom and work means thinking one, two or three years into the
future and deciding where (location) the primary pipe support systems
will run. Other critical elements include the configuration, height, width,
spacing and the materials of construction/fabrication method. Let's take
these elements one at a time.

» Location - In order to set the location of the primary pipe support

systems the total plant layout must be established. This means that all
the various disciplines must have a very good idea what equipment is
required and it's size. The "Plot Plan" must be reviewed by all the key
people on the project and then approved by the client.

» Configuration - This is the selection of "fit-for-purpose." Each main run,

minor run and branch run must be looked at to determine its
configuration. Will it be an overhead rack or a sleeper way? Will each be
single deck (layer) or multiple deck? Will the support be a single column
("T") support or multi-column support? How many columns? A second
part of the configuration issue effects pipe racks in the process units
themselves. This is the question of whether or not the pipe rack will
support equipment such as Air Coolers (Fin Fans). Another part of
configuration is the issue of intersections. Poor planning on this issue can
cause problems later with the piping.

» Height - How high should each run of rack be? Should they be elevated
or low sleepers. The sleepers are concrete with an imbedded steel plate
on the top. For sleepers, they need to be off the ground to allow for
maintenance and drainage also to prevent corrosion. For elevated multi-
level racks what should the separation be? For elevated racks you must
plan the height and the separation of the whole system together. A key
element in the determination of separation is the line sizes to be carried
on the racks.

» Width - This requires a detailed study of the total piping systems for
the whole plant based on pipe rack routing. In the past, a study (called a
"Transposition") was done to, as best you could, account for each line on
each pipe rack. From this study, a berth sequence was established and
the line spacing set. A percentage was added as an error factor and then
the clients "future" reserve was added. This then constituted the
minimum rack width. The final width would be set after all racks were
"sized" and then some might be rounded up in width for consistence
based on the materials of construction/fabrication method.

» Spacing - This issue can be addressed after the transposition has been
completed. The transposition identifies all the rack piping from the largest
to the smallest From this the average line size for each leg of the rack
system can be established. With the pipe size information (largest,
smallest and average pipe size) the number and spacing of the pipe
support bents can be set. A cost tradeoff is evaluated and made between
more pipe supports spaced closer together or fewer pipe supports and
some sort of intermediate support system.
» Materials of construction/fabrication method - What materials are the
pipe racks to be made of and what will be the fabrication method? Pipe
racks can be bare steel, steel w/a concrete encasement (fireproofing),
reinforced concrete or a combination. The steel can be steel structural
shapes or pipe shape. The concrete fireproofing can be cast in place onto
(or around) the steel columns and beams or it can be pre-cast onto the
columns and beams prior to installation. The reinforced concrete pipe
supports can also be cast in place or pre-cast then field erected. The
space requirement dimensions for a reinforced concrete column or beam
is about twice that of bare steel.

The piping design group on the project (at the company where I came
from) was the lead group in all of the above issues except the last one,
materials of construction/fabrication method. This issue was properly the
responsibility of the structural department, construction and the client.
There is no doubt that economics, the jobsite location, labor and material
availability played a part. Piping, however must know what the materials
of construction/fabrication method will be because it can affect one or
more of the other issues.

Secondary Pipe Support Systems

The secondary pipe support systems are a broad family of devices with
two branches and actually include more than just supports. The two
branches are defined as (a) "engineered" devices and (b) "miscellaneous"
pipe support devices.

The term "engineered" pipe supports relates to devices that are non-
static, one-of-a-kind, location and condition specific. They are identified at
the time the need is recognized and then designed and engineered for
that specific need. Constant support spring hangers and snubbers are just
two of the devices in this category. The piping stress engineer is the
party/person who is responsible for the engineering of these. However,
the piping designer working in the specific area has a shared
responsibility.

The term "miscellaneous" pipe support refers to a broad array of devices

that includes items such as Anchors, Base Supports, Cradles, Dummy
Support Legs, Guides, Hanger Rods, Pick-ups, Shoes, Trunnions, etc. All
companies have their own operating methods and may not use a different
approach to miscellaneous pipe support devices. Some may allow each
piping designer to pick and choose pieces and parts from various catalogs
to design their own pipe supports. Others may use a more organizational
approach and "pre-engineer" these supports.

The term "pre-engineer" means that the various devices are an existing
company standard that may be used on the project. Secondary support
devices typically have multiple or repetitive point of use subject to similar
conditions. Having these devices "pre-engineered" and available to the
piping designer on the project saves money, provides consistency of
design, and results in a safer design. The configurations, hardware and
materials have already been established, the load calculations have been
performed (and are on file). There is also an "If-then" selection key and
criteria established (If you have "X" support problem, then you can/must
use "Y" support device). The extensive use of computers and plant design
software makes this approach more viable. Having these support devices
"pre-engineered" and documented allows for the inserting of the item's
specific electronic symbol required for model generation and document
(plans, elevations and isometrics) extraction.

Secondary pipe support devices

(Item name, purpose and frequency of use)

Name Purpose Frequency

Prevent the movement of the pipe line
Anchors High
normally in a pipe rack
Prevent any movement of a piping
Base Anchors Low
assembly normally at grade
Allows only vertical movement (up or
Base Guides Low
down) of piping assemblies at grade
Base Provides support under piping
High
Supports assemblies normally at grade
Provides protection for cold insulation
High for cold
Cradles when crossings a pipe support in pipe
service
racks
Directional Restricts the movement of a pipe line
High
Anchor to a specific direction pipe racks
Provides added length to a pipeline for
Dummy
the purpose of support. Not restricted High
Support Legs
to only pipe rack usage
A catchall term sometimes used by a
Field piping designer that includes any type
High
Supports of non-infrastructure support. These
items are not location specific.
Provides restraint to keep a pipe line
in place in horizontal pipe racks or
Guides High
vertical pipe racks in buildings or up
tall equipment

Gussets Provides added reinforcement for See note #1

small (fragile) branch connections on
 a larger header or pipe
A wide verity of top-down pipe
Hanger Rods supports situations, not location
High
specific.
Prevents or controls mechanical
Hold Downs
vibration in piping systems. See note #2
Provides additional mass for thin wall
Load
pipe at a point of concentrated stress
Distribution
loading. Low
Pads
This item is not location specific.
Provides support of pipes from other
Pick-ups pipes or overhead beams and is not Moderate
location specific.
Provides "mini-supports for lines with
Shoes hot insulation normally only used only High
at pipe support points
Provides load-carrying points for
vertical pipelines most often used to
Trunnions Low
support pipes attached to tall vertical
vessels or hung from tall structures.

Note #1 - This item is normally used only for (a) services subject to
heavy vibration such as at reciprocating compressors or (b) services that
contain highly hazardous or toxic material.
Note #2 - This item is normally only used for the suction and discharge
piping at reciprocating compressors.

Now, lets look at and discuss each of these "miscellaneous" or "pre-

engineered" devices. The description for these items is based on my own
experience. Others will no doubt have other and even better ways.
Everyone is encouraged to create "a better mouse trap."

Anchors

The anchoring of a pipe in place can be achieved in a number of ways. An

anchor will normally require some additional material regardless of the
line size. You cannot just weld a pipe to a pipe support. For some small
lines in the right situations you can use "U" bolts over the pipe (tack-
welded to the pipe) and through-bolted to a bare steel pipe support.
Another way for small line sizes (2" and 3") uses 1-1/2" angle iron 6"
long. Weld one leg of the angle iron (horizontal) flat to the top of the pipe
support with the other (vertical) leg against the pipe. Stitch weld (1" fillet
weld on 5" centers) to the vertical leg to the pipe. For larger lines use a
pipe guide to restrain the side-to-side movement and add a piece of steel
("T" or channel) to the bottom of the pipe (or shoe) at the pipe support to
restrict longitudinal. Anchors will be required for both bare (uninsulated)
pipe and insulated pipe. The requirements for anchors for cold insulated
and hot insulated pipe is different.

Base Anchors

This will occur most often at control valve manifolds (or stations) situated
close to grade or a platform. Base anchors are simply a stub of pipe
(dummy leg) attached to the lower portion of an elbow and extended to
grade (or platform). A square steel plate is welded flat to the pipe. The
plate may have holes in it and be cinch-anchored to the paving or welded
to platform steel. The sizing of the "pipe leg" can be the same as for
Dummy Legs.

Base Guides

This item is constructed of the material and methods as the base anchor
except that the bottom plate is not bolted or welded down. For this item
angle iron strips are installed on two opposite sides (depending on desired
movement) to control the direction.

Base Supports

This is another name for one of the items that sometimes falls under the
name Field Support. This item also has a dummy leg type pipe extension
(or stub) welded down from an elbow. However, the bottom end if the
stub is threaded using a straight (conduit) thread machine. A straight
thread, conduit coupling in then used to make height adjustments to the
support. When this is required for high cost piping materials that require
post weld heat treating the stub is shortened and added in the shop. The
balance of the stub is added in the field from carbon steel. Another
variation of this is restricted to small diameter piping. For this a 3'-0" (1
meter) length of 3"x3" steel angle is welded to a 6"x6" plate. Holes are
drilled in the angle at the proper elevation and a "U" bolt secures the pipe
to the angle.

Cradles

This device is normally fabricated from carbon steel that is shaped to fit
the outside diameter of cold insulation. The potential number of sizes for
this item can be vast. The sizing requirements are based on (a) the pipe
size, (b) the insulation thickness, (c) the load bearing capability of the
insulation, (d) the length of the required cradle and (e) the thickness of
the cradle material. The pipe size, the insulation thickness and the load
bearing capability should be easy to understand. The length if the cradle
is influenced by questions such as: Does this line require an anchor at this
cradle? What kind of pipe supports do we have at the point of this cradle?
How much thermal movement will this line "see" at the point of this
cradle? All of these items effect the cradle length. If there is to be an
anchor at this cradle and the forces are substantial then the cradle
thickness may need to be increased.

Directional Anchor

This item could also be called a Directional Guide and is most often
associated with hot piping. This item is designed to allow for thermal
movement in a specific axis. The design may require longitudinal
movement or it may require side-to-side movement of a line. This item
has two versions, one for longitudinal movement and a second for the
side-to-side movement. Remember this most often occurs in hot piping.
Hot piping also requires shoes to elevate the line and the insulation above
the pipe support. So we have a pipe, a hot pipe, already on a shoe. Now,
to allow for longitudinal movement we simply add (weld) Guides to the
top (steel) surface of the pipe support. To allow for side-to-side
movement in the pipe we DO NOT ADD GUIDES. We add two pieces piece
of steel ("T" or channel) to the bottom of the pipe shoe, one on each side
of the pipe support with a small (1/4") gap to avoid binding.

Dummy Support Legs - (or Dummy Legs)

This is simply a piece of pipe extended from an elbow to provide support

when a pipe line enters or leaves a pipe rack short of a support and is left
improperly support. A stub or length of pipe sized to carry the load is
welded to the elbow and extended beyond the support. The length and
the wall schedule of the pipe extension are a rather complex formula
based on the parent line size and the total load. The total load is based on
the distance (indirection of flow) from the last support to the drop, the
distance of the drop, the distance from the drop to the next support, the
weight of any insulation plus the weight of the hydrotest water or
commodity which ever is greater.

Field Supports

This "catch-all" term is used to describe a simple piece of steel angle or

channel welded to a column or beam intended to provide a support point
for a pipe. As mentioned above (Base Support), this term is also used for
the support under control valve stations and pump suction or discharge
piping.
(The term "Field Support" (or F.S.) is seen on old drawings from existing
plants of years ago. It was used on drawings with only a simple symbol
indicating a location. This may have occurred when the piper got lazy or
did not know enough about pipe supports. The intention was for the
installation contractor "Field" to do what ever they chose to do with
whatever material that was available.)
Guides

Guides are predominantly in elevated pipe racks or sleepers to keep the

pipes in their assigned berth. Guides are most often short lengths of
properly sized steel angle welded to the pipe support on each side of each
pipe. For small lines using small angle the angle is installed with the point
up, like a pyramid. For larger uninsulated lines with larger angle one leg
of the angle is flat on the support and the other is vertical. For the
installations of guides care must be taken by thew installers to leave a
small gap between the pipe and the angle to avoid binding. Because of
the close spacing of the pipes in a rack guides are attached to alternate
pipe bents in staggered fashion.

Gussets

This is a simple piece of angle steel welded or clamped to a header pipe

and to a (small) branch to prevent breakage due to vibration or other
action. There are some locations and services where the use of gussets is
highly recommended.
These are:
1. Suction and discharge piping of reciprocating compressors and pumps
2. Lines in mixed phase flow subject to slug flow or surge
3. Lines in hydrogen service
4. Lines in toxic service (category "X" or "M")
5. Branches in piping low to grade (or platforms) that may be used as a
step by operators

Hanger Rods

These devices are one of the most dangerous items used in the piping
field. In many if not most cases they are not properly "designed". Hanger
Rods, Rod Hangers and Pipe Hangers all terms for the same device. There
are three basic types of Hanger support devices: (type 1) beam-to-pipe,
(type 2) pipe-to-pipe and (type 3) beam-to-beam (or trapeze). In general
they all have three components, a top connection component, a connector
component and a bottom component. For the type 1 Hanger the top
component normally connects to a structural beam. The connector
component is normally steel rod. The bottom component is normally a
pipe clamp. For the type 2 Hanger the top component is also a pipe
clamp. Other components are the same as type 1. For the type 3 Hanger
there are two top connector components and two connector rods. The
bottom component is a piece of steel angle or channel sized to span the
distance and carry the intended load.
The danger with the design of these items is in the lack of knowledge of
the people doing the design. They do not know how to calculate all the
actual dead and live loading that the Hanger will support. Then they
choose the wrong type or strength of component for the intended load.
Hold-Downs

These items are a combination of clevises, steel shapes, bolts and

compression washers. The are used to hold down the piping on the
suction and discharge of reciprocating compressors and pumps. Normally
this type of piping is low to the ground and supported on sleepers. The
hold-down is a bridge assembly over the pipe and welded to the sleeper
steel plate. The combination of clevises, steel shapes bolts and
compression washers exert tension on the pipe to suppress vibration.

Load Distribution Pads

This is simply a 120 degree section of pipe about 18" long. The Pad is cut
from the same material as the subject line. The Pad is opened up a little
to fit the pipe O. D. and then welded to the pipe at the required location.

Pick-ups

This is a set of devices used to provide intermediate support for small

diameter piping that will not span the existing distance. Its use is
normally restricted to locations where the small size pipelines run parallel
to one or more large diameter pipelines. This is also used to save the cost
in time and material from adding a formal (primary) structural pipe
support. This is simply a length of properly sized, steel angle and one or
more "U" bolts. The angle is cut long enough to span under both the
supported and the supporting lines. The "U" bolts are sized based on the
large pipes that will be doing the supporting.

Shoes

This device is required to raise a hot insulated off the structural support
surface. The reason for this is to prevent damage to the insulation as the
pipe expands as it heats up and shrinks as it cools down. For pipe sizes 3"
thru 10" a simple inverted "T" shoe with a flat bottom plate and one
(single) vertical plate should be used. For pipe sizes 12" thru 18" a shoe
with a flat bottom plate and two (double) vertical plates should be used.
For pipe sizes 20" and larger consideration should be given to the addition
of a Load Distribution Plate (see above) where thin wall pipe may exist.
The material for pipe shoes will normally be carbon steel. However, where
the pipeline is an exotic material this would cause a weld of dissimilar
metals to exist where the shoe is attached to the pipe. For shoes used on
exotic materials only the bottom plate is carbon steel. The (single or
double) vertical plates are made of the same material as the pipe. For
piping that requires post weld heat treating (PWHT) after fabrication the
shoes must be added by the shop. Some company's (engineering and
client) will also require the use of shoes (with the Load Distribution Pad)
for all uninsulated 24" and larger piping where the pipe wall is below a
certain limit.
Trunnions

For this device a vertical pipeline will have two (2) stub pipes attached
horizontally to opposite sides of the pipe. One end of these stub pipes is
shaped to fit the O.D. of the vertical pipe the other end is normally square
cut. The shaped end of the stubs are welded to the vertical pipe with a full
penetration (*) fillet weld. When used on a pipe attached to and
supported from a vertical vessel the vessel department supplies the
primary support. Coordination of size, type, elevation, orientation, etc.
between the piping designer and the vessel group is required. When used
on a pipe attached to and supported from a vertical structure the
structural department supplies the primary support. Coordination of size,
type, elevation, location, etc. between the piping designer and the
structural group is required.
(*) This full penetration refers to the wall thickness of only the stub pipes
not the vertical pipe.

The recommended practice for all of these secondary pipe support devices
is to determine what is needed. Start out with items that are found to
have consistent and repetitive use within the company's past projects.
Document each device complete with parts list and installation
instructions. (Documenting also includes the updates required for any
electronic design system database, AutoCAD, PDS, PDMS or other) Qualify
each device by the specific use criteria based on pipe size, load limitations
and application. Define the selection criteria for each based on the
qualification criteria. Then train all the piping designers, stress engineers,
material group and construction contractors on the responsibility,
purpose, use, application and limitations.
What about responsibility? Who is responsible for pipe supports or the
supporting of the piping? Some may say, "That it is the structural groups
responsibility." That is only partly true. They are only responsible for
providing a support of the size; shape and strength based on information
given to them. If nobody tells them to put a pipe support (of a specific
size, shape and loading) in a specific location they are not going to do it.
So, who is responsible for doing the telling? The piping designer is
responsible for the piping, which means all the piping and all aspects of
all the piping. The piping designer is responsible for telling the structural
group what is required for all primary pipe support systems. And, the
piping designer is also responsible for telling the structural group when a
secondary pipe support device will be attached to and impose a load on a
structural member.

There are of course other opinions on this subject and there are no doubt
questions and more that can be discussed. The other opinions I will
warmly accept. And, as for the questions, please ask. If you don't ask you
will never give others a chance to offer answers.
Pipe Supports, Part - B, Will discuss data requirements and the process
for the selection and qualification of typical pipe supports.

Section - III
A: Training - Pipe Supports, Part - 2
By: James O. Pennock
Pipe supports as we stated in Part 1 (of Pipe Supports) is a much more
complex subject than the term would first suggest. We also want to make
it clear that there are many ways that errors can be made when designing
or selecting pipe supports this includes the various secondary pipe
supports.

In Part - 1, we saw a chart that described some of the many different

types of secondary pipe support devices. In this, Part - 2 of Pipe Supports
we are going to focus on specific data required to properly size, qualify
and select a support.To do this we will look at one specific device. The
specific device we will focus on is the Hanger Rod.

You will remember that in Part - 1 we said there are three basic types of
Hanger Rod support devices: (type 1) beam-to-pipe, (type 2) pipe-to-pipe
and (type 3) beam-to-beam (or trapeze). They all have three major
components, a top connection component, middle or connector
component and a bottom component. For the type 1 Hanger the top
component normally connects to a structural beam. The connector
component is normally steel rod. The bottom component is normally a
pipe clamp. We also said that the danger with the design of these items is
in the lack of knowledge of some of the people doing the design. They do
not know how to calculate all the actual dead and live loading that the
Hanger will support. Then they choose the wrong type or strength of
component for the intended load.

In order to bring attention to some of the potential problems lets take a

hypothetical piping configuration and plant situation for study. We will
look at two cases. We will use the same configuration with different
conditions for each case.

Case #1

Let's take the following as an example scenario for the basis for our
discussion.

>> The project is a process plant in a multi-story structure

>> The line is 12", standard weight carbon steel pipe located in a lower
level of the structure
>> The line will carry a process liquid with a specific gravity of .85

>> The line is subject to hydrotest

>> The line is not insulated

>> The piping travels horizontal north in a well supported manner, then
after crossing the last normal pipe support (support 'a') it travels 40 feet,
then drops down (3'-0") and turns east (right) with two elbows (fitting-to-
fitting) and travels another 40 feet to the next normal support (support
'b').

>> There are no additional horizontal support beams available at or near

the turn point and at the exact piping elevation.

>> The closest steel available as a possible support point is 24" deep
major equipment support beam located 6'-0" (top-of-pipe to bottom-of-
beam) above the pipe and 4'-0" from the pipe drop.

It is logical and factual that structural support 'a' will carry one half of the
pipe load of the north-south run. And the structural support 'b' will carry
half pipe load of the east-west run. However, the L-shaped "dog-leg" in
this scenario is obviously excessively overspanned and the pipe will be
over stressed. The piping designer must provide some type of additional
support at or near the corner. Because of the availability of the overhead
beam a hanger rod is chosen as the best possible and most economical
method of support for the pipe.

We must now look at the factors so we can choose the correct Hanger
Rod assembly. The factors include all the weight to be supported.

The component weights are as follows:

>> 20'-0" of pipe in the north-south run (1/2 the 40' run)

>> 20'-0" of pipe in the east-west run (1/2 the 40' run)

>> Two 90 degree elbows

>> 43 lineal feet of hydrotest water in the 12" Standard Weight pipe

With this information the next step is a simple look-up of the correct data.

Case #1-12" Standard Weight, Carbon Steel Pipe

Pipe Fitting Insulation Water Total

Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
1984 lbs. 246 lbs. 0 2107 lbs. 4337 lbs.

We now have what we need to select a hanger rod assembly to support

our pipe. There are two ways that this can be done. First, the designer
can use the "pick-and-choose" or "do-it-your-self ' method. This is the
process of picking up a hanger parts catalog and then selects each
individual piece and part. The hope is that the designer knows what they
are actually doing.

The second method is that we select from a pre-packaged Hanger Rod

assembly that fits our need. One that comes complete with all the proper
and matched pieces and parts. The term "pre-packaged hanger assembly"
also means that the assembly has been "tag named," has been pre-
designed, pre-engineered, pre-qualified and fully documented including
the related needs for the applicable computer aided design system,
material procurement and installation.

The assembly we need for our "Case #1 includes the following:

(All components and load data are taken from "PTP" Piping Technology
and Products online catalog, see pipingtech.com)

Load Capacity*

>> Figure 110, Eye Rod (Welded), Size 1" 4960 lbs.
>> Figure 20, Welded Beam Attachment, Size #8 (for 1" Rod) 4900 lbs.
>> Figure 40, Weldless Eye Nut, Size #2 for 1" threaded Rod 4960 lbs.
>> Figure 80, Heavy Three-Bolt Pipe Clamp, for 12" pipe 7000 lbs.
>> Beam attachment welds ¼" fillet, 2 sides 12000lbs.

* It is normal practice for components of this type to be designed with a

plus 50% safety factor. The safety factor is not to be considered as
available when making a selection.
**The Beam Attachment is 3" on each side, ¼" attachment fillet weld 1"
long is rated @ 2000 lbs. Per inch.

We now compare our pipe weights against the Hanger Rod load capacity
data and see that (not using any of the safety factor) the Hanger' weakest
link is the Welded Beam Attachment (4900 lbs.) but it is more than
enough for our piping needs (4337 lbs.).

If we were using the "pick-and-choose" method then the designer must

indicate the hanger in the design then identify each and every piece and
part. The detailed part identification is required for proper procurement
and installation.

If we use the "pre-package" method the designer is only required to

indicate the hanger and the item name or tag number (example: HR-1-
12".) All the procurement and installation details are included in the
hanger documentation.

Now Case #2

Later someone else has a similar problem. They had seen what was done
by another designer with the Case #1 problem and decided they would
just copy it and callout for the same Hanger Rod Assembly. Why not?
They too had a 12" line. They had the same configuration. And, they also
had the same span distances. No problem, right? However, all things
were in fact not the same.
So what was different?

Case #2

>> The project is also a process plant in a multi-story structure

>> The line is 12", Schedule 160 carbon steel pipe located in a lower
level of the structure

>> The line will carry a process liquid with a specific gravity of .85

>> The line is subject to hydrotest

>> The line is insulated with 3" of Calcium Silicate

>> The piping travels horizontal north in a well supported manner, then
after crossing the last normal pipe support (support 'a') it travels 40 feet,
then drops down (3'-0") and turns east (right) with two elbows (fitting-to-
fitting) and travels another 40 feet to the next normal support (support
'b').

>> There are no additional horizontal support beams available at or near

the turn point and at the exact piping elevation.

>> The closest steel available as a possible support point is 24" deep
major equipment support beam located 6'-0" (top-of-pipe to bottom-of-
beam) above the pipe and 4'-0" from the pipe drop.

With this information we look-up of the correct data.

Case #2, 12" Schedule 160, Carbon Steel Pipe

Pipe Fitting Insulation Water Total

Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight
6412 lbs. 794 lbs. 528 lbs 1462 lbs. 9196 lbs.
We see here that the total load to be actually carried by the Case #2
hanger is more than twice the safe capacity any of the components
included in the original Hanger Rod. This will not work! This is an example
of the type of errors that result when there is a lack of thinking or laziness
on the part of the piping designer.

All of the items identified, as Secondary Pipe Support Systems are subject
to this same kind of miss-design and miss-use. It is incumbent on the
piping designer to become trained and knowledgeable about these issues.

Having identified the need for the hanger in the case study above and
selected the correct hanger is not the end of the piping designers
responsibility. That hanger is carrying a load and the top of that hanger is
attached to a steel beam. The load is being transferred to that beam. That
hanger and the pipe it is carrying is an abnormal load added to that
beam. It is a load that the structural engineer would not normally be
aware of. It is the piping designer's responsibility to document that
loading and advise the proper member of the structural engineering
group. That beam may be a very large beam and is at or very near it's
safe design limit. You might think "Oh it is okay, it can carry my pipe"
However, you are not a structural engineer and this is not your decision
to make. Whenever an abnormal piping load is added to a structural
beam (steel or concrete) the structural group must be advised.

: SNUBBERS: A GENERAL OVERVIEW

By: Hyder Husain

Article courtesy of Piping Technology & Products, www.pipingtech.com

Introduction: PT&P produces various kinds of snubbers. Why snubbers

are used and how they function are briefly discussed here.

What are they?: Snubbers are restraining devices used to control the
movement of pipe and equipment during abnormal dynamic conditions
such as earthquakes, traveling shock waves caused by turbine trips,
safety/relief valve discharge, rapid valve closure or accidental rupture of
piping.

Where are they used?: Snubbers are extensively used in various

applications including chemical plants, power plants (both conventional &
nuclear), refineries, and structures such as suspension bridges and tall
rise buildings in earthquake prone areas.
How do they function?: The design of a snubber allows free thermal
movement of components during normal operating conditions. Abnormal
conditions activate the snubber to become momentarily rigid (locked
condition). While locked, the snubber transmits the transient force to the
ground or to a permanent structure without causing any damage to the
downstream components. As soon as the transient force ceases, the
snubber resumes its normal operation.

Types of Snubbers: There are two types of snubbers: (i) hydraulic and
(ii) mechanical snubbers with various types of designs. However, the
function of any design is the same—to protect the downstream structure
from abnormal shocks. Snubbers are designed for various load ratings
depending upon the magnitude of seismic activities and the criticality of
fluid induced shocks.

Hydraulic Snubbers:

This type consists of either two

concentric cylinders or two parallel
cylinders and their respective moving
pistons. Both the main cylinder and the
compensating cylinders are filled with
fluid. The main and the compensating
cylinders are connected to velocity
limiting valves and a main piston which
works in either a push or pull mode.
Under normal operating conditions, the
valves remain open and allow the piston
to move freely under thermal
expansion/contraction of the supported
component. When the threshold
velocity (typically 8 in. per minute) is
reached, the valve activates by closing
the flow through the valve (also known
as valve locking) and the flow through Hydraulic Snubbers
the system stops momentarily. At this
point, the main piston that takes the
shock load stops moving and the load is
transmitted to the ground or to a
permanent structure, thus avoiding any
damage to the structure downstream of
the snubber. As soon as the shock
wave passes, the snubber resumes
normal operation.
Mechanical Snubber:

Similar to hydraulic snubbers, this type

of snubber is comprised of a moving
cylinder/rod arrangement. Unlike
hydraulic snubbers however, mechanical
snubbers use mechanical means to
provide the restraint force.
Mechanical Snubbers

MSA Mechanical Snubber:

With this type of snubber, the linear movement of the rod connected to
the piping component is converted to rotary motion. When the centrifugal
acceleration exceeds a certain threshold acceleration (typically 0.02g), a
centrifugal type clutch flares out and locks at the peripheral slot of the
cylinder and restricts linear motion.

Anchor-Darling Mechanical Snubber:

With this type of snubber, the linear motion of the central rod that is
connected to the structural component is converted to oscillatory motion
via a verge mechanism. This oscillatory motion is in turn converted to
rotary motion via a set of gears. As the linear velocity increases, the
inertia force generated in the oscillating verge and the train of rotating
gears increases. The extent of this increase depends upon the amount of
inertial mass and gear train’s angular velocities thereby limiting the
velocity of the piping components within the safe limit.

D: VARIABLE SPRING SUPPORTS VS. CONSTANT SPRING SUPPORTS

By: Hyder Husain

Article courtesy of Piping Technology & Products,

www.pipingtech.com

What is the difference between a variable & a constant spring

support?

In a variable support, the force acting on the spring and hence the
reactive force varies during the pipe travel, while the moment about the
line of action is zero. In contrast, in a constant support, the fixed applied
load remains uniform throughout its travel but the moment around a
pivot point varies.

What is a variable support?

A variable support is essentially a spring, or series of springs, in a

container. When the installed load “w” is applied, the spring is
compressed through the distance W/k (where k is the spring rate)
such that the reactive force exerted by the spring is also “w” under
the equilibrium condition. As the pipe moves due to thermal
expansion, it produces a deflection (∆L), causing a differential load
(∆W=k ● ∆L), to act on the spring(s). Depending upon the direction of the
movement, the change in load (∆W) will either add to or subtract from
our installed load “w” to reach our final operating load (w1). In order to
minimize the stress variations, the differential load (∆W) for a given
variable spring support is limited to a maximum of 25% percent of the
operating load (w1).

What is a constant support?

A constant support is a device comprised of a spring or series of springs

and an integral cam mechanism. The external load of a constant support
is fixed while its moment about the fixed pivot point varies during its
travel (because the moment arm length changes). In order
to maintain an equilibrium condition, the external force
moment is balanced by the internal moment produced due
to the spring’s compression or decompression about the
pivot during the displacement of the pipe.

With an appropriate choice of moment arms, as developed by the cam

geometry, and spring properties (i.e. spring rate), a resisting force can be
provided that is nearly independent of position during its travel.

At each travel location of the applied load, the moment caused by the
external load is balanced by the counter moment produced by the
(compressed/decompressed) spring force with the appropriate moment
arm. Typically, the variation of the active and reactive forces is very small
(with a maximum deviation of 6%) and can be taken as a constant force
while moving either upward or downward

Section - IV

A: The Designer, Stress Problems and Stress

Training
By: James O. Pennock
Stress related technical and execution problems in the design of process
plant piping are complex and must be addressed properly. There will be
some Piping Designers, Stress Engineers and others who read this and
say that they agree. Others may say that they do not agree. Others will
just not know one way or the other. This discussion, while not covering
solutions to every potential problem, is intended only to highlight some of
the most common stress related factors and designer training needs.

There are five basic factors that influence piping and therefore piping
stress in the process plant. There is temperature, pressure, weight, force
and vibration. These factors will come in many forms and at different
times. Stress problems become all the more complex because two or
more of these will exist at the same time in the same piping system. The
main objective of the focus when dealing with problems related to piping
systems is not normally the pipe itself. In a very high percentage of the
time it is not the pipe that is the weakest link. Note this: the pipe is
normally stronger and/or less vulnerable to damage than what the pipe is
connected to. Pumps are just one examples of equipment to which pipes
are routinely connected. Misalignment problems caused by expansion (or
contraction) in a poorly designed system can result in major equipment
failure. Equipment failures can lead to the potential for fire, plant
shutdown and loss of revenue. At this point it should be emphasized that
the success (or failure) of the plant's operation, years down the road can
and will depend on what is done up front by all the members of the
design team during the design stage. An important point to remember,
"While analysis cannot create a good design, it can confirm a good
design" (Improved Pump Load Evaluation," Hydrocarbon Processing, April
1998, By: David W. Diehl, COADE Engineering Software, Inc Houston,
TX). On the other hand, proper analysis will identify bad design and
potential problems in a piping system design.

Stress Related Design Factors

Temperatures in piping systems may range from well over 1000o F

(537.8 C) on the high side to below -200 o F (-128.8 C) on the low
side. Each extreme on the temperature scale and everything in
between brings its own problems. There will also be times when
both high and low temperatures can occur in the same piping
system. An example of this would be in piping that is installed in
an arctic environment. The piping is installed outdoors where it is
subjected to -100 o F (-73.3 C) over the arctic winter. Six to nine
months later it is finally commissioned started up and may
operate at five or six hundred degrees.

The problems that temperature causes is expansion (or

contraction) in the piping system. Expansion or contraction in a
piping system is an absolute. No matter what the designer or the
stress engineer does they cannot prevent the action caused by
heat or cold. Expansion or contraction in a piping system it self is
not so much a problem. As we all know if a bare pipe was just
lying on the ground in the middle of a dry barren desert it will
absorb a lot of heat from just solar radiation. In the hot sun piece
of pipe can reached 150 o F (65.5 C). The pipe will expand and
with both ends loose it would not be a problem. However, when
you connect the pipe to something, even if only one end is
connected you may begin to have expansion related problems.
When the pipe is anchored or connected to something at both
ends you absolutely will have expansion induced problems.
Expansion induced problems in a piping system is stress. There
are a number of ways to handle expansion in piping systems.
Flexible routing is the first and by far the cheapest and safest
method for handling expansion in piping systems. The other way
is the use of higher cost and less reliable flexible elements such as
expansion joints.

Stress will exist in every piping system. If not identified and the
proper action taken, stress will cause failure to equipment or
elements in the piping system itself. Stress results in forces at
equipment nozzles and at anchor pipe supports. Two piping
configurations with the same pipe size, shape, dimensions,
temperature and material but with different wall schedules (sch.
40 vs. sch. 160) will not generate the same stress. Force in piping
systems is not independent of the other factors. Primarily, force
(as related to piping systems) is the result of expansion
(temperature) and/or pressure acting on a piping configuration
that is too stiff. This may cause the failure of a pipe support
system or it may cause the damage or failure of a piece of
equipment. Force, and the expansion that causes it, is best
handled by a more flexible routing of the piping. Some people
suggest that force can be reduced by the use of expansion joints.
However we must remember that for an expansion joint to work
there must be an opposite and equal force at both ends to make
the element work. This tends to compound the problem rather
than lessen it.

Pressure in piping systems also range from the very high to the
very low. Piping systems with pressure as high as 35,000 psi in
some plants are not unusual. On the other hand piping systems
with pressures approaching full vacuum are also not unusual. The
pressure (or lack of) in a piping system effects the wall thickness
of the pipe. When you increase the wall thickness of the pipe you
do two things. First, you increase the weight of the pipe. Second,
you increase the stiffness of the pipe thus the stress
intensification affecting forces. Increasing the wall thickness of
the pipe is the primary method of compensating for increases in
pressure. Other ways, depending on many factors include
changing to a different material. With low or vacuum systems
there are also other ways to prevent the collapse of the pipe wall.
Among these the primary method is the addition of stiffening
rings. Stiffing rings may be added internally or externally
depending on the commodity type and the conditions.

Weight in a piping system is expressed normally as dead load. The

weight of a piping system at any given point is made up of many
elements. These include the weight of the pipe, the fittings, the
valves, any attachments, and the insulation. There is also the test
media (e. g. hydrotest water) or the process commodity
whichever has the greater specific gravity. Piping systems are
heavy, period. Everybody involved in the project needs to
understand this and be aware that this weight exists and it needs
to be supported. Ninety-nine times out of a hundred this weight
will be supported from a structural pipe support (primary pipe
support system) of some kind. However there are times when the
piping (weight) is supported from a vessel or other type of
equipment.

Vibrations will also occur in piping systems and come in two

types. There is the basic mechanical vibration caused by the
machines that the piping is connected to. Then, there is acoustic
(or harmonic) vibration caused by the characteristics of the
system itself. Typically the only place severe vibrations will be
found is in piping connected to equipment such as positive
displacement reciprocating pumps or high pressure multi-stage
reciprocating compressors and where there is very high velocity
gas flows.

All of the issues listed above that a piping system is exposed to

need to be covered in a company specific or company sponsored
piping designer, stress-related training program. This piping
designer, stress-related training should be done at the
department level, early in the designer's career and prior to the
start of the project. Unfortunately however this is not always the
case.

By definition, the role of the piping designer is to design the plant

piping systems. This means design all of the system. Design all
of the system means that the piping designer shall define the
proper routing of each and every pipeline required for the project.
This includes each and every inline component (pipe, valves,
fittings, flanges, instruments, etc.), every online component
(anchors, guides, hangers, etc.). It includes the definition of any
attached piece of equipment and the definition of every support
point. To do this and do it properly the designer must know about
piping stress issues and know what to do about them. The
designer is responsible for a lot and so they need to know a lot.
Is there any risk involved to the company or the project in not
doing this stress related designer training? Yes! First, a designer
who is naïve about the cause and effect of stress related problems
would not be able to recognize the symptoms and will burn a lot
of budget hours and create bad designs. Second, bad designs are
subject to the 'domino effect' when the need for corrective action
is finally identified and taken then other lines get "pushed" and
then modifications to them are required. Third, when the bad
design does get to the stress engineer for analysis there is the
potential for repeated recycle and a serious delay in the design
issue schedule.

Designer Stress Training

What does the piping designer need to know? Piping design is

more than just knowing how to turn on the computer, how to find
the piping menus and the difference between paper space and
model space. So, appropriately, what else does the designer need
to know about piping design besides how to connect a piece of
pipe to a fitting?

Here is a list of some of the most basic of things that a good

piping designer should know. Thinking about every one of these
items should be as natural as breathing for a good piping
designer.

· Allowable pipe spans – All designer need to know and

understand the span capabilities of pipe in the different schedules
for a wide variety of common piping materials. When a new
project introduces a new material with severely reduced span
capabilities; supplemental training may be required.

· Expansion of pipe – All designers must understand that they

need to treat a piping system as though it is alive. It has a
temperature and that temperature causes it to grow and
move.That growth and movement must be allowed for and
incorporated in the overall design. Not just of that specific line but
for all other lines close by.The process of expansion in a pipe or
group of pipes will also exert frictional forces or anchor forces on
the pipe supports they come in contact with.

· Routing for flexibility – The piping designer must

understand how to route pipe for flexibility.Routing for flexibility
can normally be achieved in the most natural routing of the
pipeline from its origin to its terminus.Routing for flexibility
means (a) do not run a pipe in a straight line from origin to
terminus and (b) building flexibility into the pipe routing is far
cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints.

· Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) – The piping
designer needs to understand the effects of weight and loading.
They need to know and understand that everything has a weight.
They need to be able recognize when there is going to be a
concentrated load. They need to have access to basic weight
tables for all the standard pipe schedules, pipe fittings, flanges,
valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the weight tables for
other materials or a table of correction factors for these other
materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize
when downward expansion in a piping system is present and is
adding live loads to a support or equipment nozzle.

· Equipment piping – The piping designer needs to know the

right and the wrong way to pipe up (connect pipe to) different
kinds of equipment. This includes pumps, compressors,
exchangers, filters or any special equipment to be used on a
specific project.

· Vessel piping – The piping designer also needs to

understand about the connecting, supporting and guiding of
piping attached to vessels (horizontal or vertical) and tanks. They
need to know that nozzle loading is important and does have
limitations.

· Rack piping – The designer needs to understand that there

is a logical approach to the placement of piping in (or on) a pipe
rack. It does not matter how wide or how high the rack or what
kind of plant, the logic still applies. Starting from one or both
outside edges the largest and hottest lines are sequenced in such
a manner that allows for the nesting of any required expansion
loops. The spacing of the lines must also allow for the bowing
effect at the loops caused by the expansion.

· Expansion loops – The designer needs to understand and be

able to use simple rules and methods for sizing loops in rack
piping. This should include the most common sizes, schedules
and materials.

· Cold spring/Pre-spring – Designers should understand the

basics rules of cold spring and pre-spring. They need to
understand what each one is along with when to and when not to
use each.

Piping Designer or Piping Drafter

Any piping designer that has this type of training, this type of
knowledge and then consistently applies is indeed a piping
designer. He or she will also be a more valuable asset to their
company and to themselves in the market place. On the other
hand anyone who does not know or does not apply the knowledge
about these issues while doing piping work is nothing more than a
piping drafter or a CAD operator

Contemporary commercial piping analysis programs deal

differently with the problem of apparent lift-off of an operating
pipe at a rod hanger or a one-way vertical support, such as a pipe
on a support rack. A few programs provide error messages; others
show a vertical movement with a possible increase in sustained
(weight) stress (see NOTE below for CAEPIPE). A proper
understanding of the standard piping design practice is the key to
correct interpretation of these results from different programs.
Such standard piping design practice was generally understood
when the sustained and flexibility analysis rules were introduced
in the 1955 Edition of the ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping.

The problem with lift-off is compounded by the intention of the

piping analysis being performed - whether the intent is to design
new or revamp existing piping or the intent is to analyze as-built.
The intention of the various sections of ASME B31 Code (B31.1,
B31.3, etc.) is to provide guidance for new construction. Note,
since the publication of the 1935 Edition of ASME B31.1 (which
included the predecessor of B31.3 as a chapter, Paras. 101.6 and
121.4 and their predecessor paras.) state:

Piping shall be carried on adjustable hangers or properly leveled rigid

hangers or supports, and suitable springs...

Hangers used for the support of piping, NPS 2½ (NPS 2 in 1935 edn.) and
larger, shall be designed to permit adjustment after erection while
supporting the load.

While not quite as explicit, the current ASME B31.3 Para. 321.1.1 states:

The layout and design of piping and its supporting elements shall be
directed toward preventing... piping stresses in excess of those permitted
by in this Code;... unintentional disengagement of piping from its
supports;... excessive piping sag in piping requiring drainage slope;...

These paragraph excerpts define standard practice in piping design. That

is, during operation, it is neither the intention of the code nor standard
practice to allow piping to lift-off. Piping is normally designed to be
supported in the operating condition. The means to achieve this is
through proper adjustment of the supports during operation. This is
important in piping because unadjusted supports will permit the pipe to
sag and create locations in steam or condensable gas piping where
condensates can collect or concentrate. And it is especially important for
piping operating above 800 degF, where unadjusted supports will allow
the pipe to permanently deform (creep) over time.

Small gaps are inevitable in actual construction because of fabrication and

installation tolerances and would normally be closed by support
adjustments. But, so long as the pipe is prevented from significant lateral
movement, small gaps below pipe during operation (¼ inch and less in
moderate size piping) may be tolerable because the weight analysis is a
very simplified and conservative method that the ASME B31 codes use to
guard against collapse. Stresses caused by takeup of a small gap below
the pipe could even be considered expansion or building settlement type
stresses and thus would not need to be considered in the weight analysis.
Weight analysis with the intent of designing pipe normally considers all
the weight supports perform their intended function. Any significant gaps
determined by analysis could either indicate that a support is not
required, or that adjacent supports need to be modified, or that an
alternate means of support is needed, e.g., a variable or constant spring
should be used.

However, if the purpose of an analysis is not to design a new or revamp

an old piping system, but to evaluate an as-built and maintained piping
system, small gaps may have more significance in as much as they would
indicate that the pipe support system may not be acting as designed and
maintained. A lack of or improper adjustment of the supports in the
operating condition may cause lift-off at rigid supports. Improperly
designed or adjusted or maintained or degraded variable or constant
spring supports may cause lift-off, too.

The interpretation of the results of the analysis of as-built piping systems

need not necessarily conform to the rules of the ASME B31 codes.
Remember, the rules in the B31 codes are required for new construction,
not the evaluation of existing piping. It is understood that a greater factor
of safety is required for the design process because the pipe and its
components are not yet available to be measured and materials
confirmed, as well as the knowledge of how the piping is to be actually
used. The interpretation of the analysis results of as-built piping may be
able to take advantage of what the actual piping dimensions and
materials are and how the piping has been operated. Competent
engineering judgement based on knowledge of the intent of the
respective ASME B31 codes must then become part of the evaluation
process.

For the reasons noted, it is important to distinguish between the design

and analysis of piping. If designing, certain assumptions are normally
made with regard to whether the piping is supported in the operating
condition. Such assumptions might include tolerating a small gap at a
given support but realizing that the installation of the given support will
require adjustment. Alternately, a larger gap at the given support may
require support relocation to be effective or the selection of a different
type of support, most typically a constant or variable spring. If merely
analyzing existing piping, no assumptions need be made regarding
supports acting and analysis gaps may become important considerations.
That said, however, the analyst must realize that the piping analysis
model is a very idealized estimation of the as-built piping and for the
analysis results to be meaningful, the analyst needs to consider how well
the results correlate with the actual performance of the in-situ piping.

NOTE: In case of lift-off, CAEPIPE will show a gap and possibly increased
sustained stresses. The user must interpret the gaps according to whether
the user is designing new or revamping existing piping or is analyzing an
existing condition.

Section - V
A: Field Trip Guidlines
By: James O. Pennock

What is involved when you are asked to go to the field? If you are truly a knowledgeable and experienced
designer or engineer you are supposed to know the answer to that
question. If you are a novice, new to the business or if you have never
been to a job site you will not know. However, you should be smart
enough to ask. Yet, we see many cases where people show up at a job
site, uninformed of what they are supposed to do, and unprepared to do
it.

I remember a case that is a classic. A team of four were selected

and sent to a job site. All the members had ten plus years of experience
so the supervisor made the assumption that they all knew what was
expected. The individuals involved happened to live in a widely scattered
area and were to travel from different airports and at different times.
This point eventually contributed in part to the problem because there
was no face to face meeting in the office or at the airport before getting
on the plane. Friday they were all given (or sent) plane tickets and
directions for finding the plant and were to meet at the job site on arrival
on Monday.
 Three of the four seemed to know what was expected. The forth, a
contract employee, new to the company, but with more than thirty years
of total experience proved to be the exception. This person showed up in
“dress casual” and with nothing in hand. The supervisor, thinking the
person had left his work clothes in the car or some place close by, told
him to change into his field gear and be ready to go to work. “Change,
into what?” “What field gear?” To make a long story short, this person
had only brought casual clothes and had brought nothing in the way of
field gear or tools. He had no work shoes, no work clothes, no hard hat,
no safety glasses, and no hearing protection. He also had no pencil,
eraser, sketch paper, no clipboard, and no tape measure. Nothing! When
asked why not, the answer was that he expected the company or the
client to supply everything. As quietly as possible the person was told
that he was fired and to leave the job site, go get on the plane and go
home.

The situation proved to be an embarrassment to not only the

supervisor but also the company. You see job sites such as the type we
had in this case are tight little communities and you cannot keep secrets
from people who are in charge. It was not long before the company
construction manager and the client both knew about the fiasco.
Although they agreed with sending the employee away, they were not
happy with the cost and the effect on the schedule. They expected
everyone to show up ready, willing and able to work.

Ready, willing, and able to work means everybody. It means all the
members of the team. It includes the team leader and each individual
engineer or designer. The balance of this article is intended to be a guide
to any individual who is required to go to a job site to perform work. It is
offered to held define the major procedural and technical issues related to
making the field trip both cost effective and safe.

When it is recognized that a trip is required, the first thing that is

normally done is to define the purpose of the trip and obtain all required
approvals. This is normally done at the project senior supervisory and
management levels. We will not dwell on why a field trip is required.
What we need to do is insure that it is done right.
 The next thing to do is activate the team. Engineers or designers
assigned to a field team for routine fieldwork or specific problem solving
need to be selected carefully. They should be selected on the basis of
knowledge and prior experience. They may also need specific skills, or
the familiarity with operations, maintenance, or construction.

In order to activate the team the following may be required:

Names & phone numbers of client site primary & secondary "Key"
contacts

Names of the engineering company primary & secondary contacts

Name of the person responsible for decision making, time sheet and
expense report approval

Team member names

Assign someone as the team leader, someone in charge

Team member release from present assignment (if applicable)

Travel arrangements (Airline, lodging, ground transportation,

meals, etc.)

Maps to site location, site logistics, site safety criteria, badges,

camera pass and site access

Charge number for this (Problem/Solution) assignment

Next, before leaving for the site, there should be a pre-trip meeting
of all the team members. The direct supervisor who is responsible for the
team and the results should conduct this pre-trip meeting. The agenda
for this meeting should include a review of the purpose of the trip and the
expected results. Have a plan for everyone and for all the work
objectives. Other items that should be covered would include the chain of
command, the schedule, the cost and expense issues, and an exchange of
phone numbers for emergency contacts. Review what to do if someone
misses the plane, etc.

On arrival, check in with the key Client contact person and the
jobsite construction manager. Safety is the first and most important step
of the actual site visit. Make sure that every member of the team has
received the site-specific safety training. Know and understand the
emergency warning system and the evacuation routes. Identify and
agree on a place to meet, if there is a possibility of getting separated.

Engineers and Designers who visit a Client facility or site are

expected to know the type of work they will be doing when they arrive
and should be prepared to take prompt action to address that work. They
are also expected to have with them the tools and supplies required for
their jobs.

Standard safety clothing and personal protective equipment

(PPE) Requirements:

- Hard hat

- Goggles or safety glasses w/ permanent side shields (no contact

lenses and no removable side shields)

- Work shoes (check, some job sites require steel toed work boots)

- Gloves

- Ear protection

- Respirator with Cartridges (When required)

- NOMEX or Equivalent flame retarding outer wear (This is

sometimes optional depending on the client or type of plant)

Basic tools:

- Pencils and markers, a clip board, straightedge

- Sketch paper and Isometric forms

- 25 ft. Tape measure

Alternate tools that may be helpful

 - String line, Plumb Bob, and String Level (Used for measurements)

- Stopwatch (Used for checking frequency of events)

- Medical type Stethoscope (Used for listening for unusual noises

inside of pipes)

- Camera (Requires Client approval and pass)

The team should not expect to borrow any tools or supplies from
the Client. If a new requirement for tools or supplies is identified, after
arrival at the site, the team should arrange to rent or purchase the item
and turn in the cost on an expense report. An exception may be made if
the required item is unusual and or very costly and the client has the item
available.

Once in the field and trained in the site safety criteria, the team is
ready to go to work. Everyone should go about the work in a prompt and
professional manner. Where possible, fieldwork should be done by two
person teams. The people on each team should check each other’s work
as the work progresses. They should review their list of activities and
tasks as they proceed. Review the trip plan. It’s better to get too much
information thus insuring you do not miss something. Remember that
this job site may be thousands of miles from your home office. A return
trip for one missed item could be very costly.

Check in with the home office daily or per previous instructions. Let
the home office supervisor know the progress of the planned work and
ask if there are any new requirements. Proceed through the list of all
planned trip requirements. Perform all activities and tasks. Do no return
from the job site until all planned items are complete (unless directed
otherwise). It is also recommended that you check in with the site
construction manager on a daily basis. There may be additional project
needs that have come up. There may also be a change in some critical
site condition that could effect the team safety. When leaving the job site
you should check out with the construction manager and your client host.

Upon return to the office, there should be a debriefing meeting.

The responsible supervisor, the project engineer (or manager) and all
team members should attend. Review the purpose of the trip, the
results. Review the trip plan. Did you accomplish everything that was
required? If not, why not? Were there any problems? Were they solved
and what were the solutions? Are there any lessons to be learned from
this trip? Is another trip required? If so why? And when will the next
trip be required?

Every field trip should be planned and executed in a proper and cost
effective manner. If so, then the project will benefit. The individuals on
the team also benefit. They gain value and a reputation for being an
experienced and effective candidate for future fieldwork. Good luck and
have a safe and successful trip.

Section - V

B: Defining Offsite Facilities for Process

Plants
Contributors (In alphabetical order):
Jadeep Coudhary, Anita R. Legvold, James O.
Pennock

Introduction

Some have asked questions such as: "What is Balance of Plant?";

"What is Offsites?" What is OSBL?" and "What needs to be considered
when a project includes Offsites."
The term Offsites is a general term and does not mean the same for
every project or every plant. A project may include extensive tankage for
feed storage along with tankage for in-process product, intermediate
product, run-down tankage, slops and finished product tankage. Another
project may include none of this because they already exist. The point
here is just because you are told that the project includes "Offsites" you
need to ask a lot of questions to determine exactly what they mean and
what will be required.
The purpose of this document is to aid in answering this type of question.
This document will not tell you how to design the Offsites or design any of
the individual sub-items or equipment found on this list. That design
guidance should properly be left up to you, your supervisors and your
management. I do however intend to start a listing of major elements
along with some minor key issues that should be considered.
I invite others to submit their own thoughts and comments to add to and
improve this list.

Contents:

Section Subject
1 Definitions -- Offsite vs. Onsite
2 Codes, Standards, and Practices
3 Site Issues
4 Terrain, Grading, Roads, & Drainage
5 Tankage
6 Flares
7 Piperacks & Sleepers
8 Pipelines
9 Loading / Unloading Racks (Truck, Rail, Barge, and Ship)
10 Cooling Water Supply Systems
11 Hazardous Chemicals
12 Waste Treatment Facilities
13 Electrical
14 Buildings & Auxiliaries
15 Fire Protection & Safety
16 LPG Bottling Facilities
17 Solids Storage & Disposal

1, Definitions

Offsite -- In a process plant (Refinery, Chemical, Petrochemical, Power,

etc.), any supporting facility that is not a direct part of the primary or
secondary process reaction train or utility block. Offsites are also called
OSBL.

Onsite - Any single or collection of inter-related and inter-connected

process equipment that performs an integrated process function. Typically
any Onsite Unit could be made to function independently of another
Onsite Unit. Onsite Units are also called ISBL.

Utility Block - A single or multiple grouping of facilities that generate the

support services required by the Onsite Process units to function. This
normally includes: Steam Generation, Plant Air, Instrument Air,
Decimalized Water, Plant Water, etc.

Balance of Plant - This is another term for Offsites and/or anything else
other than the Onsite Units or the Utility Block.

Battery Limit -- Line used on a plot plan to determine the outside limit of
a unit. The Battery Limit line is usually established early in the project
and documented on all discipline documents such as Plot Plans, Site
Plans, Drawing Indexes, etc... (1)

Property Line -- A Property Line is the recorded boundary of a plot of

land. (2) Defines the separation between what is recognized legally as
Owner's land and non-Owner's or other land.

On Property -- All land and or water inside the Property line shown on the
property map or deed.

Off Property - Off property is any land (or water) outside of the Property
line shown on the property map or deed.

Right of Way (ROW) -- Any land (On Property or Off Property) set aside
and designated for a specific use or purpose. A Right-of-Way within a
piece of property may also be designated for use by someone other than
the property owner.

Setback or Setback Line -- A line established by law, deed restriction, or

custom, fixing the minimum distance from the property line of the
exterior face of buildings, walls and any other construction form; s street,
road, or highway right-of-way line (3). Setback is a clear area normally at
the boundary of a piece of property with conditions and restrictions for
building or use.

Easements -- A vested or acquired right to use land other than as a

tenant, for a specific purpose; such right being held by someone other
than the owner who holds the title to the land (2). An easement is
typically a strip of land within which overhead power lines or underground
pipes are run.

(1) -- Lamit, Louis Gary, 1981 Prentice-Hall

(2) -- Construction Dictionary

2, Codes, Standards, & Practices

ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

API (American Petroleum Institute)
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
ASTM - American Society of Testing Materials
AWS (American Welding Society)--
AWWA (American Water Works Association)
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations)
Division of Weights & Measures --
DOT (Department of Transportation)
FAR (Federal Accounting Regulations)
IRI (Insurance Regulators Institute)
Local Permits (Country, State, City, etc.)
MSS (Manufacturing Standards Society) --
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers)--
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association)
OIA (Oil Insurers Association)
PFI (Pipe Fabrication Institute)
USCG (United States Coast Guard) Regulations

3, Site Issues

Brownfield (Revamp Existing)

Climate (Wind Rose)
Demolition
Feed stock type, source and method of delivery
Future growth
Grass Roots or Greenfield (New construction)
Impact across the fence
Power requirements and source
Products, Primary, Secondary and by-products
Seismic zone
SHE (Safety, Health and Environmental)
Utilities requirements

4, Terrain, Grading, Roads, Ditches & Drainage

Terrain
- Level vs. Sloping

Geotechnical influences
- Type of soil
- Angle of repose
- Grading
- Contours
- Grubbing (Tree and shrub removal)
- Rough Grading
- Finished Grading

Roads
- Primary
- Secondary
- Type and purpose of traffic
- Right hand or left hand drive
- Traffic pattern, potential for congestion
- Pipeway or Sleeper Crossings (Overhead Vs Ramp & Culvert)

Rail Spurs (see Loading and Unloading for additional criteria)

- Number
- Location
- Capacity (number of rail cars)
- Elevation
- Roadbed & Ballast Details
- Vertical and Horizontal Clearance requirements
- Standards and jurisdiction of Rail company (Right of Way)

Drainage systems
- Storm
- Oily Water
- Chemical
- Sanitary Sewage
- Contaminated
- Other

Ditches
- Depth
- Width
- Slope

Culverts
- Location, Size, Type
- Invert Elevation

Basins & Ponds

- In ground or On ground
- Lined vs. Unlined (or Rip Rap)
- Skimmers & Aerators
- Overflows & Runoff
- Fenced or Unfenced
- Access

Stiles, Stairs, Catwalks, and Platforms

- Existing or new
- Material if existing
- Material if new
- Location & Elevation
- Access
- Valve extension stem requirements

5, Tankage

Types & Purpose

- Atmospheric vs. Pressurized
- Cone Roof
- Floating Roof
- Bullets
- Spheres
- Spheroids
- Other (Used tank cars as storage)

Tank Construction
- Single Wall vs. Double Wall
- Metallic vs. nonmetallic
- Unlined vs. Lined
- Insulated, Jacketed, Heated, Cooled,

Commodity Grouping & Spacing Criteria

- Commodity (Compatible vs. non compatible)
- Single Tank
- Multiple Tank Group -- Same Size
- Multiple Tank Group -- Different Sizes

Spill Containment
- Containment Criteria
- Earthen Berm (Dike)
- Wall (Concrete)
- Topography
- Combination

Tank Supports and Foundations

- Foundation Types
- Foundation Details
- Sloping Bottoms
- Settlement

Tank Auxiliary Equipment

- Heaters & Coolers
- Internal Coil Type
- Internal Bayonet Type
- External Type
- Mixers
- Motor Driven Mechanical Types
- Jet Types
- Support requirements
- Removal methods and clearance

Fire or ignition suppression

- Snuffing steam to V/PRV (Vacuum & Pressure Relief Valve) Tail Pipes
- Water Spray Systems (Deluge Systems)

Tank Nozzles & Appurtenance

- Primary Inlet & Outlet Connections (Single vs. Multiple)
- Vent Connections (Closed, Open, Flame Arresters)
- Drain Connections (Closed, Winterized, Non-winterized)
- Instrument Connections (Flow, Level, Pressure, and Temperature)
- -- Level Controller & Gage
- -- Float & Target Board
- -- Automatic (Tape Type) Tank Gage
- -- Gage Hatch
- -- Pressure Taps
- -- Thermowells
- -- Radar type Level Instruments
- -- Sonar
- Heating Coil Connections (Inlet/Outlet)
- Mixer Mounting Nozzles
- Manholes
- Internal Nozzles
- -- Internal Piping
- -- Swing Lines (Winch, Clearance, Accessibility)
- -- Internal Pipe Supports
- -- Internal Floating Roof Supports
- Orientation & Elevation
- Size & Rating
- Projection
- Recommendations
- -- Avoid weld seams

Ladders, Stairs, and Platforms

- Orientation
- Primary access - entrance and exit
- Roof traffic Vs Formal Platform
- Safety - Tank Edge Handrail

Pumps
- Types
- Location
- Sumps
- Piping Elements

Product Piping
- Differential Settlement
- Location of First Support
- Natural Anchors (Dike Sleeves)
- Slops Collection System

Hot Oil Systems

- Asphalt Tankage & Distribution

Utilities Piping
- Condensate
- Instrument Air
- Nitrogen
- Plant Water
- Plant Air
- Potable Water
- Steam
- Glycol
- Ammonia
- Cooling Water
- Chilled Water
- Tracing Fluids (Low Temp. or High Temp.)

Dike Penetrations (Piping)

- Sleeves (U/G Protection & Grounding)
- Double Containment
- Casings

Operations Issues
- "Roll Over"
- "Boil Over"

Maintenance Issues
- Access (Mobile Equipment)
- Cleaning and Repair
- Housekeeping Pads (Spillage control)
- Utility Station Location & Access
- CIP (Clean in place)
- Wash Stations & Spray Wands

6, Flare, Incinerator, and Thermal Oxidizer

Flare
- Location Criteria
- Prevailing Wind (Wind Rose)
- Flare Header
- System Study

Flare KO Drums
- Horizontal
- Vertical/Stack base integrated
- Support
- Pump out

Flare Number and Types

- Number of Flare Stacks
- Ground Flare
- Elevated -- Free Standing
- Elevated -- Derrick Supported
- Elevated -- Cable Guided
Flare Accessories
- Flame Arrester

Flare Stack Utilities

- Fuel Gas
- Pilot Gas
- Igniter Line
- Atomizing Steam
- Flame Arrester Drain

Incinerators
- Location Criteria
- Prevailing Wind (Wind Rose)
- Collection System

Incinerator Utilities
- Fuel Gas
- Pilot Gas
- Igniter Line
- Atomizing Steam

Thermal Oxidizers
- Location Criteria
- Prevailing Wind (Wind Rose)
- Collection System

Thermal Oxidizer Utilities

- Fuel Gas
- Pilot Gas
- Igniter Line
- Atomizing Steam

7, Piperacks and Sleepers

Support Types
- Elevated (Overhead) Racks
- Sleeper Racks
- Bridges

Materials of construction
- Steel
- Concrete
- Combination

Overhead Racks
- Height
- Number of levels
- Current Space Requirements
- Future Space Requirements
- Operating Temperature induced expansion
- Solar induced expansion
- Maximum Spans
- Minimum Line Sizes
- Piping Loops
- Shoes, Anchors, & Guides

Pipe Sleepers
- Height
- Changes in Direction (Flat Turn vs. Elevated)
- Current Space Requirements
- Future Space Requirements
- Operating Temperature induced expansion
- Solar induced expansion
- Maximum Spans
- Minimum Line Sizes
- Piping Loops
- Shoes, Anchors, & Guides

Pipe Bridges
- Number
- Location
- Height
- Span

Auxiliary Piping Services & Systems

- Utility Systems
- Steam Tracing
- Jacketed Piping
- Internal Cleaning requirements for piping systems
- Future (space allowance)

Miscellaneous Piping Details

- Process Vents & Drains
- Hydrotest Vents & Drains
- Size, location, and access
- Cleaning connections (Maintenance)
- Slip Lining

8, Pipelines

Types and Purpose

- Cross Country
- Inter Plant
- Intra Plant
Accounting Meters
- Meter Provers
- "Bonded Zone"
- Fencing and Security

Pig Launchers & Pig Catchers (Receivers)

- Package System
- Vendor or Third Party Sub contracted
- Stick build

Pipe Line Pigging Criteria

- Minimum bend radius

Slug Catchers
- Types

Special Valving Considerations

- Types
- Support

Special Instrumentation
- SCADA
- Pig Signals (Pig Sig)

9, Loading / Unloading Racks (Truck, Rail, Barge, and Ship)

Product Data
- Liquid Products
- Gas Products
- Dry Products
- Non-flammable Liquid Chemical Products
- Flammable Liquid Hydrocarbon Products
- Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Products

Shipping method
- Truck
- Rail
- Barge
- Ship

Loading & Unloading Method

- Loading Arms or Loading Hoses
- Top Loading
- Bottom Loading (Truck & Rail only)
- Vapor recovery criteria

Shipping Plan
- Number of shipments
- Frequency of shipments
- Loading time
- Unloading time

Loading Rack Size & Location Criteria

- NFPA Criteria
- Size of Carrier (Truck, Rail Car, Barge/Ship)
- Minimum distance between loading "Spots"
- Outline of structure
- Loading Arm Type
- Loading Arm reach
- Loading Arm rest position
- Height and reach of swing-down platforms
- Access & clearance for Operators
- Stair and Ladder access and egress

Barge & Ship only

- Fixed or Floating Dock
- Tide & Current Data
- Maximum "Swing" envelope (Vessel empty at high tide vs. vessel full at
low tide)

Auxiliaries
- Meters
- Grounding Lugs
- Spill containment
- Shelters
- Piping

Utility Requirements
- Utility Steam
- Plant Water
- Plant Air
- Breathing Air
- Nitrogen (for blanketing)

Safety & Fire Protection

- Monitors
- Hydrants
- Deluge Systems
- Fire Blankets
- Fire Extinguishers
- ESD (Emergency Shut Down) System
- Foam Systems

10, Cooling Water Supply Systems

Types
- Once through system
- Closed loop Cooling Tower system
- Atmospheric (Flooded) System

Water Source
- Municipal Water Supply (City, County, etc.)
- River Intake
- Ocean Intake
- Lake
- Wells
- Surge Pond

Water Intake & Outfall Structures

- River
- Oceans & Bays

Tower Types
- Forced Draft
- Induced Draft
- Natural Draft

Prevailing Wind
- Direction (primary and secondary)
- Timing (Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter?)
- Force
- Duration

Basin Design
- In-ground
- Under-ground
- Strainers and Filters
- Fixed Screens
- Rotating Screens

Pump Types & Location

- Vertical
- Horizontal (same level next to basin)
- Horizontal (elevated above basin)

Operations
- Stand alone
- Manned

Maintenance
- Portable crane
- Built-in lifting facilities
Cooling Water Supply and Return Piping
- Material
- Location (Above ground or below ground)

Water Treatment Chemical piping

- PVC
- FRP
- Stainless Steel
- Alloys

Cathotic Protection
- Type
- Pipe Riser Location
- Insulating Flange Sets

11, Hazardous Chemicals Handling and Storage

Commodities List

MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)

Unloading Facilities

Storage

Loading

Handling

Safety
- Safety Shower/Eye Wash

Winterized (Tempered water system)

12, Waste Treatment Facilities

Types
- Storm Water
- Oily Water
- Chemical
- Sanitary
- Contaminated

Collection Locations

Collection and transfer methods

- Gravity (only) to Treatment
- Gravity to Sump & Pump to Treatment
Types of Treatment

13, Electrical & Instrumentation

Equipment Types
- Instrument Rack/Cabinets
- Junction Boxes
- Load Centers
- Substations
- Switch and Starter Racks
- Transformers

Aboveground Distribution
- Cable Trays
- Conduit Racks
- Light Standards
- Power Poles
- Push Button Stations
- Telephone Poles
- Transmission Towers

Underground Distribution
- Direct Bury Cable
- Duct Banks (Concrete encasement)
- Electrical Manholes
- Electrical Pull Boxes

Clearance criteria Electrical to:

- Process Equipment
- Piping
- Structures
- Pipe Racks
- Roads
- Rail Facilities

14, Buildings & Auxiliaries

Buildings and purpose

- Administration -
- Cafeteria --
- Change House (Locker Room) --
- Chemical Storage --
- Control (House) Center --
- Fire House --
- First Aid --
- Gate or Guard Houses --
- House of Worship (Mosque) --
- Laboratory (Product QC) --
- Machine Shop --
- Maintenance --
- Safety Center & Training --
- Warehouse --

Auxiliaries
- Parking Lots
- Truck Loading/Unloading Docks

Utility Services
- Chemical Waste --
- Chilled Water --
- Comfort Steam & Condensate --
- Contaminated Waste
- Hot & Cold Water
- Lab Gas --
- Potable Water --
- Sanitary Waste --
- Storm Water --

Piping Materials

15, Fire Protection & Safety

Fire Protection & Safety Plan

- Basic Safety Plan
- Contingency Plan

Fire Water System

- Fire Water Source
- Fire Water Storage
- Fire Water Pumps
- Fire Water Loop (Mains and Laterals)
- Fire Hydrants and Monitors
- Foam Chambers (Number and Orientation)
- Foam Stations (Number and Orientation)
- Fire Protection Manifolds (Pumper Connections)
- Fire Hose Carts

Materials of Construction
- Carbon Steel w/ external coating
- Carbon Steel w/ Internal Lining & external coating
- Ductile Iron
- FRP Piping
- Cement Lining
- Nonmetallic Linings
- Thrust Blocks & Anchors
Fire Training Area
- Location
- Facilities

Fire Equipment

16, Product packaging

LPG Bottling Facility

- Type,
- Open, sheltered, enclosed
- Empty bottle receiving
- Filling
- Full bottle storage
- Bottle shipping
- Truck scales (weighbridge)

Lube Oil packaging facility

- Type
- Sheltered
- Enclosed
- Size

Shipping method
- Truck
- Rail

17, Solids Storage & Disposal

Type
- Sulphur
- Coke
- Treated waste

Consistency
- Dry
- Semi-dry

Storage
- Open
- Sheltered

Disposal
- On property
- Off property

Shipping method
- Truck
- Rail
- Barge
- Other

Jaydeep R. Chaudhary is a piping designer with 4+ years of experience

with oil & gas projects working with Hyundai Heavy Industries, Seoul
South Korea.

Anita R. Legvold is a Piping Design Engineer with more than 35 years

experience covering process plant engineering, design, and field activities.
She is now semi-retired and lives in Florida, USA.

Section - VI, Pipe Fabrication Issues

A: Checking of Pipe Fabrication Shop Drawings

By: James O. Pennock

There will come a time the life of almost every project when the question
of checking of pipe fabrication shop spool drawings will come up. Projects
that are totally field fabricated do not have shop spools and therefore the
need does not exist. However for the vast amount of the projects there
will be a pipe fabrication shop, shop spool drawings. Any time drawings
are created there will be the potential for errors. The shop is responsible
for checking their own work, but it is prudent for the engineering
company to do their own check to verify that the shop is doing a proper
job.

The prime objective for checking shop drawings is to eliminate (or reduce)
field changes to shop fabricated spools. One person cannot be expected to
check ALL of the shop drawings and still meet the construction schedule.
So you must use your time wisely. You must have a plan. You should also
talk to the piping foreman in the field and ask him/her, what are some of
the typical errors that cause them the most problems during installation?

A) First, sort the shop drawings by line number and “cost groups” i.e.:
separate by material, wall schedule and line size. The reason you need to
do this is that it will allow you to focus your effort on the high cost piping.
The most costly piping is the large diameter, heavy wall carbon steel, any
alloy materials and any material that requires post-weld-heat-treatment
(PWHT). Start with the most costly lines and their shop drawings.

B) Next, review the spool drawings for each line first for continuity. By
this, I mean, do you have all the shop drawings to complete “that”
specific line? If the answer is “yes” then proceed. If the answer is “no”
then have someone contact the shop to find out when the missing
drawings will be available. It is always possible that they forgot to draw
one or to send one.

C) Next, check the drawings against the engineering drawings for

configuration. By this I mean does the line turn when, where and in the
right direction to match the design? If not then this will require a change
in the shop (If the spool piece is not yet shipped) or a change in the field
(if the spool piece has already been shipped). Shop errors can, in most
cases be back-charged to the shop. However, any error can cause a delay
to the schedule which adds cost to the project.

D) Next, review the material used against the piping line specification for
the material that is required. If the shop used the wrong material, STOP.
This line or spool will need to be refabricated.

E) Next, review the shop drawings against the design looking for places
where a wrong dimension in a welded-out configuration would do the
most harm. Don’t worry about fitting make-up such as flange-reducer-
flange. These have a low possibility for error. Don’t worry about spools
that terminate with a field weld. These have a built in opportunity to
make a field correction.

F) Next, look for any place where there is a requirement for or the
possibility for odd flange bolt-hole rotations. Did the shop do it correctly?
On the other hand, did the shop call for and fabricate an odd bolt-hole
rotation that was not called for?

G) Next, spot check 10% of the dimensions within each “cost group.” If
you do not find any error trends then you may want to consider backing
off additional checking. However, if you do find an error trend within a
specific cost group (material, wall schedule, size, etc.) then note the
name of the person who did these high-error shop drawings. The next
step is to notify the shop of your concerns and request that they launch
their own investigation. In the meantime notify the construction manager
and based on the “cost groups” look at all of this persons work.

B: Pipe Fabrication Shop Assignment Questions and Problems

By: James O. Pennock

On any process plant project the pipe fabrication shop should be

recognized as a key player and a partner in the success of that project.
The performance of that shop can make or break a project. When an
engineering company is about to issue a pipe fabrication purchase order
they should know everything there is to know about the proposed shop.
The engineering company should also consider all the risk factors relating
to the shop’s performance and make every effort to eliminate or reduce
those risks. One of the ways to reduce the risk is to send a piping person
into the shop to act as a focal point for questions and to solve problems.

The information below includes information the company should know

about a pipe fabrication shop before an order is placed. It is also what the
person needs to know about the shop and the pipe fabrication purchase
order before he or she starts an assignment in the pipe fabrication shop.

Shop Identification

What is the name and location (address) of the proposed pipe fabrication
shop?

What is the ownership of this shop?

What is the organization chart (names and positions) for this shop?

What is the name and title of the primary shop contact for this order?

Shop history

What is the history of this shop?

What is the performance history for this shop?

Has the company contacted other companies (customers) who have had
work in this shop?

Shop capabilities

How many production lines does this shop have and what is the break-
down? Normally the different production lines are arranged by size and
material. The size breakdown is based on the respective jigs, fixtures,
cranes (or handling equipment), the welding procedures, the welding
machines, the fitter and welder training and experience. The material
separation is to insure that Stainless Steel and other alloys are not
contaminated by carbon steel. Typically Stainless Steel lines will use nylon
slings instead of chain to lift the pipe spools.

The lines might be as follows:

- Small bore (3” and smaller) Carbon Steel

- Small bore (3” and smaller) Alloy & Stainless Steel
- Intermediate bore (4” through 12”) Carbon Steel
- Intermediate bore (4” through 12”) Alloy & Stainless Steel
- Large bore (14” and larger) Carbon Steel
- Large bore (14” and larger) Alloy & Stainless Steel
- Small bore Bends
- Large bore Bends

What other pipe fabrication related capabilities does this shop have (i.e.:
expansion joint fabrication)?

The shop order

When will the shop order be placed?

What kind of other services (internal cleaning, priming, finished painting,

etc.) does the shop fabrication order include?

What kinds of piping (material, sizes and schedules) will this order cover?

Material

What is the shops standard stock categories (2” to 24” sch. 40 and 80
Carbon Steel only, etc.)?

Will the shop buy all material or will the company purchase and supply
some piping and non-piping material (i.e.: Thermowells)?

What is the material market’s projected actual lead time for delivery of
alloy and other non-standard stock materials?

When will the “Buy” quality Bill-of-material summary be ready for issue?

What is the intended quality of this B-O-M summary?

Will there be a secondary MTO for shop material and an effective on-going
program to identify new shop material requirements?

Will there be limits applied to where the material comes from?

Schedule

When is the planned start of isometric issue?

What is the planned isometric issue duration?

When will the actual isometric issue start?

When will the company supplied material be delivered 100%?

When is the first pipe spool required at jobsite?

When is the last pipe spool required at jobsite?

Logistics

Where is the jobsite?

What is the planned method of shipping?

Concerns

What are my company’s specific concerns relating to this shop’s

performance?

Problems that impact to pipe fabrication performance:

Below are some issues relating to execution, coordination, cost and

delivery that the company should address to reduce costs and improve
delivery.

Unrealistic priority categories:

In the past some engineering companies have insisted on having multiple

priority categories, twenty or more, in some cases. This is just plain
ludicrous. A shop, any shop has limited options for the handling of normal
work and “Priority” spool pieces. They in fact have only three options. The
engineering company needs to know and understand this and then keep
things very simple.

Option 1: “FIFO” This means that all phases (engineering, material

allocation, production, NDE, PWHT, painting and shipping) are processed
on a “first-in-first-out” (FIFO) basis. Engineering receives the customer
isometric and prepares the required shop spool drawings. They then do a
material take-off to check for material availability. If material is available
then the spool drawing is released to the production floor. From there it is
scheduled into the normal flow of work on the basis of FIFO for that
specific (size/material) production line. This also means that the all work
is done at the shop’s normal shift and work day hours. If the engineering
company planned and scheduled their work properly and they gave the
shop the right information about the requirements for pipe fabrication
then this option should meet the needs of the order.
Option 2: “Fast track” (or “Head-of-the-line”) This means that at all
the normal work phases (listed above) an isometric and the resultant pipe
spools are moved to the head of the line at any effected work station.
This, however, still means that all work is done at the shop’s normal shift
and work day hours. This option may or may not have a cost adder
depending on how often it is imposed. It should not be used for more
than 5% to 8% of the total order.

Option 3: “Premium” This means that all of the normal phases are still
done but at the “head-of-the-line” basis AND the shop agrees to work 24
hours (three shifts at 8 hrs or two shifts of 12 hrs) to finish the
“premium” work. All extra costs (labor and utilities) incurred for
“Premium” work is paid for by the client. This option will indeed have a
cost adder, and it will be significant. This option should not be used for
more than 2% to 3% of the total order.

Material surprises:

The late notice of new material requirements has a serious effect on the
real engineering, fabrication and delivery duration. How do late notices of
new material happen? The most common reason this happens is because
material specs changed late in the project, long after the shop “Buy” MTO
(Material Take-off) was completed. Another reason it happens is because
there is always more than one way to do most things. The senior piper
who planned on something being done one way (using specific material)
has a junior or a novice piper who does that thing another way (using
different material). This does not have a big impact on “shop stock”
carbon steel material. However it does have a huge Impact on very high
cost, long delivery alloy materials. Keep in mind for some sizes and
schedules of carbon steel it may be possible to acquire and have delivery
from over night to three weeks depending on where the shop is located
and where the source is located. On the other hand for materials like P22
and P91 the delivery might be as much as 50 weeks or more.

An important thing to remember is that a shop will not and does not start
fabrication on a piping “spool’ unless and until they have all the required
material for that “spool.” Here are two tables that shows the impact that
missing material may have on the overall delivery duration schedule
(DDS). The numbers shown here were taken from a real job.

Table A: All material pre-purchased and already available in the

shop. (Numbers are in weeks)

Shop Matl DDS

Material Fab PWHT
Eng. delivery Total
 Carbon
Steel
3 0 6 0 9
(Std &
XH)
Carbon
Steel (> 3 0 8 0 11
XH)
Stainless
3 0 8 0 11
Steel
Chrome
Alloy
3 0 8 1 12
(Std &
XH)
P91 3 0 12 1 16

Table B: Some (or all) material missing and needs to be obtained.

(Numbers are in weeks)

Shop Matl DDS

Material Fab PWHT
Eng. delivery Total
Carbon
Steel
3 3 6 0 12
(Std &
XH)
Carbon
Steel (> 3 20 8 0 31
XH)
Stainless
3 20 8 0 31
Steel
Chrome
Alloy
3 34 8 1 46
(Std &
XH)
P91 3 50 12 1 66

As you can see there is a very big difference between the two delivery
duration schedules. Having the right material or not having the right
material is the “Achilles’ heel” of any shop fabrication effort. The bottom
line on this subject is that the piping lead engineer and the lead piping
design supervisor in the engineering office need to be on top of the
projects piping material issues at all times. It is their job and they need to
understand what happens when they don’t control or prevent this
problem.

Large Pipe Bends:

(Here we are talking about large diameter/heavy wall pipe bends in pipe
where the bend radius is more than the standard 1-1/2 D 90 degree
fitting ell.)

The effect of pipe bends on the production schedule can also have a
major impact. To the shop a pipe bend is just another piece of material,
much like a fitting. The shop might have its own bending line but it may
be in another state, province or country. They need to have advance
notice of all bend requirements. The pipe to be used for the bend needs to
be purchased, received, inspected, logged in to the shops warehouse
system then it needs to be scheduled into the bend shop. The pipe is then
sent to the bend shop (or line) where it is bent, checked for accuracy then
“Stress relieved” (PWHT) and returned to the fabrication shop for the
balance of the operations required to finish the pipe spool.

The ideal approach where large bends are required is for the original
“buy” MTO to include a summary of these bends so the material can be
purchased and bent ahead of time.

Engineering “Holds”:

The effect on the shop schedule by company “HOLDS” on isometrics is a

major problem. Consistently the engineering company will issue piping
isometrics to the shop then weeks later they call the shop and place a
“Hold” on the isometric and all the resulting spools. Keep in mind a typical
isometric may contain anywhere from three to five shop spools. When the
isometric/shop spools is placed on a customer “Hold” the shop releases all
the material contained on those spools for other spools. These shop
spools also lose their slot in the normal first-in-first-out flow of work.

Typically what happens is one of the following:

A) This isometric is mid-size standard weight carbon steel material. As a

result the company forgets and this isometric is on “Hold” for a few
weeks. Then they remember the “Hold.” After some time they take a new
look at it and determine that there was no reason for the “Hold” and
releases it. The company then complains that these spools are behind
schedule.

B) This isometric is also mid-size standard weight carbon steel material.

The company keeps this isometric on “Hold” for period of time while they
do a redesign. The isometric is then revised and released with the “Hold”
removed. The shop now finds out that there is a minor dimensional
change to only one of the spools on this isometric. Again the company
complains that all these shop spools are behind schedule.

C) The company revises the isometric and proceeds to issue it in the

normal manner. This isometric falls in the realm of the 34 to 50 week
material delivery. The revision contains material that is “new” or not
previously included in the “Buy” MTO. The shop can do nothing but order
the “new” material and place the effected spool at the back of the line.
The engineering company now starts to complain that the spools should
only take 16 weeks to fabricate.

D) In this case all (6+/-) isometrics (and the resulting shop spools) for a
complete system were placed on “Hold” with no reason given. The
material this time was small bore stainless steel. The SS material was
included in the original “Buy” MTO and was purchased and delivered to
the shop. The “Hold” put a stop to all work on these isometrics for many
months. The “Hold’ was initiated by a controversy about the material “life”
in the alleged strong corrosive atmosphere. When the isometrics were
finally revised and reissued the new material was a special Alloy 20 with a
50 week delivery. The service for this piping was the same as what is
found around the average swimming pool for the chlorine system which
uses plastic piping. They could have installed plastic pipe and replaced it
every year for the next fifty years for far less than what this new material
and the delay cost the project.

What is the answer to the problem created by late “Holds” by the

engineering company? The easy answer is to disallow all “Holds” on shop
spools. To do this the engineering company must do a number of things.
They must do a better job of controlling the work on the design floor, Do
It Once and Do It Right. They can also look at making any required
changes in the field wherever possible. After all there are a lot of field
welds all ready and a few more will not make as much of an impact on
the field as it would on the shop. Some may cry Oh! You can’t do that!
Well I suggest that you can and should. They can also do a better job of
communicating with the shop when there is no choice but to place a
“Hold.” They need to fully define the reason for the ”Hold” and what if any
effect the potential change will have on material.

Specialty Fitting Dimensions:

Dimensional differences in high-cost, long delivery fittings (WOL) at fitting

make-up situations can cause major problems. The example I site has 8,
24” X 10” P91 Weld-O-Lets required for installations that were designed
for fitting-to fitting. There was no flexibility for adjustment of dimensions.
Six of the O-Lets came in from the manufacturer with the height
dimension as stated in the catalog. Two of them were different from the
catalog. The catalog dimension and the dimension used by the design
team was 9.” One of the O-Lets had an 8” height and the other had a 10”
height. This 1” short and 1” too long caused a major problem. The
manufacturer claimed that there was no requirement for them to make all
the O-Lets (of this size) at 9” and they would not warrantee the O-Lets if
the shop modified them to fit. The suggested solution to this is to find out
what fittings/dimensions are used in the design (and the electronic data
base

Customer Furnished Items:

Many shop fabrication orders include “customer” furnished items of

material. Sometimes it is special alloy material and sometimes it is
specific material items such as valves or weld-in Thermowells. Normally it
is not a big problem for the shop to receive, warehouse and dispense this
material. However there are methods used in the identification and
purchase of this material that can and does cause major delays for the
shop.

The example that I have seen is where the “customer” furnished material
was purchased with a specific “Tag” number identification. This “Tag”
number item could only go in one specific place. Conversely only the
correctly “Tag” number item could be installed in a specific pipe spool.
This means that the shop must find that specific “Tag” number item
before they can release that specific pipe spool to the production floor.

Here is the story. The “customer” company purchased over 500 weld-in
Thermowells for a pipe fabrication order. They had the thermowell
manufacturer mark each well with a specific instrument “Tag” number.
They were then shipped to the shop in small groups of 100+/- to 150+/-
as they were completed. These groupings were received at different
times, by different people and stored in different places in the warehouse.
When a shop material person was sent to find a specific “Tag” number
thermowell and did not look in all the right places thus not finding it, he
or she stopped looking. A material shortage report was then turned in and
a delay was created.

This did not have to happen. These 500+ thermowells, although they had
over 500 individual “Tag” number identifications came in only 5 sizes.
Thermowells come in three basic types. These types have to do with how
they are installed in the piping system. There are:

A) Threaded wells for the normal low temperature and low pressure, non-
toxic commodities. These are installed in the field.
B) There are flanged thermowells (in various ratings) that are used for
higher temperature, higher pressure and more hazardous commodities.
These flanged wells are also normally installed in the field.

C) Then there are the weld-in thermowells. These are used on very high
temperature, very high pressure and or very toxic commodities. These
wells are the only ones that would normally be installed in the pipe
fabrication shop.

Now all these thermowell types no matter whether they are threaded or
flanged or welded-in they have one thing in common. That is they come
in only a limited number of sizes. The sizing of all thermowells is based on
the “U” dimension and the "stem length. The “U” dimension is the
distance the well protrudes into the pipe past the base of the threads
(threaded well), flange face (flanged well) or the inside diameter of the
pipe (welded-in well). The 500+ thermowells in the example we are
talking about here broke down to only one type (weld-in) and only five
(5) sizes. They could have and should have been bought as a bulk item by
the five sizes and identified on the isometric as just a “type/U-
dimension/stem length” code. This would have had a great impact on the
ability of the shop to find material and release spools faster.

The bottom line here is to keep it simple, buy everything as bulk material
when ever possible.

Missing Engineering Data:

All information required to fabricate a pipe spool should be included on

the isometric. That is a great statement and should be valid with only one
exception. That exception would be the piping material specification that
defines the specifics about the material on an isometric. That is fine; the
pipe specs are sometimes the size of a small automobile. It is accepted
practice for the shop people to have a full copy of the pipe specs and use
them.

However there is other information required by the shop that should be

included on the isometric rather than having to find it among documents
they are not familiar with. This information includes which lines need post
weld heat treatment and the maximum operating temperature which
impacts the type of post weld heat treatment.

What is happening here is that the engineering company sends a line list
(or line designation table) or other document to the shop and expects the
shop to find the required information. The problem was that the shop was
not familiar with these other documents and did not always have the
current revision. Isometrics had been issued for lines that were not on the
line list.
Partial Painting:

Some engineering companies ask the shop to do partial painting of pipe

spools. This is sometimes done when a line will have safety insulation
(therefore no paint) where it could be touched and painted where it
cannot be touched. It also includes the carbon steel shoes on alloy or
carbon steel lines that will be insulated. Trust me the shop will be more
than happy to do this partial painting. And, trust this, they will charge you
a hefty price for it.

Painting of pipe spools is based on the weight of the total spool, not the
square foot or meter of area painted. For total painting they normally
have a flat rate price per ton. For partial painting they will discount the
rate to (not by) 65% to 80% of the total rate. This means that you pay
65% to 80% of the full spool painting cost to paint only one 24” long
shoe.

This is not cost effective. There is always going to be painting touch-up in

the field and shoes can be painted there at a far cheaper cost.

Paint Touch-up:

Another costly item is requiring paint touch-up of “dings” by shop prior to

shipping. Pipe that is (fully) painted by the shop can and will get dings
before the truck leaves the yard. Some engineering companies require
the shop to touch-up these dings before the load leaves the yard. This is
also not cost effective. The load is held in the shop until it can be
inspected for dings and then they are touched up and re-inspected. This
only delays the shipment and the load is going to get more dings in route.
It will also get more while being unloaded, during storage in the field prior
(to installation) and during handling at installation.

The most cost effective way to handle dings in shop painted piping is as
follows. First, at every step along the line do everything possible to
prevent dings. Second, don’t reach for the paint brush every time you
spot a ding. Third, after installation, when all the field welds are being
painted, go ahead and touch up those dings.

Pipe spool mark-numbers:

Every fabricated pipe spool that leaves the shop must be identified for
proper and timely installation. Who is responsible for the spool piece
identification numbers? Every company has its own methods of operation
and therefore some will add the MK number as a part of the isometric
extraction process and others may produce plans and elevations then
have the shop do the identification numbers. This identification is
sometimes called the “Mark-number” and is normally shown as MK – *
(numbered in sequence). The MK number is normally preceded by the
purchase order (PO) number for the shop fabrication work, the line
number (or the isometric number) and the sheet number. Therefore, for
example the first pipe spool for line number 10-122A1A on PO #
9876543-2 would be P.O. 9876543-2 – 10-122A1A-Sht 1 - MK -1. This is
a very simple identification method and if it is on every spool the field has
no problems. However, what if you are on a job that has over 10,000
individual pipe spools and many (maybe all) arrived in the field not
marked with the proper identification. This has happened! It is a very
costly process in the field to sort out what the spool piece number is
supposed to be. The delay is costly in both money and schedule. A clear
understanding needs to be established between the design office and the
shop, before the order is placed, as to what MK number method is to be
used and who is responsible for initiating and controlling the numbers.

In closing, learn everything you can about the pipe fabrication shop and
look for and question any item or activity that may have a negative
impact on the cost and delivery of the finished spools.

Section - VIII, Drawings

a: Underground Piping Plans

By: Mark Layport

Underground Piping Plan …One of easiest piping plans to be generated,

but also one of
the trickiest!

Basically you are documenting ALL piping that is to be buried in a given

area.
This "area" is normally the whole facility! This is because this U/G
(underground) piping is normally done at a smaller scale covering a larger
area. Also it's a continually changing design with a lot of variables, and
trying to get more then one designer to coincide (like in above ground
piping) is far more difficult, so it's normally left up to a single designer to
deal with it all.
Because this designer has to take in all the controlling parameters and
correctly deal with them, this is an assignment for a Sr. level designer!

Information required – you'll need the following information:

- The "approved" equipment layout drawing (equipment location

plan, or foundation location
plan …which ever drawing is used to locate the equipment exactly). I say
"approved"
plans because in locations the under ground piping can & will be routed
very closely to
the equipment in locations, and having the engineers still moving things
around can cause
extensive re-designs causing lost of mans-hours of design work!

- All the foundation drawings/details for that equipment &

support/piperack locations.

- You'll need a "cut sheet" (manufactures equipment drawing) to be

able to locate all drains or
commodity connections (where the piping to that connection will be
routed under ground).

Under Ground Piping

Basically the underground piping falls into one of two categories, process
lines & drain lines.

Normally all buried piping is buried with a minimum cover requirement

(18" to 36"approx.) over the top of pipe (T.O.P.) …this is both for stress
requirements & minimum installation/labor requirement. The weight of
vehicles going over buried piping, a minimum required depth is needed to
be able to distribute the load so not to damage the buried pipe …basically
"the deeper the better"! …But why spend the man-hours ($) burying pipe
deep into the ground to avoid damage when the same thing can be
accomplish at a shallower depth and less effort? This is a balance of the
two requirements. However "IF" the underground piping is located in an
area that it is impossible to have heavy crossing traffic going over it, then
the burial depth can be far less.

Process piping is probably the easiest routed …enters the ground at

point "A" and follows a routing that should be half way agreed on by the
powers that be on the project by this time, and exits the ground at point
"B" …only issues are line spacing, burial depth, & corrosion protection on
the pipe (if any).

Drain piping is more complicated, this normally falls in two categories …

pressure drains, and gravity drains.

Pressure drains are a "closed systems" that utilize pressure to push the
commodity through the piping system. This piping is normally routed in
the same trench with gravity drains (I'll explain further during that
discussion). This is a "closed system" cleans out are not required in these
lines, and this piping does not need to be sloped.
Gravity drains are an "open system" that utilizes a sloped piping system
so the commodity can get from point "A" to point "B" on its own utilizing
the gravitational force acting on it.
This "open system" means at points along this piping system there are
branches to this piping that is open to the atmosphere to allow two things
to happen, first and most important, this is where the waste commodity is
introduced into the drain header. Secondly this is where the system is
"vented" …this allows the commodity to run down the system (kind of like
putting a straw down into a container of liquid and putting your thumb
over the end of the straw, with drawing the straw, the liquid will remain in
the straw until you remove your thumb and the liquid is allowed to flow
out of the straw, because the system (straw) was allowed to "vent", same
thing on a gravity drain).
These open branches, where the drains on the equipment introduce the
waste commodity into the drain system, are commonly called "drain
funnels" or "drain hubs". The term "funnel" or "hub" is from the reducer
placed at the opening of the branches in an inverted position so the large
end is up …to act as a "funnel" to this opening. This also allows multiple
small drains (1/2" to 1" normally) to be centered onto one drain funnel …
(I personally witnessed 5 each ½" drains routed to a single 6" drain
funnel). A common "funnel size is 6" so a 6"x 4" or a 6"x 3" reducer is
used. The 3" & 4" size are a common branch size, but don't get too hung-
up if the size is a bit different (note - don't use any size below 2" ...good
piping designer practice is not to bury lines smaller then 2", For a couple
of reasons, lines below 2" are normally threaded, so a potential leak at
any threaded fittings. Also they are too easy to mangle with a backhoe
causing major damage).
Another "trick" with these funnels, they are normally positioned where the
end is protruding approximately 3" out of the finishes surface (compacted
dirt, gravel, or asphalt). This helps keep other "stuff" from getting into
the drain system that doesn't need to be there (I have also seen screens
cut out of perforated expanded metal that set just inside the "funnel" to
further help filter the system).

Sloping drain headers - A gravity drain system is where the piping is

sloped to utilize gravitational forces action upon it to get the waste
commodity to where it can be properly taken care of or stored (as I had
indicated earlier). In my experience 3 slope angles are commonly used,
¼" per foot, 1/8" per foot, & 1/16" per foot. Now ¼" per foot is common
slope in residential piping, it's a "fast" slope and can deal with most
household "chunky" waste, however
dropping a 1" deeper into the ground every 4 feet, this drain piping can
get deep fairly quickly.
As I discussed earlier, a minimum cover is usually required over the
buried piping system, but now you are getting even deeper, now the
man-hour installation factor or cost comes in to play. So as engineering
compromise the 1/8" per foot slope is used quite often and it can deal
with most industrial waste fluids. Lastly 1/16" per foot is used mostly
where you have to cover longer distances only dropping 1" every 16 feet.
This is alittle easier installation, but usually
some "sagging" does occurs in the header. However this installation
normally is capable of draining, even with this sagging, before the header
is "slugged" full.
Drain headers are normally run in there own trench with other drain
headers. This is for a few reasons, first it is easier to slope the system if
that has to occur with other sloped lines. Now pressure drains are
routinely run with sloped gravity drains, normally because they end up in
the same place (or close to it). Pressures drains don't require sloped
piping (as I indicated earlier), BUT it doesn't hurt that it is! Trying to
slope some lines and not others in the same trench becomes a major
construction headache …so sloping the drains becomes the determining
factor in the same trench, not only for engineering reasons, but only for a
construction factor. This also dictates that any other buried lines that are
routed with gravity drain will be configured using the 45 deg. ells. & a
short spool piece between them, for any 90 Deg. change in direction (see
this discussion in Clean-Outs) …again because it is routed with gravity
drains that do require this "unique" configuration.
As I mention earlier sloped drain systems can get pretty deep over a long
run, so it is advantageous to centrally locate the buried drain tank(s),
ponds, or waste disposal area where the waste commodity eventually
ends up, where-by shortening the drain system piping that enter this
area. This does not mean dead in the middle of the facility! …But off-set
to the side, waste disposal is not normally the most important "system" in
a facility, so it wouldn't occupy a prime spot in that facility.

Clean-outs – these are the other branch connections on the main drain
header. They are usually a 45 deg. lateral off the main header, & a 45
deg ell. in the vertical, and a threaded cap or a flange with a blind at the
end. These clean-outs (C/O) are spaced approx. every 100 foot to provide
a "port" so if the drain header becoming plugged maintenance people can
go to this point, open up the port and introduces a "roto-router" (rotating
blade at the end of a flexible cable) to be able to clear out the plug. This
tool can normally reach about 100 ft., so positioning
clean-outs ever 100 ft on the header is critical in case plugging does
occurs deep in the drain header. This tool is very flexible and "could"
make it through a couple 90 Deg ell., but the drain header needs to be
designed to utilize this roto-router tool's flexible and not impede it, so all
changes in direction on the drain header are done using 45 deg ell.s and
not 90 Deg. ell.s (this helps the flow also). This configuration is also used
in positioning/routing "drain funnels or drain hubs", this is because these
points "could be" used to introduce this rooter-router tool as well,
especially if the plug has occurred in that branch before the main header.
A few design notes, as stated before, spacing for C/O's are approx. 100
ft., but there is another controlling issue, you don't want to try to push a
roto-rooter through more then 5 fittings (this is a rule of thumb only) so a
C/O would be required closer then the 100 ft. in this situation.
One last clean-out location that needs to be discussed is the one on the
very beginning of the main drain header. This is a configuration of 2 each
45 deg. ell.s in the vertical and a flange & blind (flg'd because of the
larger size of the main header) …could be a threaded cap on smaller drain
headers. This is probably the most important one because it's the first
entrance into the main drain header. It should be located where it can be
easily accessed for maintenance
equipment (all C/O's should be readily accessible!). An issue that can
happen with all C/O's is "if" they could occur where there is vehicular
traffic. Having a directly connected piping system exposed to traffic would
cause stress/damage issues to that piping system. To eliminate this issue
"covers" are fabricated to cover these C/O's. These covers have lids on
them to be able to readily access these clean outs. These covers are
basically a larger size section of pipe so you have 1" to 3" inches of
clearance of any C/O flanges, this larger pipe would have 3 to 4 "lugs"
welded to the inside and spaced roughly an 1" from the top edge so as a
circular plate steel lid could be fashioned to just fit the inside bore of this
"cover". A 1" diameter hole would be positioned into the center of this lid
so the maintenance people could use a tool to remove this lid.
Lid thickness to be able to with stand the traffic …say around 3/8" to ½"
thick. Design note - With the clean-out flange just fitting inside this cover,
hex. headed bolts will have to be tack- welded to the underneath side of
the flange so nuts are accessible from the top.

Documentation – this is usually done at a smaller scale then normal

3/8" scale piping plans …say ¼" down to 1/8" scale. This is done for a
couple reasons, the U/G piping system is normally a less "complicated"
system (visibly) then the above ground piping. Also the area of
responsibility controlled by the single designer is larger (as stated
earlier). So for expedience and simplicity of documentation these drawing
use the smaller scales. SO what should be
documented on a U/G piping plan? "Simplicity" is the key word here! It
would start with the equipment location drawing …showing all "control
points", roads, battery limits, all support locations, and finally equipment
locations. Now when we show supports and equipment locations we want
to use the simplest depiction of this image! Centerlines, an outline of the
foundation, and an outline of the equipment …THAT IS ALL! Back on the
board day (drafting by hand) this was done primarily to reduce time and
effort required to make the drawing, but in the computer world that is not
so much of an issue. However drawings that are over "decorated"
(nozzles, bolt holes in flanges, skid structure, or trying to Xref in the
entire U/G electrical system) the drawing now become visibly "busier"
…thus harder to read by everybody, but more importantly construction
personnel (people that actually have to use this drawing to build from)
and can easily lead to construction errors, so the drawings still needs to
be as simple as possible!
This simplicity can still help cut down on "drafting time" too, even in the
computer world!
Now the other "issue" is this, U/G piping is usually the first thing into the
ground (not counting foundations) …because this is normally the deepest
item in grade. SO why would we show anything else that happens above
it? Normally electrical conduit runs are at shallower depths, so above the
U/G piping. Trying to document items that have no bearing on the U/G
piping is a waste of time and effort, and gets back into the "over
decoration issue" mentioned earlier!
NOW if the electrical designer has "plans" for a particular area or the rare
occasion that their electrical routing is as deep as your U/G piping, and
you as the piping designer can avoid or take special note of that area or
documenting a minimal representation of that conflict only …that's all part
of being a good designer and touching bases with the other disciplines to
resolve issues before they start …the backhoe operator & welders are not
the people to be trying to resolve engineering &/or design problems!
Documentation of this system can be tricky, but not impossible.
Remember the contractor is going to need to know where every ell. is
located and what the "invert elevation" is at that point.
Invert elevation is the bottom of the inside bore of the pipe …basically the
"wet" part of the piping system. This can sound like a formable task, but
just remember it's just the normal B.O.P. elevation (bottom of pipe) plus
the wall thickness. This is called out in this manner: INV. EL. 97'-6 ½"
…with a leader pointing to the intersection of the centerlines on the fitting
(remember we are trying to maintain this as a common elevation on all
U/G piping at the point!). Another thing to remember, if your calculations
come up with a value in the 16's or 8's of an inch document it to the
closest ¼". Remember this piping system is not being built in a machine
shop, and trying to control a pipe to that degree of accuracy in a ditch is
next to impossible (and normally cause the construction people to laugh
at the engineer/designer that called it out!) …SO again, keep it simple as
possible! This points to the last issue, all points of intersection …change of
direction, drain connections, & clean-outs is clearly documented with
either coordinates or
dimensions & an invert elevation call out! Leaving this information out
and putting notes like … "Where the piping is not dimensionally tied down
or located by coordinates, construction shall install this piping as close as
practical to the indicated routing." …notes like this are a "red flag" that
the designer and/or engineering company does not full know what they
are doing! This now requires the construction people to do the
engineering, but doesn't relieve the original engineering firm of the
responsibly for the system, or any errors made by the construction
people.

When are U/G piping drawings not required? "IF" you have a facility
that doesn't have any piping that is routed U/G is one obvious reason.
However if you only have a few lines that are run underground and they
don't run in the same trench then just documenting them on the above
ground piping plans would be acceptable. But any time you have more
then one line that runs in the same trench and has to comply with the
design requirements of any other pipe in that trench (such as sloped
piping), then a separate "Under Ground Piping Plan" would be advisable.
Remember a few design requirements, main U/G headers are not to be
routed under equipment, tanks, or buildings foundations (however
branches can start from these locations). This is because that "IF" a line
becomes plugged, and maintenance people can't remove the plug, then
the line will have to be excavated and replaced (plugged portion only).
Try not to route line closer then 18" to foundations (edge to edge, & 12"
in a pinch). Again line excavation should not disturb set equipment
foundations! Use a smaller scale to cover large areas on the drawing,
keeping things
simple (do not over decorating the drawing), run all sloped piping in one
trench (if possible), position all drain funnels (hubs) and C/O's for
maintenance, fully documenting location, slope, anddepth.

Don't bury piping smaller then 2".

Following these guidelines will help produce a professional drawing that is
easily read and constructed from,culminating in a key piping system in
any facility.

Mark Layport is formally trained as a piping designer, he has over

34 years of work experience from Alaska to the oil fields in central
California, and has worked on projects world wide. He is presently
employed as a principal piping designer in California.

Section - VIII, Drawings

B: Checking Colour Code Table

By: James O. Pennock

Checking Color Code

Color Sample Meaning Primary Use & Purpose Comments

Yellow is used for this

purpose because it is the
Yellow is to be used by
most transparent of the
Checkers and others on all
primary colors. Yellow should
types of drawings and other
Yellow Good also be used by the piping
documents to indicate that the
supervisor for P&ID "yellow-
highlighted data is correct and
off" of each line as piping
does not need to be changed.
isometrics are approved and
released for issue.
 Green is to be used by
Green is not used for DELETE
Checkers to indicate
Green Notes because it is the universal
instructions to the person
color for GO or okay.
doing the corrections.

RED is used because it is the

Red is to be used by Checkers
Universal color for STOP,
and others to indicate
Red Add DANGER and BE ALERT. It
information or drawing data
tends to get peoples
that is to be added.
attention.

Blue is to be used by Checkers

and others to indicate data or
Blue Delete drawing information that is to
be removed for one reason or
another.

A standard lead pencil is to

A standard lead pencil is to be
used by Checkers to record
Lead Pencil Initial / Date
who did the checking and to
make calculations.
be used by reviewers of
vendor drawings and
interdisciplinary documents
for mark-ups to record who
made the changes or
comments (i.e.: Initial &
Date)

James O. Pennock has more than forty-five years in the process plant design profession. He has been
involved in home office engineering and design, pipe fab shop engineering and job site assignments on
refinery, chemical, petrochemical, power and other projects. His experience ranges from entry level
designer to engineering manager. Much of this was with Fluor. He is also the author of the book "Piping
Engineering Leadership for Process Plant Projects." He is now r

Piping Designers - Check yourselves

For those independent designers that work on there own, or that

preliminary work that goes out for bid, there is no substitution for perfect
work. Incomplete work and errors, all cost extra. Here are some useful
tips to reduce what a checker would find to almost nothing.

As a first step, check all of the information in the title block for
conformance with the P&ID and the plot plan. Double check the line
number, area number and piping material spec. Step two, yellow off the
flowsheet as the isometric is traced on the flowsheet from start to finish.
All inline components should appear on the iso. Check flow direction.
Check all continuations on the ISO (against vessel drawings, including
 nozzle number, nozzle orientation, coordinates and flange type, gasket
and rating.

Using a 3-D system and computer spec ? Check the Bill of Materials.
Getting carbon steel materials in stainless steel lines is easy, especially if
the final spec was not available when modeling started. Are all of the
components in the line from the spec the line was modeled in? Check for
fabrication category (shop - field) against the requirements for your
projects. Many designers field run everything below 40mm, some field run
everything below 50mm.

Valves can be a pain, especially generic ones. Small bore valve

dimensions change. Every manufacturer and valve type uses different
overall dimensions. Here it is important to specify the make and model of
every valve. The use of generic face to face dimensions will produce spool
drawings with cut lengths that will be incorrect. The overall length of
control valves, specialty items, instrumentation and anything else that is
inline needs to be checked against the certified vendor data published for
the project.

Always consider manufacturing restrictions when selecting field weld

locations. Prefabricated spools will be shipped by tractor-trailor. Make
spools fit on trailers and where appropriate into the average stress
relieving oven. Always allow for adjustment with appropriately selected
field welds.

Colour is an extremely useful tool. Yellowing off checked items on the

P&ID, Line list, ISO and GA takes away the need to recheck already
checked areas.

With practices like these, your checker may be left with little to find.
 Piping Codes
Piping codes defines the requirements of design, fabrication, use of materials, tests and inspection of pipes and piping
systems.

A code has a limited jurisdiction defined by the code.

Piping Standards
Piping standards define application design and construction rules and
requirements for piping components as flanges, elbows, tees, valves etc.

A standard has a limited scope defined by the standard.

• ASME/ANSI B16 - Standards of Pipes and Fittings - The ASME B16

Standards covers pipes and fittings in cast iron , cast bronze, wrought
copper and steel .

• ASTM International - ASTM International - American Society for Testing

and Materials - is a scientific and technical organization that develops and
publishes voluntary standards on the characteristics of material, products,
systems and services .

• ASTM International - Standards for Steel Pipes, Tubes and Fittings - The
ASTM standards covers various types of steel pipes, tubes and fittings for
high-temperature service, ordinary use and special applications such as
fire protection use .

• ASTM International - Volume 01.01 Steel - Piping, Tubing, Fittings - An

overview of the ASTM Volume 01.01 standard .

• Bronze Flanges - ASME/ANSI 150 lb - Flange diameters, thickness, bolt

circles, numbers and diameters of bolts for ASME/ANSI B16.15 - Cast
Bronze Threaded Fittings - 150 lb Bronze flanges with plain faces .

• Bronze Flanges - ASME/ANSI 300 lb - Flange diameters, thickness, bolt

circles, numbers and diameter of bolts for ASME/ANSI B16.15 - Cast
Bronze Threaded Fittings - 300 lb Bronze Flanges with plain faces .

• BSi - Pipe, Tube and Fittings Standards and Specifications - British

standards and specifications for pipe, tube and fittings .

• Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Classification - Steel is considered to be

carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, columbium (niobium), molybdenum, nickel, titanium,
tungsten, vanadium or zirconium .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 150 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 150
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 1500 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 1500
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 2500 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 2500
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 300 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 300
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 400 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 400
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 600 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 600
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 900 -

ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 900
Flanges - outside and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and
diameters of bolts .

• Carbon and Stainless Steel Welding Neck Flange Bores - Flange bores of
welding neck flanges according ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe Flanges and
Flanged Fittings .

• Carbon Steel Flanges - Pressure and Temperature Ratings - Maximum

temperature and pressure ratings of flanges conforming dimensions ASME
B16.5 and materials specification ASTM A-105 .

• Carbon Steel Pipes - Comparing American & European Specifications -

Comparing standards of carbon steel pipes from USA, Germany, UK and
Sweden .

• Cast Iron Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 125 - ASME/ANSI B16.1 - 1998 -

Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 125 Flanges - outside
and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and diameters of bolts .

• Cast Iron Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 25 - ASME/ANSI B16.1 - 1998 -

Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 25 Flanges - outside
and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and diameters of bolts .

• Cast Iron Flanges - ASME/ANSI Class 250 - ASME/ANSI B16.1 - 1998 -

Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings - Class 250 Flanges - outside
and inside diameters, bolt circles, numbers and diameters of bolts .

• Comparing American and British Piping Standards - Comparing US

American (ASTM) and British (BSi) piping standards - specifications,
grades and material descriptions .

• Cross Reference of ASTM Material Specifications - Fittings, Flanges,

Unions and Cast and Forged Valves .

• DIN - Pipe, Tube and Fittings Standards and Specifications - Deutsches

Institut für Normung - DIN - pipe, tube and fittings standards and
specifications .

• Fiberglass Pipes - common Standards - Commonly used standards for

fiberglass pipes and their applications .

• Flanges - API vs. ASME/ANSI - Comparing API and ASME/ANSI flanges .

• Flanges - Ratings in Classes and Pressure Numbers (PN) - Pressure

numbers (PN) compared to flange class designations .

• ISO - Pipe, Tube and Fittings Standards and Specifications -

International Organization for Standardization - ISO - pipe, tube and
fittings standards and specifications .

• JIS - Flanges, Bolts, Nuts, and Gaskets Standards - Japanese industrial

flanges, bolts, nuts, and gaskets standards and specifications from JAS -
the Japanese Standards Association .

• JIS - Japanese Industrial Standards - The Japanese Standards

Association - JSA .

• JIS - Pipe, Tube and Fittings Standards - Japanese industrial pipe, tube
and fittings standards and specifications from JAS - the Japanese
Standards Association .

• Stainless Steel - Comparing International Standards - Comparing

international stainless steel standards from America (US), France,
Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, Spain, Sweden, England (UK) and the
European Union .

• Stainless Steel Pipes - Comparing American and European Standards -

Comparing American - US - and European - German, British (UK) and
Swedish - stainless steel pipe standards .

• Stainless Steels Classifications - Stainless steels are commonly grouped

into martensitic stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels, austenitic
stainless steels, duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels, and
precipitation-hardening stainless steels .

• Steel Pipe Standardization Organizations - The most important world

wide steel pipe standardization organizations .

• Steel Pipes Dimensions - ANSI Schedule 80 - Internal and external

diameters, areas, weights, volumes and number of threads for schedule
80 steel pipes .

• Steel Pipes Dimensions - ANSI Schedule 40 - Internal and external

diameters, areas, weights, volumes and number of threads for schedule
40 steel pipes .

• Steel Tubes according BS 1387 - Dimensions and weights of steel tubes

according BSi - BS 1387:1985 Specification for screwed and socketed
steel tubes and tubulars and for plain end steel tubes suitable for welding
or for screwing to BS 21 pipe threads .

• Threaded & Socket Welded Fittings -Pressure Classes and Schedules -

Pressure classes, schedules and weights of pipes for threaded & socket
welded fittings .

• European Committee for Standardization CEN - CEN/TC 69 - Published

standards