Department of Electronics: 10 W Audio Amplifier Using LM 1875

10 W AUDIO AMPLIFIER USING LM 1875
INTRODUCTION
An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier that

amplifies low-power electronic audio signals such as the signal from radio receiver or
electric guitar pickup to a level that is high enough for driving loudspeakers or
headphones. Audio power amplifiers are found in all manner of sound systems
including sound reinforcement, public address and home audio systems and musical
instrument amplifiers like guitar amplifiers. It is the final electronic stage in a typical
audio playback chain before the signal is sent to the loudspeakers.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform
tasks like pre-amplification of the signal (this is particularly associated with record
turntable signals, microphone signals and electric instrument signals from pickups,
such as the electric guitar and electric bass), equalization (e.g., adjusting the bass and
treble), tone controls, mixing different input signals or adding electronic effects such
as reverb. The inputs can also be any number of audio sources like record players, CD
players, digital audio players and cassette players. Most audio power amplifiers
require these low-level inputs, which are line level.
While the input signal to an audio power amplifier, such as the signal from an electric
guitar, may measure only a few hundred microwatts, its output may be a few watts for
small consumer electronics devices, such as clock radios, tens or hundreds of watts for
a home stereo system, several thousand watts for a nightclub's sound system or tens of
thousands of watts for a large rock concert sound reinforcement system. While power
amplifiers are available in standalone units, typically aimed at the hi-fi audiophile
market (a niche market) of audio enthusiasts and sound reinforcement system
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS 1
professionals, most consumer electronics sound products, such as clock radios, boom
boxes and televisions have relatively small power amplifiers that are integrated inside
the chassis of the main product
BASIC PRINCIPLE
The power amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC power
drawn from the power supply into an AC voltage signal delivered to the load.
Although the amplification is high the efficiency of the conversion from the DC
power supply input to the AC voltage signal output is usually poor.
Working of 10-Watt Audio Amplifier using LM1875
The circuit diagram of the audio amplifier is shown in Fig. below. It is built
around popular amplifier LM1875 (IC1), an 8-ohm, 10-watt speaker (LS1) and a few
other components. Connect the audio input from your mobile/laptop/PC to CON1.
Connect 15V battery and switch on S1. You should hear amplified sound in speaker
LS1. For testing the circuit, connect a 6V battery to this circuit along with an 8-ohm, 10-watt
speaker.Take a metal screwdriver and gently touch at the input terminal. If your prototype is
working, you will hear a humming sound from the speaker. You may connect a 100-kilo-ohm
potmeter between audio input and ground and middle pin of potmeter to pin 1 for volume control.
Your circuit is now ready to use.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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COMPONENTS USED
SEMICONDUCTOR:
 IC LM 1875 AF AMPLIFIER
RESISTORS (all ¼-watt,+ 5% Carbone ):
 82k,4.7k,2.7 ohm
CAPACITORS:
 4.7 μF ,220μF,1000 μF ,0.22 μF

MISCELLANEOUS
 2 - pin connector
 8-ohm resistor
 On/off switch
 15V DC adaptor
 Heat- sink
 Audio signal from audio sources like mobile phone laptop or MP3 player
Resistor
A linear, passive two-terminal electrical componentthat implements electrical

resistanceas a circuit element. Thecurrentthrough a resistor is indirect proportiontol
thevoltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a
resistor'sterminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This
relation is represented by Ohm's law:
I = V\R
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Resistors are common elements of electrical networksand electronic circuitsand areubi

quitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds andfilms, as well as resistance wire(wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel-chrome).Resistors are also implemented withinintegrated circuits,
particularly analog devices, and can also beintegrated intohybridand printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance common
commercialresistors are manufactured over a range of more than nineorders of
magnitude. When specifying thatresistance in an electronic design, the required
precision of the resistance may require attention to themanufacturing toleranceof the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. Thetemperature coefficientof the
resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistorsare
also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated
power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit. This is mainly of concern in
power electronicsapplications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger
and may requireheat sinks. Ina high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid
to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
Fixed resistors
Lead arrangements
Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting
Through-hole components typically have "leads" (pronounced /liːdz/) leaving the body
"axially," that is, on a line parallel with the part's longest axis. Others have leads coming
off their body "radially" instead. Other components may be SMT (surface mount
technology), while high power resistors may have one of their leads designed into
the heat sink.
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Carbon composition
Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio
Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with
embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body
of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition
resistors had uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the
resistance element rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for color-
coding of its value.
The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely powdered carbon and an
insulating material, usually ceramic. A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance
is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon.
Higher concentrations of carbon, which is a good conductor, result in lower resistance.
Carbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not
popular for general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance,
voltage dependence, and stress. Carbon composition resistors change value when
stressed with over-voltages. Moreover, if internal moisture content, from exposure for
some length of time to a humid environment, is significant, soldering heat creates a non-
reversible change in resistance value. Carbon composition resistors have poor stability
with time and were consequently factory sorted to, at best, only 5% tolerance.[6] These
resistors are non-inductive, which provides benefits when used in voltage pulse
reduction and surge protection applications.[7] Carbon composition resistors have higher
capability to withstand overload relative to the component's size.[8]
Carbon composition resistors are still available, but relatively expensive. Values ranged
from fractions of an ohm to 22 megohms. Due to their high price, these resistors are no
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longer used in most applications. However, they are used in power supplies and welding
controls.[8] They are also in demand for repair of vintage electronic equipment where
authenticity is a factor.
Carbon pile
A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal
contact plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the
plates. These resistors are used when an adjustable load is required, for example in
testing automotive batteries or radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used
as a speed control for small motors in household appliances (sewing machines, hand-
held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred watts.[9] A carbon pile resistor can be
incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for generators, where the carbon pile
controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage.[10] The principle is also
applied in the carbon microphone.
Carbon film
Carbon film resistor with exposed carbon spiral (Tesla TR-212 1 kΩ)
A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a

long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with
the resistivity of amorphouscarbon (ranging from 500 to 800 μΩ m), can provide a wide
range of resistance values. Compared to carbon composition they feature low noise,
because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite without binding.[11] Carbon film
resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C. Resistances available
range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating
temperature range of −55 °C to 155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working
voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse
stability.[8]
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Printed carbon resistor
A carbon resistor printed directly onto the SMD pads on a PCB. Inside a 1989 vintage
Psion II Organizer
Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto printed circuit board (PCB)
substrates as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Although this technique is more
common on hybrid PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fiberglass PCBs.
Tolerances are typically quite large, and can be in the order of 30%. A typical
application would be non-critical pull-up resistors.
Thick and thin film
Laser Trimmed Precision Thin Film Resistor Network from Fluke, used in the Keithley
DMM7510 multimeter. Ceramic backed with glass hermetic seal cover.
Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount
device) resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times
thicker than thin films,[12] but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the
cylinder (axial resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors).
Thin film resistors are made by sputtering (a method of vacuum deposition) the resistive
material onto an insulating substrate. The film is then etched in a similar manner to the
old (subtractive) process for making printed circuit boards; that is, the surface is coated
with a photo-sensitive material, then covered by a pattern film, irradiated
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with ultraviolet light, and then the exposed photo-sensitive coating is developed, and
underlying thin film is etched away.
Thick film resistors are manufactured using screen and stencil printing processes.[8]
Because the time during which the sputtering is performed can be controlled, the
thickness of the thin film can be accurately controlled. The type of material is also
usually different consisting of one or more ceramic (cermet) conductors such
as tantalum nitride (TaN), ruthenium oxide (RuO2), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth
ruthenate (B2Ru2O7), nickel chromium(NiCr), or bismuth iridate (Bi2Ir2O7).
The resistance of both thin and thick film resistors after manufacture is not highly
accurate; they are usually trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or laser trimming.
Thin film resistors are usually specified with tolerances of 1% and 5%, and with
temperature coefficients of 5 to 50 ppm/K. They also have much lower noise levels, on
the level of 10–100 times less than thick film resistors.[13] Thick film resistors may use
the same conductive ceramics, but they are mixed with sintered (powdered) glass and a
carrier liquid so that the composite can be screen-printed. This composite of glass and
conductive ceramic (cermet) material is then fused (baked) in an oven at about 850 °C.
Thick film resistors, when first manufactured, had tolerances of 5%, but standard
tolerances have improved to 2% or 1% in the last few decades. Temperature coefficients
of thick film resistors are high, typically ±200 or ±250 ppm/K; a 40-kelvin (70 °F)
temperature change can change the resistance by 1%.
Thin film resistors are usually far more expensive than thick film resistors. For example,
SMD thin film resistors, with 0.5% tolerances, and with 25 ppm/K temperature
coefficients, when bought in full size reel quantities, are about twice the cost of 1%, 250
ppm/K thick film resistors.
Metal film
A common type of axial-leaded resistor today is the metal-film resistor. Metal Electrode
Leadless Face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology.
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Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be
coated with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin
film resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering
(though this is one of the techniques). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance
value is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching. (This
is similar to the way carbon resistors are made.) The result is a reasonable tolerance
(0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient that is generally between 50 and 100
ppm/K.[14] Metal film resistors possess good noise characteristics and low non-linearity
due to a low voltage coefficient. Also beneficial are their tight tolerance, low
temperature coefficient and long-term stability.
Metal oxide film
Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides which results in a higher operating
temperature and greater stability/reliability than Metal film. They are used in
applications with high endurance demands.
Wire wound
High-power wire wound resistors used for dynamic braking on an electric railway car.
Such resistors may dissipate many kilowatts for an extended length of time.
Types of windings in wire resistors:
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1. common
2. bifilar
3. common on a thin former
4. Ayrton-Perry
Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome,
around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded
to two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a
layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. These
resistors are designed to withstand unusually high temperatures of up to 450 °C.[8] Wire
leads in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter
and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wirewound resistors, either a ceramic
outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an insulating layer is used – if the outer
case is ceramic, such resistors are sometimes described as "cement" resistors, though
they do not actually contain any traditional cement. The aluminum-cased types are
designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent
on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor overheats at a
fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors
may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.
Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than
other types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed
direction can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat
thin former (to reduce cross-section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits,
resistors with Ayrton-Perry winding are used.
Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with

the exception of the high frequency. The high frequency response of wirewound
resistors is substantially worse than that of a composition resistor.[8]
Foil resistor
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In 1960 Felix Zandman and Sidney J. Stein present a development of resistor film and
put the potential of this invention to work, based on inventions made by previous
researchers knew how to make up an industry, of an electrical component of very high
stability. The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a chromium nickel alloy
foil several micrometers thick. Chromium nickel alloys are characterized by having a
large electrical resistance (about 58 times that of copper), a small temperature
coefficient and high resistance to oxidation. Examples are Chromel A and Nichrome V,
whose typical composition is 80 Ni and 20 Cr, with a melting point of 1420° C. When
iron is added, the chromium nickel alloy becomes more ductile. The Nichrome and
Chromel C are examples of an alloy containing iron. The composition typical of
Nichrome is 60 Ni, 12 Cr, 26 Fe, 2 Mn and Chromel C, 64 Ni, 11 Cr, Fe 25. The melting
[16]
temperature of these alloys are 1350° and 1390 ° C, respectively. The following
illustration shows the construction of a metal foil resistor.
Metal foil resistor
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Zandman's idea was the following, assuming that the component is at room temperature
and then the temperature increases, the electrical resistance of the metal due to the
increase in temperature also increases, as the temperature increases the metal tends to
increase its length, it expands, but being stuck to a ceramic structure with a much greater
thickness, the metal cannot expand and the thickness of it increases, with a reduction in
electrical resistance, with which the effect of increased resistance is compensated and
almost it does not change.[citation needed]
Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and
stability of any resistor available. One of the important parameters of stability is the
temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low,
and has been further improved over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors
offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/°C, tolerance ±0.005%, long-term stability (1 year) 25 ppm,
(3 years) 50 ppm (further improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load
(2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 μV/°C, noise −42 dB, voltage coefficient
0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 μH, capacitance 0.5 pF.
Ammeter shunts
An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals

and a value in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by
themselves, can usually accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the
current passes through the shunt across which the voltage drop is measured and
interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of two solid metal blocks, sometimes
brass, mounted on an insulating base. Between the blocks, and soldered or brazed to
them, are one or more strips of low temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts threaded into the blocks make the current
connections, while much smaller screws provide volt meter connections. Shunts are
rated by full-scale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current.
Such meters are adapted to the shunt full current rating by using an appropriately
marked dial face; no change need to be made to the other parts of the meter.
Grid resistor
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In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-

cooled lattice of stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes.
Such industrial grade resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle
over 500 amperes of current, with a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04
ohms. They are used in applications such as dynamic braking and load
banking for locomotives and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC distribution,
control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load testing of generators and harmonic
filtering for electric substations.[18]
The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to
the control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic
circuit topology.
Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can
be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wire wound
power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element,
allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is

required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator.
Such a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.
CAPACITOR
A capacitori s a l i t t l e l i k e a b a t t e r y . A l t h o u g h t h e y w o r k i n
c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t w a ys , capacitors and batteries bothstore electrical energy. A
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battery has two terminals. Inside the battery,chemical reactions produceelectronson

one terminal and absorb electrons on the other terminal. Acapacitor is much
simpler than a battery, as it can't produce new electrons -- it only stores them.
Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metalplatesseparated bya non-
conductingsubstance,or dielectric. We can easily make a capacitor from two pieces
of aluminumfoil and a piece of paper.
The dielectric can be any non-conductive substance. However, for practical
applications, specificmaterials are used that best suit the capacitors
function.Mica,ceramic,cellulose,porcelain, Mylar, Teflonand evenair are some of
the non-conductive materials used. The dielectric dictates what kindof capacitor it is
and for what it is best suited. Depending on the size and type of dielectric,
somecapacitors are better for high frequency uses, while some are better for
high voltage applications.Capacitors can be manufactured to serve any
purpose, from the smallest plastic capacitor in your calculator, to an ultra
capacitor that can power a commuter bus. NASAuses glass capacitors to helpwake up
the space shuttle's circuitry and help deploy space probes. Here are some of the various
typesof capacitors and how they are used.
•Air - Often used in radio tuning circuits
•Mylar - Most commonly used for timer circuits like clocks, alarms and counters
•Glass- Good for high voltage applications
•Ceramic - Used for high frequency purposes like antennas,X-rayandMRImachines
•Super capacitor - Powerselectricand hybrid cars6
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a three-terminalresistor with a sliding or rotating contactthat

forms an adjustable voltagedivider. If only two terminals are used,one end and the
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wiper, it acts as avariable resistor.The measuring instrument called a Potentiometer.A typical

single-turn potentiometerType PassiveElectronic symbo(IEC Standard)(ANSI
Standard)potentiometer is essentially a voltagedivider used for measuring electricpotential (voltage);
the component is animplementation of the same principle,hence its name.Potentiometers are
commonly used tocontrol electrical devices such as volumecontrols on audio
equipment.Potentiometers operated by amechanismcan be
usedaspositiontransducers,forexample,inajoystick.Potentiometers are rarely used todirectlycontrol
significant power (more than awatt), since the power dissipated in the power in the controlled
load.There are a number of terms in theelectronics industry used to describecertain types of
potentiometers:slide pot or slider pot: a potentiometerthat is adjusted by sliding the wiper leftor right
(or up and down, depending onthe installation), usually with a finger orthumb
thumb pot or thumbwheel pot: a smallrotating potentiometer meant to beadjusted infrequently by
means of asmall thumbwheeltrimpot or trimmer pot: a trimmerpotentiometer typically meant to
beNomenclature adjusted once or infrequently for "finetuning"an electrical signal Construction
Drawing of potentiometer with case cut away,showing parts: (A) shaft, (B) stationary
carboncomposition resistance element, (C) phosphor bronze wiper, (D) shaft attached to wiper, (E,
G)terminals connected to ends of resistance element,(H) prevents rotation past end
points.Potentiometers consist of a resistiveelement, a sliding contact (wiper) thatmoves along the
element, makinggoodelectrical contact with one part of it,electrical terminals at each end of
theelement, a mechanism that moves thewiper from one end to the other, and ahousing containing the
element andwiper.Single-turn potentiometer with metal casing potentiometers are constructed with
aresistive element (B) formed into an arcof a circle usually a little less than a fullturn and a wiper (C)
sliding on thiselement when rotated, making electricalcontact. The resistive element can be flator
angled. Each end of the resistiveelement is connected to a terminal (E, G)on the case. The wiper is
connected to athird terminal (F), usually between the other two. On panel potentiometers, thewiper is
usually the center terminal ofthree. For single-turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just
under one revolution around the contact. The onlypoint of ingress for contamination is thenarrow
space between the shaft and the housing it rotates in.Another type is the linear sliderpotentiometer,
which has a wiper whichslides along a linear element instead of rotating. Contamination can
potentiallyenter anywhere along the slot the slider moves in, making effective sealing moredifficult
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and compromising long-termreliability. An advantage of the sliderpotentiometer is that the slider

position gives a visual indication of its setting.While the setting of a rotary potentiometer can be seen
by theposition of a marking on the knob, an array of sliders can give a visualimpression of, for
example, the effect of a multi-band equalizer (hence the term"graphic equalizer").The resistive
element of inexpensivepotentiometers is often made of graphite. Other materials used
includeresistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixturecalled cermet.
Conductive trac potentiometers use conductive polymerresistor pastes that contain hard-wearingresins
and polymers, solvents, andlubricant, in addition to the carbon thatprovides the conductive
properties.Multiturn potentiometers are also operated by rotating a shaft, but byseveral turns rather
than less than a fullturn. Some multiturn potentiometers have a linear resistive element with asliding
contact moved by a lead screw; others have a helical resistive elementPCB mount trimmer
potentiometers, or "trimpots",intended for infrequent adjustmentElectronic symbol for pre-set
potentiometerand a wiper that turns through 10, 20, ormore complete revolutions, moving along the
helix as it rotates. Multiturnpotentiometers, both user-accessible andpreset, allow finer adjustments;
rotation through the same angle changes thesetting by typically a tenth as much as for a simple rotary
potentiometer.A string potentiometer is a multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attachedreel of wire
turning against a spring, enabling it to convert linear position to a variable resistance.User-accessible
rotary potentiometerscan be fitted with a switch whichoperates usually at the anti-clockwiseextreme
of rotation. Before digital electronics became the norm such acomponent was used to allow radio
andtelevision receivers and other equipmentto be switched on at minimum volumewith an audible
click, then the volume increased, by turning a knob. Multipleresistance elements can be
gangedtogether with their sliding contacts on the same shaft, for example, in stereoaudio amplifiers
for volume control. In other applications, such as domesticlight dimmers, the normal usage patteris
best satisfied if the potentiometer remains set at its current position, so theswitch is operated by a push
action,alternately on and off, by axial presses ofthe knob.
Others are enclosed within theequipment and are intended to be adjusted to calibrate equipment
duringmanufacture or repair, and not otherwise touched. They are usually physicallymuch smaller
than user-accessible potentiometers, and may need to beoperated by a screwdriver rather than having
a knob. They are usually called"preset potentiometers" or "trim[ming] pots". Some presets are
accessible by asmall screwdriver poked through a hole in the case to allow servicing without
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dismantling Be developed,while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology.
Construction
Potentiometers consist of a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves

along the element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical
terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one end
to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper.
See drawing. Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive

element formed into an arc of a circle usually a little less than a full turn and a
wiper sliding on this element when rotated, making electrical contact. The resistive
element can be flat or angled. Each end of the resistive element is connected to a
terminal on the case. The wiper is connected to a third terminal usually between the
other two. On panel potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three.
For single-turn potentiometers, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution
around the contact. The only point of ingress for contamination is the narrow space
between the shaft and the housing it rotates in.
Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a
linear element instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along
the slot the slider moves in, making effective sealing more difficult and compromising
long-term reliability. An advantage of the slider potentiometer is that the slider
position gives a visual indication of its setting. While the setting of a rotary
potentiometer can be seen by the position of a marking on the knob, an array of sliders
can give a visual impression of, for example, the effect of a multi-
band equalizer (hence the term "graphic equalizer").
The resistive element of inexpensive potentiometers is often made of graphite. Other

materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal
mixture called cermet. Conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer
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resistor pastes that contain hard-wearing resins and polymers, solvents, and lubricant,
in addition to the carbon that provides the conductive properties.
PCB mount trimmer potentiometers, or "trim pots", intended for

infrequent adjustment
Electronic symbol for pre-set potentiometer
Multiturn potentiometers are also operated by rotating a shaft, but by several turns
rather than less than a full turn. Some multiturn potentiometers have a linear resistive
element with a sliding contact moved by a lead screw; others have a helical resistive
element and a wiper that turns through 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, moving
along the helix as it rotates. Multiturn potentiometers, both user-accessible and preset,
allow finer adjustments; rotation through the same angle changes the setting by
typically a tenth as much as for a simple rotary potentiometer.
A string potentiometer is a multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of

wire turning against a spring, enabling it to convert linear position to a variable
resistance.
User-accessible rotary potentiometers can be fitted with a switch which operates

usually at the anti-clockwise extreme of rotation. Before digital electronics became the
norm such a component was used to allow radio and television receivers and other
equipment to be switched on at minimum volume with an audible click, then the
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volume increased, by turning a knob. Multiple resistance elements can be ganged

together with their sliding contacts on the same shaft, for example, in stereo audio
amplifiers for volume control. In other applications, such as domestic light dimmers,
the normal usage pattern is best satisfied if the potentiometer remains set at its current
position, so the switch is operated by a push action, alternately on and off, by axial
presses of the knob.
Others are enclosed within the equipment and are intended to be adjusted to calibrate
equipment during manufacture or repair, and not otherwise touched. They are usually
physically much smaller than user-accessible potentiometers, and may need to be
operated by a screwdriver rather than having a knob. They are usually called "preset
potentiometers" or "trim[Ming] pots". Some presets are accessible by a small
screwdriver poked through a hole in the case to allow servicing without dismantling.
Digital potentiometer
A digital potentiometer (often called digipot) is an electronic component that mimics

the functions of analog potentiometers. Through digital input signals, the resistance
between two terminals can be adjusted, just as in an analog potentiometer. There are
two main functional types: volatile, which lose their set position if power is removed,
and are usually designed to initialize at the minimum position, and non-volatile, which
retain their set position using a storage mechanism similar to flash
memory or EEPROM.
Usage of a digipot is far more complex than that of a simple mechanical

potentiometer, and there are many limitations to observe; nevertheless they are widely
used, often for factory adjustment and calibration of equipment, especially where the
limitations of mechanical potentiometers are problematic. A digipot is generally
immune to the effects of moderate long-term mechanical vibration or environmental
contamination, to the same extent as other semiconductor devices, and can be secured
electronically against unauthorized tampering by protecting the access to its
programming inputs by various means.
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In equipment which has a microprocessor, FPGA or other functional logic which can
store settings and reload them to the "potentiometer" every time the equipment is
powered up, a multiplying DAC can be used in place of a digipot, and this can offer
higher setting resolution, less drift with temperature, and more operational flexibility.
Membrane potentiometers
A membrane potentiometer uses a conductive membrane that is deformed by a sliding

element to contact a resistor voltage divider. Linearity can range from 0.50% to 5%
depending on the material, design and manufacturing process. The repeat accuracy is
typically between 0.1 mm and 1.0 mm with a theoretically infinite resolution. The
service life of these types of potentiometers is typically 1 million to 20 million cycles
depending on the materials used during manufacturing and the actuation method;
contact and contactless (magnetic) methods are available (to sense position). Many
different material variations are available such as PET, FR4, and Kapton. Membrane
potentiometer manufacturers offer linear, rotary, and application-specific variations.
The linear versions can range from 9 mm to 1000 mm in length and the rotary
versions range from 0° to multiple full turns, with each having a height of 0.5 mm.
Membrane potentiometers can be used for position sensing.
For touch-screen devices using resistive technology, a two-dimensional membrane

potentiometer provides x and y coordinates. The top layer is thin glass spaced close to
a neighboring inner layer. The underside of the top layer has a transparent conductive
coating; the surface of the layer beneath it has a transparent resistive coating. A finger
or stylus deforms the glass to contact the underlying layer. Edges of the resistive layer
have conductive contacts. Locating the contact point is done by applying a voltage to
opposite edges, leaving the other two edges temporarily unconnected. The voltage of
the top layer provides one coordinate. Disconnecting those two edges, and applying
voltage to the other two, formerly unconnected, provides the other coordinate.
Alternating rapidly between pairs of edges provides frequent position updates. An
analog-to digital converter provides output data.
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Advantages of such sensors are that only five connections to the sensor are needed,
and the associated electronics is comparatively simple. Another is that any material
that depresses the top layer over a small area works well. A disadvantage is that
sufficient force must be applied to make contact. Another is that the sensor requires
occasional calibration to match touch location to the underlying display. (Capacitive
sensors require no calibration or contact force, only proximity of a finger or other
conductive object. However, they are significantly more complex.)
Applications
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant amounts of power (more
than a watt or so). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (for
example volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic
circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of
a TRIAC and so indirectly to control the brightness of lamps.
Preset potentiometers are widely used throughout electronics wherever adjustments

must be made during manufacturing or servicing. User-actuated potentiometers are
widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide variety of equipment
functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer electronics declined in
the 1990s, with rotary encoders, up/down pushbuttons, and other digital controls now
more common. However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls
and as position sensors.
Audio control
Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio
equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation, and other characteristics of
audio signals. The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio power amplifiers,
where it is also called an "audio taper pot", because the amplitude response of the
human ear is approximately logarithmic. It ensures that on a volume control marked 0
to 10, for example, a setting of 5 sounds subjectively half as loud as a setting of 10.
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There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a
logarithmic potentiometer. It is almost always used in a ganged configuration with a
logarithmic potentiometer, for instance, in an audio balance control. Potentiometers
used in combination with filter networks act as tone controls or equalizers.
Switch
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can "make" or "break"

an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to
another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores the conducting path in a circuit
when it is operated. It may be operated manually, for example, a light switch or a
keyboard button, may be operated by a moving object such as a door, or may be operated
by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A switch will have one or
more sets of contacts, which may operate simultaneously, sequentially, or alternately.
Switches in high-powered circuits must operate rapidly to prevent destructive arcing,
and may include special features to assist in rapidly interrupting a heavy current.
Multiple forms of actuators are used for operation by hand or to sense position, level,
temperature or flow. Special types are used, for example, for control of machinery, to
reverse electric motors, or to sense liquid level. Many specialized forms exist. A
common use is control of lighting, where multiple switches may be wired into one
circuit to allow convenient control of light fixtures.
By analogy with the devices that select one or more possible paths for electric currents,
devices that route information in a computer network are also called "switches" - these
are usually more complicated than simple electromechanical toggles or pushbutton
devices, and operate without direct human interaction.
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The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical

device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external
circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the
contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or "open", meaning the
contacts are separated and the switch is nonconducting. The mechanism actuating the
transition between these two states (open or closed) are usually (there are other types of
actions) either an "alternate action" (flip the switch for continuous "on" or "off") or
"momentary" (push for "on" and release for "off") type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such

as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light
switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of
machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position
or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be
operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and
force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For
example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating
process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large
switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are
used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that
can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during
maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.
An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on
voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes,
and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions.
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Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and
voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in
circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, but this can
lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal
properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used
in telephone exchanges.
 Power switching
 When a switch is designed to switch significant power, the transitional state of
the switch as well as the ability to withstand continuous operating currents must
be considered. When a switch is in the on state, its resistance is near zero and
very little power is dropped in the contacts; when a switch is in the off state, its
resistance is extremely high and even less power is dropped in the contacts.
However, when the switch is flicked, the resistance must pass through a state
where a quarter of the load's rated power[citation needed] (or worse if the load
is not purely resistive) is briefly dropped in the switch.

 For this reason, power switches intended to interrupt a load current have spring
mechanisms to make sure the transition between on and off is as short as possible
regardless of the speed at which the user moves the rocker.

 Power switches usually come in two types. A momentary on‑off switch (such as
on a laser pointer) usually takes the form of a button and only closes the circuit
when the button is depressed. A regular on‑off switch (such as on a flashlight)
has a constant on-off feature. Dual-action switches incorporate both of these
features.

 Inductive loads[edit]
 When a strongly inductive load such as an electric motor is switched off, the
current cannot drop instantaneously to zero; a spark will jump across the opening
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contacts. Switches for inductive loads must be rated to handle these cases. The
spark will cause electromagnetic interference if not suppressed; a snubber
network of a resistor and capacitor in series will quell the spark.The duty cycle
of the timer is adjustable.
 Also, the maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW and its trigger
and reset inputs has logic compatibility.
Heat sink
A heat sink (also commonly spelled heatsink[1]) is a passive heat exchanger that
transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium,
often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated away from the device, thereby
allowing regulation of the device's temperature at optimal levels. In computers, heat
sinks are used to cool central processing units or graphics processors. Heat sinks are
used with high-power semiconductor devices such as power transistors and
optoelectronics such as lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs), where the heat
dissipation ability of the component itself is insufficient to moderate its temperature.
A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the cooling
medium surrounding it, such as the air. Air velocity, choice of material, protrusion
design and surface treatment are factors that affect the performance of a heat sink.
Heat sink attachment methods and thermal interface materials also affect the die
temperature of the integrated circuit. Thermal adhesive or thermal grease improve the
heat sink's performance by filling air gaps between the heat sink and the heat spreader
on the device. A heat sink is usually made out of copper or aluminium. Copper is used
because it has many desirable properties for thermally efficient and durable heat
exchangers. First and foremost, copper is an excellent conductor of heat. This means
that copper's high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly.
Aluminium heat sinks are used as a low-cost, lightweight alternative to copper heat
sinks, and have a lower thermal conductivity than copper..
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A heat sink transfers thermal energy from a higher temperature device to a lower
temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is frequently air, but can also be water,
refrigerants or oil. If the fluid medium is water, the heat sink is frequently called a
cold plate. In thermodynamics a heat sink is a heat reservoir that can absorb an
arbitrary amount of heat without significantly changing temperature. Practical heat
sinks for electronic devices must have a temperature higher than the surroundings to
transfer heat by convection, radiation, and conduction. The power supplies of
electronics are not 100% efficient, so extra heat is produced that may be detrimental
to the function of the device. As such, a heat sink is included in the design to disperse
heat.
To understand the principle of a heat sink, consider Fourier's law of heat conduction.
Fourier's law of heat conduction, simplified to a one-dimensional form in the x-
direction, shows that when there is a temperature gradient in a body, heat will be
transferred from the higher temperature region to the lower temperature region. The
rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, {\displaystyle q_{k}} q_{k}, is
proportional to the product of the temperature gradient and the cross-sectional area
through which heat is transferred.
Using the mean air temperature is an assumption that is valid for relatively short heat
sinks. When compact heat exchangers are calculated, the logarithmic mean air
temperature is used. {\displaystyle {\dot {m}}} {\dot {m}} is the air mass flow rate
in kg/s.
The above equations show that
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When the air flow through the heat sink decreases, this results in an increase in the
average air temperature. This in turn increases the heat sink base temperature. And
additionally, the thermal resistance of the heat sink will also increase. The net result
is a higher heat sink base temperature.
The increase in heat sink thermal resistance with decrease in flow rate will be shown
later in this article.
The inlet air temperature relates strongly with the heat sink base temperature. For
example, if there is recirculation of air in a product, the inlet air temperature is not the
ambient air temperature. The inlet air temperature of the heat sink is therefore higher,
which also results in a higher heat sink base temperature.
If there is no air flow around the heat sink, energy cannot be transferred.
A heat sink is not a device with the "magical ability to absorb heat like a sponge and
send it off to a parallel universe"
Natural convection requires free flow of air over the heat sink. If fins are not aligned
vertically, or if fins are too close together to allow sufficient air flow between them,
the efficiency of the heat sink will decline.
Loudspeaker
A loudspeaker (or loud-speaker or speaker) is an electroacoustic transducer; which

converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The most widely used
type of speaker in the 2010s is the dynamic speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W.
Kellogg and Chester W. Rice. The dynamic speaker operates on the same basic principle
as a dynamic microphone, but in reverse, to produce sound from an electrical signal.
When an alternating current electrical audio signal is applied to its voice coil, a coil of
wire suspended in a circular gap between the poles of a permanent magnet, the coil is
forced to move rapidly back and forth due to Faraday's law of induction, which causes
a diaphragm (usually conically shaped) attached to the coil to move back and forth,
pushing on the air to create sound waves. Besides this most common method, there are
several alternative technologies that can be used to convert an electrical signal into
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sound. The sound source (e.g., a sound recording or a microphone) must be amplified
or strengthened with an audio power amplifier before the signal is sent to the speaker.
Speakers are typically housed in a speaker enclosure or speaker cabinet which is often
a rectangular or square box made of wood or sometimes plastic. The enclosure's
materials and design play an important role in the quality of the sound. Where high
fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeaker transducers are often
mounted in the same enclosure, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range
(picture at right). In this case the individual speakers are referred to as "drivers" and the
entire unit is called a loudspeaker. Drivers made for reproducing high audio frequencies
are called tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers, and those
for low frequencies are called woofers. Smaller loudspeakers are found in devices such
as radios, televisions, portable audio players, computers, and electronic musical
instruments. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in
theatres and concerts, and in public address systems.
Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a

chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of
semiconductor material that is normally silicon. The integration of large numbers of
tiny transistors into a small chip results in circuits that are orders of magnitude smaller,
cheaper, and faster than those constructed of discrete electronic components. The IC's
mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design has
ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete
transistors. ICs are now used in virtually all electronic equipment and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other digital
home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made
possible by the small size and low cost of ICs.
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Integrated circuits were made practical by mid-20th-century technology advancements

in semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed,
and capacity of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that
fit more and more transistors on chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many
billions of transistors in an area the size of a human fingernail. These advances, roughly
following Moore's law, make computer chips of today possess millions of times the
capacity and thousands of times the speed of the computer chips of the early 1970s.
ICs have two main advantages over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low
because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography
rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, packaged ICs use
much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the IC's
components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their
small size and close proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high cost to design
them and fabricate the required photomasks. This high initial cost means ICs are only
practical when high production volumes are anticipated. Advances in IC technology,
primarily smaller features and larger chips, have allowed the number of transistors in
an integrated circuit to double every two years, a trend known as Moore's law. This
increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and increase functionality. In general,
as the feature size shrinks, almost every aspect of an IC's operation improves. The cost
per transistor and the switching power consumption per transistor goes down, while the
memory capacity and speed go up, through the relationships defined by Dennard
scaling.[19] Because speed, capacity, and power consumption gains are apparent to the
end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries.
Over the years, transistor sizes have decreased from 10s of microns in the early 1970s
to 10 nanometers in 2017 [20] with a corresponding million-fold increase in transistors
per unit area. As of 2016, typical chip areas range from a few square millimeters to
around 600 mm2, with up to 25 million transistors per mm2.
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The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was
forecast for many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
(ITRS). The final ITRS was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International
Roadmap for Devices and Systems.
Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the
integration of other technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small
size and low cost. These technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.
Charge-coupled devices, and the closely related active pixel sensors, are chips that are
sensitive to light. They have largely replaced photographic film in scientific, medical,
and consumer applications. Billions of these devices are now produced each year for
applications such as cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won
the Nobel Prize in 2009.
Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a
technology known as microelectromechanical systems. These devices were developed
in the late 1980s [23] and are used in a variety of commercial and military applications.
Examples include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers and MEMS
gyroscopes used to deploy automobile airbags.
Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into
silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry
resulting in the successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical
transceivers combining optical devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS
based electronics. Integrated optical circuits are also being developed, using the
emerging field of physics known as photonics.
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Integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants
or other bioelectronics devices. Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such
biogenic environments to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed
semiconductor materials.
As of 2018, the vast majority of all transistors are fabricated in a single layer on one
side of a chip of silicon in a flat 2-dimensional planar process. Researchers have
produced prototypes of several promising alternatives, such as:
Various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a three-dimensional

integrated circuit (3DIC), such as through-silicon via, "monolithic 3D",[27] stacked
wire bonding,[28] and other methodologies.
Transistors built from other materials: grapheme transistors, molybdenite transistors,

carbon nanotube field-effect transistor, gallium nitride transistor, transistor-like
nanowire electronic devices, organic field-effect transistor, etc.
Fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon.
Modifications to the substrate, typically to make "flexible transistors" for a flexible

display or other flexible electronics, possibly leading to a roll-away computer.
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal, consisting of
both analog and digital signaling on the same IC.
Digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from one to billions of logic gates, flip-
flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of
these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost
compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors,
DSPs, and microcontrollers, work using Boolean algebra to process "one" and "zero"
signals.
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List of LM-series integrated circuits
The following is a list of LM-series integrated circuits. Many were among the
first analog integrated circuits commercially produced; some were groundbreaking
innovations, and many are still being used. The LM series originated with integrated
circuits made by National Semiconductor. The prefix LM stands for linear monolithic,
referring to the analog components integrated onto a single piece of silicon. Because
of the popularity of these parts, many of them were second-sourced by other
manufacturers who kept the sequence number as an aid to identification of compatible
parts. Several generations of pin-compatible descendants of the original parts have
since become de facto standard electronic components.
Audio connectors
Audio connectors and video connectors are electrical or optical connectors for carrying
audio and video signals. Audio interfaces and video interfaces define physical
parameters and interpretation of signals. For digital audio and digital video, this can be
thought of as defining the physical layer, data link layer, and most or all of the
application layer. For analog audio and analog video these functions are all represented
in a single signal specification like NTSC or the direct speaker-driving signal of analog
audio. Physical characteristics of the electrical or optical equipment includes the types
and numbers of wires required, voltages, frequencies, optical intensity, and the physical
design of the connectors. Any data link layer details define how application data is
encapsulated (for example for synchronization or error-correction). Application layer
details define the actual audio or video format being transmitted, often incorporating a
codecs not specific to the interface, such as PCM, MPEG-2, or the DTS Coherent
Acoustics codec. In some cases, the application layer is left open; for example, HDMI
contains an Ethernet channel for general data transmission.
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Some types of connectors are used by multiple hardware interfaces; for example, RCA
connectors are defined both by the composite video and component video interfaces,
but DVI is the only interface that uses the DVI connector. This means that in some cases
not all components with physically compatible connectors will actually work together.
Some of these connectors, and other types of connectors, are also used at radio
frequency (RF) to connect a radio or television receiver to an antenna or to a cable
system; RF connector applications are not further described here. Analog A/V
connectors often use shielded cables to inhibit radio frequency interference (RFI) and
noise.
For efficiency and simplicity, the same codec or signal convention is used by the storage
medium. For example, VHS tapes can store a magnetic representation of an NTSC
signal, and the specification for Blu-ray Discs incorporates PCM, MPEG-2, and DTS.
Some playback devices can re-encode audio or video so that the format used for storage
does not have to be the same as the format transmitted over the A/V interface (which is
helpful if a projector or monitor cannot handle a newer codec).Several connection
standards are designed to carry not only audio/video data, but also data traffic (often
USB) and power USB was designed as a single connector to support all needs, including
any generic data, audio/video, power, and more; Display Link is its most successful
Audio Video protocol. Until the 3.0 revision, very low data rates meant most A/V
needed alternative connectors.USB-C can directly transport USB 3.1, Display Port,
Thunderbolt, HDMI, and MHL protocols, with power, and audio and many other
protocols are possible. Thunderbolt is the successor to FireWire, a generic high-speed
data link with well-defined audio/video uses. The latest Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C as
its connector, though not all USB-C is Thunderbolt-compatible.FireWire is a generic
data link with audio/video standards used on Camcorders (particularly MiniDV), and
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high-end studio audio and video equipment.DisplayPort carries digital audio and video,
as well as auxiliary information, along with its Mini display Port cousin. Apple 30-pin
dock connector, a docking cradle for Apple iPod, iPhone and iPad, and its Lightning
successor.ADC, now-defunct Apple Display Connector. Some connection standards
can carry both audio and video signals simultaneously: HDMI combines DVI-compliant
uncompressed video data with compressed or uncompressed audio, and supports other
protocols.
Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL)
F connectors are used with RF modulators for televisions without direct inputs SCART,
now the most common in Europe TRS phone connectors with more than one ring, or
Sony's hybrid RCA with a TRS pin Coaxial cable/RG-6/RG-59/Cable television is the
well-known "Cable connector" transmitting analog audio and video, and now used for
data connections.
Power supply
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an

electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert electric current
from a source to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to power the load. As a
result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some
power supplies are separate standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built into
the load appliances that they power. Examples of the latter include power supplies
found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Other functions that
power supplies may perform include limiting the current drawn by the load to safe
levels, shutting off the current in the event of an electrical fault, power conditioning to
prevent electronic noise or voltage surges on the input from reaching the load, power-
factor correction, and storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the event
of a temporary interruption in the source power (uninterruptible power supply).
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All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in the form
of electric current from a source, and one or more power output connections that
deliver current to the load. The source power may come from the electric power grid,
such as an electrical outlet, energy storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells,
generators or alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply. The input
and output are usually hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies
employ wireless energy transfer to power their loads without wired connections. Some
power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as
external monitoring and control.
Power supplies are categorized in various ways, including by functional features. For
example, a regulated power supply is one that maintains constant output voltage or
current despite variations in load current or input voltage. Conversely, the output of an
unregulated power supply can change significantly when its input voltage or load
current changes. Adjustable power supplies allow the output voltage or current to be
programmed by mechanical controls (e.g., knobs on the power supply front panel), or
by means of a control input, or both. An adjustable regulated power supply is one that
is both adjustable and regulated. An isolated power supply has a power output that is
electrically independent of its power input; this is in contrast to other power supplies
that share a common connection between power input and output.Power supplies are
packaged in different ways and classified accordingly. A bench power supply is a stand-
alone desktop unit used in applications such as circuit test and development. Open frame
power supplies have only a partial mechanical enclosure, sometimes consisting of only
a mounting base; these are typically built into machinery or other equipment. Rack
mount power supplies are designed to be secured into standard electronic equipment
racks. An integrated power supply is one that shares a common printed circuit board
with its load. An external power supply, AC adapter or power brick, is a power supply
located in the load's AC power cord that plugs into a wall outlet; a wall wart is an
external supply integrated with the outlet plug itself. These are popular in consumer
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electronics because of their safety; the hazardous 120 or 240 volt main current is
transformed down to a safer voltage before it enters the appliance body.
DC power supply
A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.

Depending on its design, a DC power supply may be powered from a DC source or from
an AC source such as the power mains. DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as
an energy source. Such power supplies will employ a transformer to convert the input
voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is used to convert the transformer
output voltage to a varying DC voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic
filter to convert it to an unregulated DC voltage.
The filter removes most, but not all of the AC voltage variations; the remaining AC
voltage is known as ripple. The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum
amount of filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications, high
ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For example, in some battery
charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-powered DC power supply
with nothing more than a transformer and a single rectifier diode, with a resistor in
series with the output to limit charging current.
Switched-mode power supply
Main article: Switched-mode power supply
In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is directly rectified and
then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC voltage is then switched on and
off at a high frequency by electronic switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current
that will pass through a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a
very high frequency (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use of
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transformers and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less expensive than
those found in linear power supplies operating at mains frequency. After the inductor
or transformer secondary, the high frequency AC is rectified and filtered to produce the
DC output voltage. If the SMPS uses an adequately insulated high-frequency
transformer, the output will be electrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often
essential for safety.
Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the output voltage
constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller that monitors current drawn
by the load. The switching duty cycle increases as power output requirements increase.
SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help
protect the device and the user from harm.[1] In the event that an abnormal high-current
power draw is detected, the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and
will shut itself down before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power
good signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents operation when
abnormal supply voltages are present.
Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output.[2] They are only
able to output above a certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a
no-load condition the frequency of the power slicing circuit increases to great speed,
causing the isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the
resulting very high voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with protection
circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very
small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb
can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached. The
switch-mode power supplies used in computers have historically had low power factors
and have also been significant sources of line interference (due to induced power line
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harmonics and transients). In simple switch-mode power supplies, the input stage may
distort the line voltage waveform, which can adversely affect other loads (and result in
poor power quality for other utility customers), and cause unnecessary heating in wires
and distribution equipment. Furthermore, customers incur higher electric bills when
operating lower power factor loads. To circumvent these problems, some computer
switch-mode power supplies perform power factor correction, and may employ input
filters or additional switching stages to reduce line interference.
SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
Soldering is an important skill for electrical technician. Good soldering is important for
proper operation of equipments. Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. The solder that is the
most used is 60/40 solder. This means that it is made from 60% tin and 40% lead. Solder
melts at a temperature of about 400 degree Fahernheit. For solder to adher to join, the
parts must to enough to melt the solder. Rosin flux is contained inside the solder. It is
called rosin-core solder. A good mechanical joint must be made when soldering. Heat
is then appiled to the joint. The heat of the material rare hot. When they are hot, solder
is applied to the joint. The heat of the metal part is used to melt the solder. Only a small
amount of heat should be used sparingly. The joint should appear smooth and thin. If it
does not, it could be a “cold” solder joint. This is called a “cold joint”. Care should be
taken not to damage PCB when soldering parts on to them. Small, low wattage irons
should be used with PCB and semiconductor devices.
Need of flux
Flux is needed for achievivng desired clean lines of the surface. Most metals tend to
form compunds with atmospheric oxygen, which leads a coating of oxide even at
room temperature, react chemically with oxides and disperse the reaction products.
Fluxes are applied before and during soldering
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SOLDRIEDING TOOLS
To facilitate soldering work, various tools are necessary. The most essential tools in the
soldering practice are:
Strippers and bendings tools
Strippers are used to remove insulation from wire. Bending tools are those having
smooth bending surface so that they do not cause any damage to the component.
SOLDERING IRON
A solering should supply sufficient heat to melt solder by heat to melt solder by heat
transfer, when the iron tip is applied to the connection to the soldered. There are two
general classes of soldering irons.
a) Soldering penciles: Soldering pencils are lightweight soldering tools, which can
generate as little as 10W or as much as SOW.A) 25W is well suitable .
b) Soldering gun: A gun is heavier and generates more heat than the average
pencils of heavy-duty conductors requires the use of a gun because it can generate
enough heat to quickly being a heavy metal joint at the proper soldering
temperrature. These soldering tools are called gun-soldering temperature. These
soldering tools are called gun-soldering for light duty works such as soldering on
PCBs.
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FINAL VIEW OF PROJECT
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ADVANTAGES
Amplifiers simply increase the amplitude (the maximum positive value, or

minimum negative value) of a waveform by some factor.
When an electrical signal is transferred between ports of a circuit it eventually

becomes weak, especially when transferring thorough wireless connection.
Say the original signal transmitted had peak at 5Volts. At the receiver end, it
was found to be 3Volts. Here comes the amplifier. It will increase the amplitude again
to 5Volts for proper functioning of our circuit.
You will find many applications of Amplifier. Best example is the wireless
mic-speaker system
Instrumentation amplifier doesn’t require input impedance matching. This

makes the amplifier ideal for testing and measuring various equipment.
Instrumentation amplifier has a low DC offset. It doesn’t generate any noticeable
noise and the drift is considerably low. The open loop gain is very high, the common
mode rejection ratio is also very high and the two attributes along with considerable
input impedances make them very accurate.
Instrumentation amplifier is very stable and hence ideal for long term use. It is
also perfect for short term use. Instrumentation amplifier has a controlled circuit but it
can be easily varied or adjusted by working on the R (gain) value. There is no need to
change the circuit or its structure. Since the R (gain) is almost entirely dependent on the
resistors used externally, the gain value can be gauged very accurately and can be
tweaked by working on the resistors. Choosing or changing the resistor values is more
critical here. There is very little erring variance in the output because the common code
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signal is rejected and any output impedance is essentially the output impedance you
would get with a differential amplifier.
Instrumentation amplifier works with the input and hence doesn’t really depend
much on the various factors that influence the output at the latter stages. You can
understand more about an instrument’s output ability only when you know the input
very well. The outputs will anyway depend on many associated and disassociated
factors.
Using instrumentation amplifier allows you to amplify the sound at the input
level so even a relatively tiny input can be amplified to a great extent. With
amplifications of outputs, there is still a need for substantial input, only then can you
amplify to a desired extent.
DISADVANTAGES
o It has low voltage and power gain.

o It is unsuitable for low frequency application.
o It has poor impedance matching because its output impedance is several times
larger than the device, at its end terminal.
o It has the tendency to become noisy with times.
o It has narrow bandwidth.
o The biggest and perhaps the only concern with instrumentation amplifier is the
superimposing of the original wave when the sound or noise gets transmitted over
a long range. The system will depend on special cables that can cancel this noise or
superimposition
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APPLICATIONS
Important applications include public address systems, theatrical and

concert sound reinforcement systems, and domestic systems such as a stereo or system.
Instrument including guitar amplifiers and electric keyboard amplifiers also use audio
power amplifiers. In some cases, the power amplifier for an instrument amplifier is
integrated into a single amplifier "head" which contains a preamplifier, tone controls,
and electronic effects. These components may be mounted in a wooden speaker cabinet
to create a "combo amplifier". Musicians with unique performance needs and/or a need
for very powerful amplification may create a custom setup with
separate rackmountpreamplifiers, equalizers, and a power amplifier mounted in a
19" road case.
Power amplifiers are available in standalone units, which are used by hi-
fi audio enthusiasts and designers of public address systems (PA systems) and sound
reinforcement systems. A hi-fi user of power amplifiers may have a stereo power
amplifier to drive left and right speakers and a "monoblock" single channel power
amplifier to drive a subwoofer. The number of power amplifiers used in a sound
reinforcement setting depends on the size of the venue. A small coffeehouse may have
a single power amp driving two PA speakers. A nightclub may have several power
amps for the main speakers, one or more power amps for the monitor
speakers (pointing towards the band) and an additional power amp for the subwoofer.
A stadium concert may have a large number of power amps mounted in racks.
Most consumer electronics sound products, such as TVs, boom boxes, home
cinema sound systems, Casio and Yamaha electronic keyboards, "combo" guitar
amps and car stereos have power amplifiers integrated inside the chassis of the main
product.
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FUTURE SCOPE
The audio we hear, or perhaps a more correct way to put it is ‘choose to hear', has
relied very heavily on technology for a number of decades to evolve into what we
know today as music.
The ways in which we have experienced music, and how it has been recorded and
consumed, have changed dramatically, and different formats have created some pretty
iconic pieces of paraphernalia over the years. These have come to represent specific
eras in the past century: think of the gramophone, vinyl, cassette tapes, compact discs
and the rise of digital music, MP3 and now dedicated streaming services
The devices used to translate these formats into sounds that we can enjoy on a daily
basis have also transformed. The apparatus hasn't really changed in idea (headphones
and speakers still remain the standard way of consuming music personally), but the
technology that goes into them, and the shapes they have taken, are in a constant state
of development.
But what's around the corner? Now that digital music is here for the foreseeable
future, we can expect that all kinds of audio, whether music, e-books or telecoms, will
become more versatile and mobile.
Wireless
Two of the most prolific recent advances in audio technology, at least from a
hardware point of view, are noise-cancellation and wireless connectivity
in professional and consumer headphones and earphones.
These technologies have become commonplace over the past five years or so in the
way people listen to music or use audio devices to communicate. Bluetooth has only
recently reached a level where it is considered by OEMs as good enough to carry
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quality audio and replace wires completely, thus paving the way for a throng of cable-
free cans.
We are now also starting to see noise-cancellation features in these wireless devices to
offer the best of both worlds, allowing users to block out external, unwanted sounds
and concentrate solely on the music without being tied to a device. Still, at the
moment, a bog standard set of earphones that the average person buys from Amazon,
for example, will still most likely be wired. This is going to be one of the first big
changes in audio technology in the coming years.
Take the recent revelation that Apple will eliminate the headphone jack from the next
iPhone, rumored as the iPhone 7. According to speculation, Apple will get rid of the
3.5mm headphone jack that has been standard on iPhones and other devices for years,
replacing the included ear buds with those that plug in through the Lightning port.
This will mean that users wanting to buy their own earphones will have to opt for a
Bluetooth wireless variety, thus pushing the growth of wireless buds as third parties
rush to give iPhone users alternative options.
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CONCLUSION
The amplifier design revealed to be a major challenge, being an excellent

source of knowledge for acquiring an extended background on analog and digital
electronics. Considering the multiple variables that may influence the performance of
the analog audio-amplifier, all major goals were accomplished. An integrated valve
amplifier with excellent characteristics has resulted. In part credit should be given to
available electric simulators that allowed a much easier optimization procedure
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REFERENCE
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_power_amplifier
2. https://connectusfund.org/5-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-instrumentation-
amplifier
3. https://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/feature/2437811/the-future-of-audio-
technology
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_power_amplifier
5. https://paginas.fe.up.pt/~ee05202/conclusion.html
6. Electronics for you.
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer
8. https://www.eleccircuit.com/25w-hi-fi-audio-amplifier-using-ic-lm1875/
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor
10. Introduction to electrical and electronics engineering.
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DATA SHEET
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D

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10 W AUDIO AMPLIFIER USING LM 1875

An audio power amplifier (or power amp) is an electronic amplifier that

Working of 10-Watt Audio Amplifier using LM1875

RESISTORS (all ¼-watt,+ 5% Carbone ):

 4.7 μF ,220μF,1000 μF ,0.22 μF

A linear, passive two-terminal electrical componentthat implements electrical

Resistors are common elements of electrical networksand electronic circuitsand areubi

Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting

Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a

Printed carbon resistor

Thick and thin film

Metal oxide film

Types of windings in wire resistors:

Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with

Metal foil resistor

An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals

In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-

Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is

battery has two terminals. Inside the battery,chemical reactions produceelectronson

A potentiometer is a three-terminalresistor with a sliding or rotating contactthat

wiper, it acts as avariable resistor.The measuring instrument called a Potentiometer.A typical

and compromising long-termreliability. An advantage of the sliderpotentiometer is that the slider

Potentiometers consist of a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves

See drawing. Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive

The resistive element of inexpensive potentiometers is often made of graphite. Other

PCB mount trimmer potentiometers, or "trim pots", intended for

Electronic symbol for pre-set potentiometer

A string potentiometer is a multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of

User-accessible rotary potentiometers can be fitted with a switch which operates

volume increased, by turning a knob. Multiple resistance elements can be ganged

A digital potentiometer (often called digipot) is an electronic component that mimics

Usage of a digipot is far more complex than that of a simple mechanical

A membrane potentiometer uses a conductive membrane that is deformed by a sliding

For touch-screen devices using resistive technology, a two-dimensional membrane

Preset potentiometers are widely used throughout electronics wherever adjustments

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can "make" or "break"

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such

The above equations show that

A loudspeaker (or loud-speaker or speaker) is an electroacoustic transducer; which

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a

Integrated circuits were made practical by mid-20th-century technology advancements

Various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a three-dimensional

Transistors built from other materials: grapheme transistors, molybdenite transistors,

Fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon.

Modifications to the substrate, typically to make "flexible transistors" for a flexible

List of LM-series integrated circuits

Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL)

A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an

A DC power supply is one that supplies a constant DC voltage to its load.

Switched-mode power supply

Main article: Switched-mode power supply

Strippers and bendings tools

FINAL VIEW OF PROJECT

Amplifiers simply increase the amplitude (the maximum positive value, or

When an electrical signal is transferred between ports of a circuit it eventually

Instrumentation amplifier doesn’t require input impedance matching. This

o It has low voltage and power gain.

Important applications include public address systems, theatrical and

The amplifier design revealed to be a major challenge, being an excellent

6. Electronics for you.