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Class 10 Chemistry Revision – useful equations.

Chapter 1 - Periodic Table.


Property IA IIA ....→....’across a period’.. → . .. VIIA Group 0
Atomic Size Large → → → → → → → → → small large
Valency with Oxygen 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Valency with Hydrogen 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Electronegativity, EA, IP. Low → → → → → → → → High Electro-0. EA- 0. IP – v. high
Oxides Basic → → → → → → → Acidic No Oxides
Metallic Nature Metallic → Semi-metals → Non-metals
Definitions. Electronegativity – ‘Tendency to attract electrons in a compound’.
EA (Electron Affinity) – ‘Energy released when an electron is added’
IP (Ionisation Potential) – ‘Energy taken to pull off an electron’
Q. Why does Atomic Size decrease across a period?
A. Because the charge on the Nucleus increases but the number of electron shells remains the same.
Going down a Group – Increases: Atomic Size, metallic nature. Decreases: Electro, EA, IP.
Valency remains the same.
Chapter 2 – Chemical Bonding -
Covalent Bond – ‘Two atoms sharing a pair of electrons, one electron comes from each
atom’. Eg. Molecules like Methane, organic compounds, O2, N2,
Polar covalent compounds have small + and – charges at each end. Eg. Water, Ammonia.
Coordinate Bond- ‘Two atoms sharing a pair of electrons which is a ‘lone pair’ donated by
one atom’. Eg H3O+ (Hydronium Ion), NH4+ (Ammonium Ion)
Formation of Ionic bond (aka- Electrovalent Bond)
Na (2,8,1) ─ e─ → Na+ (2,8) and Cl (2,8,7) + e─ → Cl─ (2,8,8)
Na+ and Cl─ stick together by Electrostatic Attraction.
Weak organic acids (eg. Acetic Acid) contain both molecules and ions.
Chapter 3 – Acids, Bases and Salts.
Acid Reactions. (1) Acid + Base → Salt + Water (called ‘Neutralisation’ or ‘Titration’)
H2SO4 + CuO → CuSO4 + H2O
(2) Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO2
2HCl + ZnCO3 → ZnCl2 + H2O + CO2
(3) Acid + Sulphite → Salt + Water + SO2
HNO3 + CaSO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + SO2.
(4) Acid + Reactive Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
H2SO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + H2.
Note: Nitric Acid (conc. or dil.) does not give Hydrogen with any metals.
(5) Acid + Sulphide → Salt +H2S. eg. 2HCl + FeS → FeCl2 + H2S
Making Salts – (1) Methods for making Soluble Salts.
(a) Neutralisation reaction – Acid + Base (can also use Acid + Carbonate)
(aka.’ Titration’) HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
(b) Acid + Reactive Metal (Fe, Mg, Zn) H2SO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + H2
(c) Direct Combination. 2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3.
Note: Iron + Chlorine (Direct Combination) produces Iron (III) Chloride FeCl3 but:
Iron + Hydrochloric Acid produces Iron (II) Chloride FeCl2
(2) Method for making Insoluble Salts. Double Displacement (Precipitation)
Soluble Salt of Metal (Nitrate) + Soluble Salt (Sodium or Acid) of the Anion.
Eg. Making Lead Sulphate: Pb(NO3)2 + H2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 HNO3
Note: if starting with an insoluble salt eg. PbCO3 first dissolve it in Nitric Acid.
Types of Salts.
(1) Normal Salt (One Metal Cation + Anion) eg. NaCl, CuSO4, Ca(NO3)2.
(2) Acid Salt (One Metal Cation + Hydrogen + Anion) eg. NaHCO3
(Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate) Note: Name contains ‘Hydrogen’
(3) Mixed Salt (Two metals with one Anion) eg. NaKCO3 (Sodium Potassium Carbonate)
(4) Double Salt (two Simple Salts mixed) eg. Alum
(5) Complex Salt (contains metal in the Anion) eg. NaAlO2 (Sodium Aluminate)
OR: The Cation has non-metal groups attached eg. [Cu(NH3)4]SO4 (called Tetrammine
Copper Sulphate – a dark blue solution made by adding excess Ammonia (NH4OH) to Copper
Sulphate.
Salt Analysis.
Metal Ions Few drops NaOH Excess NaOH Few drops NH4OH Excess NH4OH
Na+, K+, NH4+, none none none none
Ca2+ No ppt. White ppt. No ppt. No ppt.
Zn2+ White ppt dissolves White ppt. dissolves
Al3+, Pb2+ White ppt. dissolves White ppt. Insoluble
Cu2+ Blue ppt. Insoluble Blue ppt. Dark blue soln.
Fe2+Green, Fe3+brown Coloured ppt Insoluble Coloured ppt Insoluble
Amphoteric Metals dissolve in both acids and alkalis eg. Zinc, Lead and Aluminium. They give white
ppt . with few drops of NaOH which dissolves in excess to produce a complex salt.
Only Zinc does the same thing with NH4OH.
Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O (Same for Pb instead of Zn)
Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + 2H2O
Barium Chloride gives a white ppt with Sulphates. BaCl2 + CuSO4 → BaSO4↓ + CuCl2
Silver Nitrate gives a white ppt with Chlorides which dissolves in xs Ammonia
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl↓ + NaNO3 and: AgCl + 2NH3→[Ag(NH3)2]Cl (Di-ammine Silver Chloride)
Nitrates give the ‘Brown Ring Test’ producing ‘Nitroso Ferric Sulphate’.
Identification of gases. (i) Acidic Gases – turn blue Litmus red – CO2, SO2, Cl2, H2S, HCl, NO2
CO2 – no smell, turns lime water milky and then clear with excess.
SO2 – sharp smell, turns lime water milky and clear with excess, turns orange K2Cr2O7 green.
Cl2 – sharp smell of swimming pools, bleaches litmus, turns Starch Iodide paper blue/black
H2S – smell of rotten eggs, turns Lead Acetate paper black.
HCl – sharp smell, dense white fumes with Ammonia. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl (Ammonium Chloride)
NO2 – brown gas, sharp smell, turns Starch Iodide blue/black
(ii) Neutral gases (no smell, no change in Litmus) – O2, H2,
O2 – relights glowing stick.
H2 – light gas, collect a tube-full, burns with a ‘pop’.
(iii) Alkaline gas – turns red Litmus blue. NH3 – dense white fumes with conc. HCl.
5A. Mole Concept.
1 mole = 6 x 1023 atoms/molecules of a substance (Avagadro’s Number)
1 mole = Molecular Weight of the substance in grams. eg. 1 mole of H2O = 2 + 16 = 18 grams.
1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 litres at STP (‘Standard Temperature and Pressure’ = 0°C and 1 atm.)
Avagadro’s Law. Equal Volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules. (at same temp.
and pressure)
Vapour Density of a gas = ½ Molecular Mass.
In the reaction: Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 (Molecular Weights: Mg=24; Cl=35.5; H=1)
One mole of Mg reacts with 2 moles of HCl to produce one mole of MgCl2 and one mole of H2.
ie. 24 grams of Mg reacts with 2 x 36.5 = 73 grams of HCl to make 95 g of MgCl2 and 2 g of H2.
5B. Stoichiometry and Empirical Formula. 2 types of problems.
(1) Formula of a compound given. Find the percentage of each element.
Percentage of an element = Number of atoms of the element x Atomic Weight x 100
Total Molecular Weight of the compound
(2) Percentage of each element in a compound given. Find the formula.
Method: Divide each percentage by the Atomic Weight of that element. Then find the
simplest ratio between the answers. This gives the ‘Empirical Formula’. The actual
formula may be a multiple of this.
Balancing Equations: Do metals first, non-metals next and Oxygen and Hydrogen last.
6. Electrolysis.
An Electrolyte conducts electricity accompanied by a chemical change when dissolved in
water or in the fused state (melted). Electrolytes are Salts, Acids and Alkalis.
Weak electrolytes are weak acids eg Acetic Acid and weak bases eg Ammonia.
Non-electrolytes - Organic compounds eg sugar, urea. Pure water does not conduct electricity.
Metals form + Cations which go to Cathode (- electrode) where Cations become metals again.
Anode reactions: Either the metal of the Anode dissolves or Oxygen is liberated.
Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate using Copper metal as the Anode.
Cathode reaction: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu (metal). Anode reaction: Cu – 2e– → Cu2+
Electrolysis of water. Use Platinum electrodes. H2SO4 is added so water conducts electricity.
Cathode Reaction for water: 2H+ + 2e– → H2 (gas) Anode Reaction: 4OH– – 4 e– → O2 + H2O.
Fused salts eg Lead Bromide PbBr2: Cathode: Pb2+–2e– → Pb (metal) Anode: 2Br––2e– → Br2 (gas)
7. Metallurgy.
Making Iron from Iron Ore Fe2O3 (Haematite).
Mixture put in Blast Furnace – Iron Ore + Coke (Carbon) + Limestone (Calcium Carbonate)
Coke burns to form CO - Carbon Monoxide, which is the reducing agent.
Reduction: Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe (metal) + 3 CO2.
Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 decomposes to CaO + CO2.
Removing impurities: CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (Calcium Silicate –‘Slag’)
Making Aluminium from Bauxite – Al2O3 (aka. Alumina).
Purification of Aluminium Ore, Al2O3 (Bauxite) – Baeyer’s Process.
Step 1: Al2O3 dissolved in NaOH. Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O.
Step 2: Solution is diluted to precipitate Al(OH)3 which is then heated to 1000° to reform
pure Al2O3. 2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3H2O
Hall’s Process is similar but Al2O3 is reacted with Na2CO3 to form NaAlO2 + CO2 and
CO2 is used to precipitate the Al(OH)3. (Impurities are SiO2 and Fe2O3)
Extraction: Alumina is dissolved in Cryolite Na3AlF6 at 950°C and electrolysed using
Graphite (Carbon) rods as Anode. The rods need replacing often as they react with the
Oxygen formed. Anode reaction: O2─-2e─ → [O] and C + 2[O] → CO2
Cathode reaction: Al3+ + 3e─ → 3Al (metal)
(Note: metals are always formed at the Cathode) Liquid Aluminium (mp. 660°C) is tapped off.
Making Zinc from Zinc Blende ZnS.
Zinc Blende is purified by Froth Floatation – only works for Sulphides.
ZnS is ‘roasted’ in air to produce Zinc Oxide and SO2. 2ZnS + 3O2 → 2ZnO + 2SO2
Zinc Oxide reduced with carbon. 2ZnO + C → 2Zn (metal) + CO2
Zinc vapours are condensed with molten Lead.
8. Sulphuric, Nitric and Hydrochloric Acid
Copper with Nitric Acid. Copper does not normally react with acids but Nitric Acid is a very
strong Oxidising Agent.
(1) Conc. Nitric. Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2 + 2H2O
(2) Dilute Nitric. 3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Conc. Nitric and Sulphuric Acids both oxidise Carbon and Sulphur to oxides:
C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O and C + 2H2SO4 → CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
S + 4HNO3 → SO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O and S + 2H2SO4 → 3SO2 + 2H2O
Making HCl and HNO3 with conc. Sulphuric Acid.
2NaCl + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2HCl
2KNO3 + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2HNO3 (for Nitric Acid - Apparatus must be all glass)
Sulphuric Acid is used because it is a non-volatile acid (High Boiling Point = 198°C)
Conc. H2SO4 + Sugar (or paper) turns black as conc H2SO4 is a strong dehydrating agent-
C6H12O6 (+ conc. H2SO4) → 6C (black) + 6H2O
Aqua Regia is 3 parts conc. HCl + 1 part conc. HNO3 (dissolves gold)
HCl is a very soluble gas – does Fountain experiment. Funnel arrangement for dissolving.
Heating Nitrates – all Nitrates give off Oxygen and NO2 gas when heated.
2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2 (PbO is yellow when cold and brown hot)
The exceptions are Sodium and Potassium Nitrates which give only oxygen....
Eg. Heating Potassium Nitrate 2KNO3 → 2KNO2 + O2
… and Ammonium Nitrate NH4NO3 +heat→ N2O (Nitrous Oxide) + 2H2O.
Making Sulphuric Acid – Contact Process. Catalytic oxidation of SO2.
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3. Catalyst - Vanadium Pentoxide V2O5 at 500°C
Step 2: SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 (Oleum) Step 3: H2S2O7 + H2O → 2 H2SO4. (Dilution of Oleum)
8B. Making Ammonia – Haber’s Process (industrial process).
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 – Catalyst- Iron with traces of Molybdenum at High Pressure (500atm)
and 500°C. Collect Ammonia by liquefaction at pressure.
Also making Ammonia: Magnesium or Aluminium Nitride with water
Mg3N2 (or AlN) + 6H2O → 2NH3 + 3Mg(OH)2 (or Al(OH)3)
Properties of Ammonia – Very soluble in water - does fountain experiment
Basic – turns red litmus blue.
Lighter than air – Collected by ‘downward displacement’ of air.
Making Nitric Acid – Ostwalt’s Process. – *Catalytic Oxidation of Ammonia. 4NH3 +
5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O – Catalyst – Platinum at 800°.
Step 2: Spontaneous Oxidation of NO to NO2. 2NO + O2 → 2NO2
Step 3: Spontaneous Oxidation of: 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 → 4HNO3
*Note: Burning Ammonia in pure Oxygen gives different products:-
4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O - burns with a green/ yellow flame.
9. Organic Chemistry.
Saturated Hydrocarbons – all single bonds – name ends in –ane. Eg Ethane, Butane.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons – Double bond – name ends in –ene. Eg. Ethene, Butene
Triple bond – name ends in –yne eg. Ethyne, Butyne.
(1) Halogenating Hydrocarbons (with Chlorine or Bromine).
(a) Substitution reactions: CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl (Chloromethane)+ HCl
(b) Addition reactions: C2H4 + Cl2 → C2H4Cl2 (Dichloro-ethane)
(2) Making Alcohols from Chloro (or Bromo) Alkanes- Treat with *aqueous NaOH or KOH
C2H5Cl + NaOH → C2H5OH (Ethanol) + NaCl
*Alcoholic NaOH or KOH removes HCl from C2H5Cl and gives C2H4 + KCl + H2O
(3) Oxidation of alcohols – (a) Mild oxidation (pass over hot Copper Oxide)
C2H5OH + CuO → CH3CHO (Ethanal) + Cu + H2O – makes aldehydes
(b) Strong Oxidation – (Acidified Potassium Dichromate K2Cr2O7 or KMnO4)
C2H5OH + O2 → CH3COOH (Acetic Acid) + H2O – makes Carboxylic Acids
(4) Dehydration of alcohols – using conc. H2SO4 or pass over hot Alumina.
C2H5OH → C2H4 (Ethene) + H2O - produces unsaturated Hydrocarbons.
(5) Decarboxylation of Acids. – make the Sodium salt of acid (eg. Propionic Acid)
and then treat with ‘Soda Lime’ (chemically this is just NaOH).
Step 1: C2H5COOH + NaOH → C2H5COONa (Sodium Propionate) + H2O
Step 2: C2H5COONa (Sodium Propionate) + NaOH → C2H6(Ethane) + Na2CO3
- produces a saturated Hydrocarbon with one less C-atom than original Acid.
(6) Esterification - Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water – conc. H2SO4 must be added to
pull off the water. CH3COOH + C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Acetic Acid Ethanol Ethyl Acetate
Other important reactions:
o CaC2 (Calcium Carbide) + 2H2O → C2H2 (Acetylene (Ethyne)) + Ca(OH)2
o Addition of water (steam) to Ethene: C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
o Combustion: Hydrocarbons burn to form Carbon Dioxide and water.
Eg. Combustion of Methane: CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

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