UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND INFORMATION
ENGINEERING

HYBRID POWER SYSTEM USING SOLAR, WIND AND

SERVICE LINE

PROJECT INDEX: PRJ 044

BY
AMBUTU AMUKONGO ACADIUS
F17/1462/2011

SUPERVISOR: PROF M.K. MANG’OLI

EXAMINER: DR. CYRUS WEKESA

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI 2016

SUBMITTED ON: 13TH MAY, 2016

 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I carried out the work reported in this report in the Department of Electrical

and Information Engineering, University of Nairobi, under the supervision of Prof M.K.

Mang’oli. I solemnly declare that to the best of my knowledge, no part of this report has been

submitted here or elsewhere in a previous application for award of a degree. All sources of

knowledge used have been duly acknowledged.

(Signature & Date)

...............................................................................

AMBUTU AMUKONGO ACADIUS

F17/1462/2011

i
 APPROVAL

This is to certify that the project titled “Hybrid Power System Using Solar, Wind and Service

Line” carried out by Ambutu Amukongo Acadius, has been read and approved for meeting part

of the requirements and regulations governing the award of the BSc. Electrical and Electronic

Engineering degree of University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.

............................................. ………………….

PROF M.K. MANG’OLI DATE

(PROJECT SUPERVISOR)

............................................. …………………

PROF H.A. OUMA DATE

(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

ii
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to my parents Mr. B.A Sensah and Mrs. S.L Ondiso, my siblings G.

Khabukwi, C. Mukunda, B. Shinyeka and A. Ayidi for their love and support in life, studies and

in my project. Duly appreciated.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the almighty God for the favors bestowed upon me.

I thank my supervisor Prof. M.K. Mang’oli for not only the support he gave me throughout the

project but also for the commitment he showed towards the project success.

I appreciate the guidance provided to me by Eng. Onditi and Mr. Onsare James from Kenya Power

who also ensured that I had all the relevant information to successfully complete the project.

I would like to thank Mr. Lomulen and Mr. Muchisu Albert who were of great help due to their

vast experience with PV Systems.

To my group members Khaemba, Hilda, Koki and Mokeira you will always be acknowledged.

Finally, I thank all my classmates (class of 2016) for being a family to me.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i
APPROVAL .................................................................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. v
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ......................................................................... xi
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ xii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Methodology ................................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Project Scope .................................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Expected Results ............................................................................................................. 2
1.7 Hybrid Power System ..................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Overview of the Keywords ............................................................................................. 5
2.3 Renewable Energy .......................................................................................................... 5
2.3.1 Why Renewable Energy .......................................................................................... 5
2.3.2 Shortcomings of Renewable Energy ....................................................................... 6
2.4 Solar Energy ................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1 Why Solar Power..................................................................................................... 6
2.4.2 Shortcomings of Solar Power .................................................................................. 6
2.4.3 How PV Cells Generate Electricity ......................................................................... 7

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 2.4.4 Components of a PV Array ..................................................................................... 9
2.5 Wind Energy ................................................................................................................... 9
2.5.1 Why Wind Energy ................................................................................................. 10
2.5.2 Shortcomings of Wind Power ............................................................................... 10
2.5.3 Wind Power Generation ........................................................................................ 10
2.5.4 Components of a Wind Turbine ............................................................................ 12
2.6 Hybrid Power System ................................................................................................... 13
2.6.1 Electricity Generation Coupled at DC Bus Line ................................................... 14
2.6.2 Electricity Generation Coupled At AC Bus Line .................................................. 15
2.7 Auxiliary Components .................................................................................................. 15
2.7.1 Batteries ................................................................................................................. 16
2.7.2 Rectifier ................................................................................................................. 16
2.7.3 Inverter .................................................................................................................. 16
2.7.4 Charge Controllers ................................................................................................ 17
2.8 Service Line .................................................................................................................. 17
2.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3 DESIGN ...................................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Wind and Solar Resource Assessment ......................................................................... 19
3.3 Load Assessment .......................................................................................................... 23
3.4 Design of Solar PV System .......................................................................................... 24
3.5 Design of Wind Turbine System .................................................................................. 29
3.6 Coupling of Wind Turbine and Solar PV System ........................................................ 30
3.6.1 MPPT Solar Charge Controller ............................................................................. 31
3.6.2 Wind Charge Controller ........................................................................................ 33
3.6.3 3-Phase Bidirectional Dual Mode Hybrid Inverter ............................................... 34
3.6.4 Battery Bank .......................................................................................................... 35
3.6.5 DC Cable Sizing .................................................................................................... 37
3.6.6 AC Cable Sizing .................................................................................................... 39
3.7 System Protection and Mechanical Considerations ...................................................... 40
3.7.1 System Protection .................................................................................................. 40
3.7.2 Mechanical Considerations ................................................................................... 42

vi
 3.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 44
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 44
4.2 Solar System Power and Energy Output ...................................................................... 44
4.3 Wind Turbine Generator Power and Energy Output .................................................... 47
4.4 Hybrid Power System Power and Energy Output ........................................................ 49
4.5 Financial Analysis ........................................................................................................ 52
4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 5 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................... 55
5.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 55
5.2 Recommendations......................................................................................................... 55
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 57
APPENDIX A: CLIMATIC DATA OF SHINAKOTSI AREA ................................................. 59
APPENDIX B: CONDUCTORS AND CABLES MANUAL .................................................... 60
APPENDIX C: TROJAN T-105 DATA SHEET ........................................................................ 63
APPENDIX D: APOLLO MPT-SERIES DATA SHEET .......................................................... 65
APPENDIX E: SERAPHIM SRP-315-6MA DATA SHEET ..................................................... 66
APPENDIX F: DEMING SOLAR CONTROLLER SERIES (120V84A) DATA SHEET ....... 67
APPENDIX G: ECO VANE (ev600 10kW) WIND TURBINE DATA SHEET ....................... 68
APPENDIX F: DEMING POWER FKJB-10KW WIND CONTROLLER DATA SHEET ...... 69
APPENDIX G: MIDNITE SOLAR COMBINER BOX (MNPV-6) DATA SHEET................. 70
APPENDIX H: ELECTRICITY COST IN KENYA .................................................................. 71

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Solar Array ................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2.2 Wind Speed Increases with Height ............................................................................ 11

Figure 2.3 Structure of a Wind Turbine ...................................................................................... 13

Figure 2.4 Electricity Generation Coupled at DC Bus Line ........................................................ 14

Figure 2.5 Electricity Generation Coupled at AC Bus Line........................................................ 15

Figure 3.1 Line Graph of Wind Speeds at 10m, 20m and 50m above Ground ........................... 21

Figure 3.2 Solar Radiation at Different Tilt Angles .................................................................... 22

Figure 3.3 Shinakotsi Load Profile.............................................................................................. 24

Figure 3.4 Summary of Sizing Solar PV System ........................................................................ 25

Figure 3.5 Daily Output of a Module .......................................................................................... 25

Figure 3.6 Minimum Number of Modules Required .................................................................. 27

Figure 3.7 Design of Wind Turbine Generator ........................................................................... 29

Figure 3.8 Coupling of the Hybrid Power System ...................................................................... 31

Figure 3.9 The Hybrid Power System ......................................................................................... 32

Figure 3.10 Calculation of Usable Capacity ............................................................................... 35

Figure 3.11 Calculation of the Minimum Number of Batteries .................................................. 36

Figure 4.1 Solar Power Output .................................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.2 Solar Array Energy Output ........................................................................................ 47

Figure 4.3 Wind Generator Power Output .................................................................................. 48

Figure 4.4 Wind Generator Energy Output ................................................................................. 49

Figure 4.5 Hybrid System Power Curve ..................................................................................... 50

viii
Figure 4.6 Hybrid System Energy ............................................................................................... 51

Figure 4.7 Annual Energy of the System .................................................................................... 51

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Site Details .................................................................................................................. 20

Table 3.2 10 Year Average Monthly Wind Speed (m/s) at 10m 20m and 50m above Ground .. 20

Table 3.3 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on a Horizontal Surface (kWh/m2/day) ........ 21

Table 3.4 Monthly Averaged Daylight Hours ............................................................................. 21

Table 3.5 Monthly Averaged Incident on an Equator-Pointed Tilted Surface (kWh/m2/day) .... 22

Table 3.6 Air Temperature (0C) .................................................................................................. 22

Table 3.7 Shinakotsi Daily Energy Demand ............................................................................... 23

Table 3.8 DC Conductor Sizes Used ........................................................................................... 39

Table 3.9 Summary of System Protection ................................................................................... 42

Table 4.1 Solar Array Power Output ........................................................................................... 45

Table 4.2 Solar Array Energy Output ......................................................................................... 46

Table 4.3 Wind Generator Power Output .................................................................................... 47

Table 4.4 Wind Generator Energy Output .................................................................................. 48

Table 4.5 Hybrid Power System Power Output .......................................................................... 49

Table 4.6 Hybrid System Energy ................................................................................................ 50

Table 4.7 Cost Estimate............................................................................................................... 53

x
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

RES Renewable Energy Systems

RE Renewable Energy
PV Photovoltaic
WEO World Economic Outlook
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracker
TSR Rotor Tip Speed Ratio
ABC Aerial Bundled Cable
ACSR Aluminium Core/Conductor Steel Reinforced
AAC All Aluminium Conductor
AAAC All Aluminium Alloy Conductor
DOD Depth of Discharge
SoC State of Charge
VDI Voltage Drop Index
RAE Reference Annual Energy
RET Renewable Energy Technology
AEP Annual Energy Production
WTG Wind Turbine Generator
HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
NEC National Electric Code
THHN Thermoplastic High Heat resistant Nylon coated
I Current

xi
 ABSTRACT

Energy is fundamentally the ability to do work. The society came about to be as complex and

modernized as it is due to evolutionary paths taken in energy conversion from one form to

another. The world is however majorly concerned of the utilities to reduce the emissions from

electricity generating plants by employing renewable energy and to supply and at a low cost

electricity to remote areas. Hybrid power systems provide such solutions due to the employment

of renewable energy (RE) that are freely available in nature, readily available and

environmental friendly reducing greenhouse emissions. A remote area in western Kenya,

Shinakotsi, is selected as a case study. The stand-alone hybrid power system employs solar and

wind energy to generate electricity and batteries as a back-up system. The system components

and specifications are arrived at after load assessment is done and the solar insolation and wind

speed data are obtained. The micro grid is expected to provide stable electricity supply to the

area throughout the year at minimal cost and be environmental friendly.

xii
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Kenya’s economic growth depends on the country’s ability and capacity to explore its energy

stores. Efforts have been made to explore the renewable energy sources with geothermal power

plants in Naivasha, Nakuru County which have significantly contributed to energy count in the

country. Assessments by the Ministry of Energy shows that the country on average receives 4.5

kWh per square meter per day in solar energy and the Wind Resource Assessment carried out

by WinDForce shows that 73% of Kenya’s total area experiences annual wind speed of more

than 6 m/s at 100 m above ground. To achieve universal electricity access by 2030, it is

estimated that 40% of new capacity will need to be provided by Mini Grids (WEO 2010). Wind

and solar energy are largely untapped in the country despite its immense potential to generate

electricity and therefore the need to do more research in the RES to hit the vision 2030 target

where the estimated power demand is projected at 15000MW.

1.2 Problem Statement

With rising concerns of greenhouse effect and fuels prices there is need to come up with a

system that will generate electricity at low costs and significantly reduce greenhouse emissions.

A hybrid power system based on renewable energy sources of wind and solar is to be designed.

A remote area in western Kenya is selected and based on data on wind speeds and solar

insolation and load profile in the area, the system is designed to meet the demands. The hybrid

power system is expected to be reliable, efficient and cost effective.

1
1.3 Objectives

1. To design a hybrid power system based on wind and solar

2. To design a battery back-up system for the plant

3. To size the conductors used in the system

4. To provide reliable and affordable electricity supply

1.4 Methodology

1. Wind and solar resource assessment

2. Determination of system load and energy input required

3. Design of PV system

4. Design of WTG system

5. Determination of the battery storage required

6. Coupling of the PV and WTG systems

1.5 Project Scope

1. Study the solar radiation and wind speeds of the projected neighborhood

2. Load assessment of the area

3. Design a hybrid power system using wind and solar energy and batteries as back-up

4. Sizing of the conductors used in the system

5. Provide reliable and affordable electricity supply

1.6 Expected Results

It is expected that the hybrid power system will be able to provide the area with stable

electricity supply throughout the year, run at minimal cost and be environmental friendly.

2
1.7 Hybrid Power System

Hybrid power systems are designed for the generation and use of electrical power. They are

most cases independent of the large centralized electrical grid and in-cooperate more than one

power source. This system may range from a number of megawatts to individual household

power supplies of 1 kW. They deliver alternating current at a fixed frequency and observe the

voltage variation of plus or minus 6%. Usually has a major control system which enables the

system to supply electricity in the required quality. A "hybrid" electric system that combines

wind and solar technologies offers several advantages over either single system. Even during

the same day, in many regions worldwide, there are different and opposite wind and solar

resource patterns. Where power is to be transported over long distances the power may be

transformed to higher voltages to minimize losses but rarely is this the case. Inverters and

battery systems are applied for frequency and voltage stabilization in small systems of less than

100 kW. Such a system is found on Mageta Island in Lake Victoria, Kenya.

3
 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, a detailed and thorough review of the literature in the area of hybrid power

systems is presented. The literature includes journals, technical books and websites. The

literature has been divided into seven sections in view of the project objectives as follows:

1. Overview of keywords

2. Renewable energy

3. Solar energy

4. Wind energy

5. Hybrid power system

6. Auxiliary components

7. Service line

The first section looks at the key words of the project and defines them to come up with project

definition. The second section looks at renewable energy in definition and its significance. The

third and fourth sections look at solar and wind energy and their use in electricity generation.

The fifth section looks at the hybrid power system as a whole using wind and solar as the

energy sources. The sixth section gives a brief overview of the auxiliary components in the

hybrid power system. Finally service line and conductors adopted for supply of electrical power

are looked at.

4
2.2 Overview of the Keywords

Hybrid; is the product of mixing two or more different things. Power system; is the generation,

transmission, distribution and utilization of electric power and the electrical devices connected

to such systems including generators, motors and transformers. Solar; is relating to or denoting

energy derived from the sun's rays. Wind; is the perceptible natural movement of the air,

especially in the form of a current of air blowing from a particular direction. Service Line; the

line conductor that connects the consumer to the distributor. The project therefore covers the

generation of power from more than one source, solar and wind, its distribution, electrical

devices used in the system, their choice, and their operation as a system, system stability and

system protection.

2.3 Renewable Energy

Energy exists freely in nature. Some of them exist infinitely (never run out, called

RENEWABLE) the rest have finite amounts (they took millions of years to form and will run

out one day, called NON-RENEWABLE). Water, wind, sun and biomass (vegetation) are all

available naturally and were not formed. The others do not exist by themselves, they were

formed. Renewable energy resources are always available to be tapped and will not run out.

This is why it is referred to as Green Energy. Renewable energy can be converted to electricity

which is transported to industries and homes for use.

2.3.1 Why Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is important and has a great future in the energy world because of the

following fundamental reasons;

1. It is a clean form of energy and therefore reduces the greenhouse effect

5
 2. It is free in nature and therefore offers a cheap alternative energy source

3. Since it will never run out it gives energy security and assurance hence the name ‘energy

for our children’s children.

2.3.2 Shortcomings of Renewable Energy

The main disadvantage is that these sources are seasonal and therefore leads to fluctuations in

electricity generation from one season to the other and therefore the need to back-up the system.

2.4 Solar Energy

Solar energy is energy from the Sun. It is renewable, inexhaustible and environmental pollution

free. Kenya, like most other countries is blessed with large amount of sunshine all the year with

an average sun radiation of 4.5 kWh/m2/day. Solar charged battery systems provide power

supply for complete 24 hours a day irrespective of bad weather.

2.4.1 Why Solar Power

Solar energy is slowly being embraced in Kenya because of the following fundamental reasons;

1. Sunlight is practically infinite, free and easily accessible

2. Cost of maintaining the system is low even in harsh weather conditions

3. The system is versatile as it can be used to supply a wide range of loads

4. Clean energy source and since it does not involve moving parts it does not contribute

to noise pollution.

2.4.2 Shortcomings of Solar Power

Solar power has a few shortcomings namely;

1. The output is variable depending on the availability of solar radiation

6
 2. The efficiency of the photovoltaic modules is low being less than 23% depending

on the technology used [1].

2.4.3 How PV Cells Generate Electricity

Under the sun, a photovoltaic cell acts as a photosensitive diode that instantaneously converts

light – but not heat – into electricity.

2.4.3.1 Cell Layers

A top, phosphorus-diffused silicon layer carries free electrons – un-anchored particles with

negative charges. A thicker, boron doped bottom layer contains holes, or absences of electrons,

that also can move freely. In effect, precise manufacturing has instilled an electronic imbalance

between the two layers.

2.4.3.2 Sun Activation

Photons bombard and penetrate the cell and activate electrons, knocking them loose in both

silicon layers. Some electrons in the bottom layer sling-shot to the top of the cell. These

electrons flow into the metal contacts as electricity, moving into a circuit through an n-cell

module. Electrons flow back into the cell via a solid contact layer at the bottom creating closed

loop or circuit. The solar cell is the basic building of the PV power system and it produces about

1 W of power. To obtain high power, a great number of such cells are connected in series and

parallel circuits on a panel, also known as a module. The solar array is a group of a several

modules electrically connected in series parallel combination to generate the required current

and voltage [2]. Fig.2.1 shows an example of PV array.

7
Figure 2.1 Solar Array

2.4.3.3 Powering Homes

Current leaving a module, or array of modules, passes through a wire conduit leading to an

inverter. This device, about the shape of a waffle iron, inverts direct current, which flows with a

fixed current and voltage, into alternating current, which flows with oscillating current and

voltage. From the inverter, the solar-generated power feeds into circuitry of a household,

business or power plant and onto the region’s electrical grid. A remote, or independent, power

system also can form a self-contained circuit without connecting to the grid. The off-grid

system, however, requires batteries to store power for times, such as night, when modules do

not capture enough light energy from the sun. Power output from a PV module can be obtained

using equation (2.1)

𝑃𝑃𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑛𝑠 (𝑡) × 𝐴 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑉) (2.1)

8
 Where; 𝐼𝑛𝑠 (𝑡) insolation data at time t (kW/m2), A is the area of a single PV panel (m2) and

𝐸𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑉) is the overall efficiency of the PV panels and DC/DC converters.

2.4.4 Components of a PV Array

A photovoltaic array consists of multiple photovoltaic modules, casually referred to as solar

panels, to convert solar radiation into usable direct current electricity. A photovoltaic system for

residential, commercial, or industrial energy supply normally contains an array of photovoltaic

(PV) modules, one or more inverter, a tracking system, electrical wiring and interconnections,

and mounting for other components. A photovoltaic system may include any or all of the

following: renewable energy credit revenue-grade meter, maximum power point tracker

(MPPT), battery system and charger, GPS solar tracker, energy management software, solar

concentrators, solar irradiance sensors. The number of modules in the system determines the

total DC watts capable of being generated by the solar array; however, the inverter is what

governs the amount of AC watts that can be distributed for consumption. This means that the

rating of the inverter determines the available AC watts available for use by the consumer.

2.5 Wind Energy

Wind energy is derived fundamentally from solar energy via a thermodynamic process. Sunlight

warms the ground causing air above it to rise. The ensuing pressure differential causes air from

elsewhere to move in, resulting in air motion (wind). Different regions on earth are heated

differently than others, primarily a function of latitude. Air motion is also affected by the earth’s

rotation. The net effect is that certain parts of the world experience higher average winds than

others. The regions of highest winds are the most attractive for extracting its energy:

9
Theoretically, the power which can be extracted from the wind is proportional to the cube of the

velocity.

2.5.1 Why Wind Energy

Wind energy is key to the future of the energy sector because of the following fundamental

reasons;

1. It is a free energy source and renewable hence giving cheap and secure power

2. It is a clean form of energy hence does not contribute to the greenhouse emissions

3. It is versatile in that it can supply a wide range of loads

2.5.2 Shortcomings of Wind Power

1. Winds are seasonal hence leads to fluctuations in generated power

2. Wind turbines may be noisy leading to noise pollution

2.5.3 Wind Power Generation

Wind power systems convert the kinetic energy of the wind into other forms of energy such as

electricity. Although wind energy conversion is relatively simple in concept, turbine design can

be quite complex. Most commercially available wind turbine uses a horizontal – axis

configuration (HAWT) with two or three blades, a drive train including a gearbox and a

generator and a tower to support the rotor [3]. Typical sizes for a wind turbine range from 200-

750 KW with electricity produce within a specific range of wind speed. Cooperative research

done by manufacturing companies is aimed at increasing the aerodynamics efficiency and

structural strength of wind turbine blades, developing variable speed generation and electronic

10
power controls and using taller tower that allow access to the stronger wind found at greater

height. An important factor in how much power your wind turbine will produce is the height of

its tower. The power available in the wind is proportional to the cube of its speed. This means

that if wind speed doubles, the power available to the wind generator increases by a factor of 8.

Since wind speed increases with height an increase in the tower height can mean enormous

increase in the amount of electricity generated by a wind turbine. Figure 2.2 shows the

relationship between height above ground and wind power.

Figure 2.2 Wind Speed Increases with Height

The fundamental equation governing the mechanical power capture of the wind turbine rotor

blades, which drives the electrical generator, is given by equation (2.2)

1
𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 2 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉 3 × 𝐶𝑝 (2.2)

Where 𝜌 = air density (kg/m3)

A = area swept of rotor (m2)

11
V = wind speed (m/s)

The theoretical maximum value of the power coefficient 𝐶𝑝 is 0.59 (Betz Limit) and it is often

expressed as function of the rotor tip-speed to wind-speed ratio (TSR). Whatever maximum

value is attainable with a given wind turbine, it must be maintained constant at that value for the

efficient capture of maximum wind power. Power is directly proportional to wind speed, as the

wind speed increases the power delivered by a wind turbine also increases. If wind speed is

between the rated wind speed and the furling speed of the wind turbine, the power output will

be equal to the rated power of the turbine. Finally, if the wind speed is less than the cut-in speed

or greater than the furling speed there will be no output power from the turbine. Power output

from practical turbine; the fraction of power extracted from the power in the wind by a practical

wind turbine is usually given the symbol 𝐶𝑝 , standing for the coefficient of performance. Using

this notation the actual mechanical power output can be given by equation (2.3)
1
𝑃𝑚 = 2 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉 3 × 𝐶𝑝 (2.3)

Where; 𝐶𝑝 is the performance coefficient and other symbols retain their initial meanings

2.5.4 Components of a Wind Turbine

Wind turbine has the following components two or three blades, a drive train including a

gearbox and a generator and a tower to support the rotor. Fig. 2.3 shows the components of a

wind turbine.

12
Figure 2.3 Structure of a Wind Turbine

2.6 Hybrid Power System

A typical hybrid system combines two or more energy sources, from renewable energy

technologies, such as photovoltaic panels, wind or small hydro turbines; and from conventional

technologies, usually diesel or LPG gensets (though biomass fed gensets are also a feasible

option, if locally available). In addition, it includes power electronics and electricity storage

batteries. The hybrid system can be designed following different configurations to effectively

use the locally available renewable energy sources and to serve ALL power appliances

(requiring DC or AC electricity). The technological configurations can be classified according

to the voltage they are coupled with; this is, using DC, AC and mixed (DC and AC) bus lines.

DC bus line and AC bus line are considered.

13
2.6.1 Electricity Generation Coupled at DC Bus Line

All electricity generating components are connected to a DC bus line from which the battery is

charged. AC generating components need an AC/DC converter. The battery is controlled and

protected from over charge and discharge by a charge controller, then supplies power to the DC

loads in response to the demand. AC loads can be optionally supplied by an inverter. DC bus

coupling is illustrated in Fig. 2.4 where the electricity generated is coupled to a DC bus line to

charge the batteries, supply DC loads and AC loads supplied through an inverter. The total wind

and PV generated power during each hour is computed by equation (2.4)

𝑃𝑔𝑒𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑁𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 × 𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑡) + 𝑁𝑃𝑉 × 𝑃𝑃𝑉 (𝑡) (2.4)

Where; 𝑃𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑡)is power from wind turbine, 𝑃𝑃𝑉 (𝑡)is power from PV panel, 𝑁𝑃𝑉 is the

number of PV panels and 𝑁𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 is the number of wind turbines

Figure 2.4 Electricity Generation Coupled at DC Bus Line

14
2.6.2 Electricity Generation Coupled At AC Bus Line

All electricity generating components are connected to an AC bus line. AC generating

components may be directly connected to the AC bus line or may need an AC/AC converter to

enable stable coupling of the components. In both options, a bidirectional master inverter

controls the energy supply for the AC loads and the battery charging. DC loads can be

optionally supplied by the battery. Fig. 2.5 illustrates AC bus coupling.

Figure 2.5 Electricity Generation Coupled at AC Bus Line

2.7 Auxiliary Components

These components are referred to as auxiliary by the fact that they support the main components

to function according to the system requirements.

15
2.7.1 Batteries

Batteries are used for storage of DC power in a system. Important specifications include battery

capacity (Ah) and battery energy (Wh). Battery life measured in cycles is mainly determined by

depth of discharge (DOD) and operating temperature. Lead-acid batteries are the most common

battery type in hybrid power systems. Flooded lead-acid batteries are usually the least

expensive, but require adding distilled water occasionally to replenish water lost during the

normal charging process. Equation (2.5) converts AC power (VA) to DC power (W).

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝐹 ⁄𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (2.5)

2.7.2 Rectifier

Rectifiers are used to convert the AC power from the wind turbine to DC power to be used in

the charging of batteries and supplying DC loads [4]. These are normally in cooperated in the

wind turbines designed for off-grid operation.

2.7.3 Inverter

Power inverters are used in the hybrid power system to convert the generated power from direct

current (DC) to alternating current (AC) for grid connection or for powering AC loads [5]. Most

inverters are of the variable voltage, variable frequency design. Inverters are basically the pure

sine wave and modified sine wave types. The modified sine wave inverters are much cheaper

than their counterpart but have bounded use in AC applications. The pure sine wave inverter

types are expensive but find use in any AC application. With the world heading towards high

voltage DC transmission these systems find great role to play in the success of the system which

has numerous advantages over the high voltage AC transmission.

16
2.7.4 Charge Controllers

Charge controllers are used to prevent the batteries from getting overcharged or over drained in

order to extend their lifetime operation. They also regulate the rate of charging and discharging

of a battery bank and maintain it within a predetermined rate. A wind charge controller is

different in design to the solar charge controller in that it switches from charging the batteries

when full to the dump load. This is because a wind turbine has to constantly be on load to avoid

overspinning and getting damaged due to high centrifugal forces. On the other hand a solar

charge controller simply isolates the PV array from the batteries when full.

2.8 Service Line

Service line is the conductor that links the consumer to the distributor. Here the ratings of

overhead and underground conductors used in the distribution network are also briefly looked

at. There is a voltage drop along all cables carrying a current because the wires in a cable have a

small resistance. The voltage drop should be kept below a certain limit otherwise the appliances

may not function properly. The size of a conductor is chosen according to the acceptable

voltage drop. The cable cost is also important and cables used should only be as large as

required for a low voltage drop in order to keep the total cost down. There are various cable

designs and configurations which include; Aerial Bundled Cable (ABC), Aluminium Conductor

Steel Reinforced (ACSR), All Aluminium Conductor (AAC), All Aluminium Alloy Conductor

(AAAC). Service line connections are made by the use of the single core concentric cable with

PVC insulation of Uo/U 0.6/1 kV. 16 mm2 aluminium cable is used for overhead whereas

10mm2 copper cable is used for underground service lines [B2].

17
2.9 Conclusion

The literature has provided an insight into solar, wind and hybrid systems in details but as brief

as possible to be precise. It has given details on wind and solar energy separately then coupling

them to form a hybrid power system. The hybrid power system was discussed as a whole

including the auxiliary components such as charge controllers and converters. This gives an

opportunity to therefore look at the design of the hybrid power system.

18
 Chapter 3 DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter the design of the hybrid power system is done in six stages namely;

1. Wind and solar resource assessment

2. Determination of system load and energy input required

3. Design of PV system

4. Design of WTG system

5. Coupling of the PV and WTG systems

6. System protection and mechanical considerations

The first section looks at the data for monthly wind speed and solar radiation [A] using 10 year

and 22 year average respectively of Shinakotsi area whereas the second section looks at the load

and load profile of the area. The third and fourth sections look at the design of the solar PV and

wind turbine systems using the solar radiation data, wind speed data and load. The fifth section

looks at combining the two systems into a stand-alone hybrid power system that includes

battery back-up system. Finally the sixth section looks at the system protection and mechanical

systems of the plant.

3.2 Wind and Solar Resource Assessment

Shinakotsi area is located at latitudes 000 23’55” N and longitudes 340 59’28” E in Kakamega

County, Kenya. The details of Shinakotsi area are given in Table 3.1 whereas the 10 year

monthly average wind speed is given in Table 3.2. The line graph of the wind speeds at 10 m,

19
20 m and 50 m above ground is given in Figure 3.1. A twenty two year monthly average solar

radiation of the area is given in Table 3.3 and Table 3.4 shows the monthly average sunlight

hours.

Table 3.1 Site Details

UNIT CLIMATE DATA LOCATION

0
Latitude N 0.23
0
Longitude E 34.59
Elevation M 1503
0
Heating design temperature C 14.52
0
Cooling design temperature C 27.96
0
Earth temperature amplitude C 11.09
Frost days at site Day 0
[6]

Table 3.2 10 Year Average Monthly Wind Speed (m/s) at 10m 20m and 50m above

Ground

M Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Anl

10 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.2

20 3.47 3.59 3.44 3.39 3.67 3.75 3.77 3.77 3.59 3.39 3.38 3.31 3.54

50 3.99 4.13 3.95 3.89 4.22 4.30 4.33 4.33 4.12 3.90 3.88 3.80 4.08

[7]

The data shows that there is reasonably favorable wind speed at 20 m and 50 m above ground to

generate electricity that meets the load.

20
 line graph of wind speeds at 10m 20m and 50m
5
4.5
4
wind speed (m/s)

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
jan feb mar april may june july aug sept oct nov dec
10m 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1 3 3.2
50m 3.99 4.13 3.95 3.89 4.22 4.3 4.33 4.33 4.12 3.9 3.88 3.8
20m 3.47 3.59 3.44 3.39 3.67 3.75 3.77 3.77 3.59 3.39 3.38 3.31
month of the year

10m 50m 20m

Figure 3.1 Line Graph of Wind Speeds at 10m, 20m and 50m above Ground

Table 3.3 Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on a Horizontal Surface (kWh/m2/day)

Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

22yr 6.24 6.58 6.39 5.86 5.60 5.39 5.25 5.60 6.14 5.25 5.70 6.02

[7]

Table 3.4 Monthly Averaged Daylight Hours

Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

avg 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1

[7]

Table 3.5 shows the area’s radiation data at different tilt angles and Table 3.6 gives data for the

air temperature of the area of study. The data shows sufficient grounds for solar power

generation. Figure 3.2 shows the area’s radiation data at different tilt angles.

21
Table 3.5 Monthly Averaged Incident on an Equator-Pointed Tilted Surface

(kWh/m2/day)

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual

SSE HRZ 6.24 6.58 6.39 5.86 5.60 5.39 5.25 5.60 6.14 5.97 5.70 6.02 5.86

K 0.62 0.63 0.60 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.55 0.56 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.61 0.58

Diffuse 1.74 1.82 2.03 2.02 1.85 1.76 1.85 1.96 2.02 2.04 1.95 1.74 1.90

Direct 6.81 6.90 6.16 5.49 5.59 5.55 5.13 5.28 5.82 5.62 5.60 6.58 5.87

Tilt 0 6.16 6.50 6.31 5.78 5.53 5.32 5.18 5.53 6.06 5.89 5.63 5.94 5.81

Tilt 15 6.60 6.71 6.22 5.81 5.73 5.60 5.40 5.62 5.95 5.98 5.93 6.43 5.99

Tilt 90 3.81 3.04 1.90 2.23 2.78 3.03 2.79 2.42 1.76 2.50 3.26 3.92 2.79

OPT 6.71 6.72 6.32 5.83 5.73 5.63 5.42 5.62 6.06 5.99 5.98 6.58 6.04

OPT ANG 26.0 17.0 3.00 9.00 18.0 22.0 20.0 13.0 2.00 12.00 23.0 29.0 16.1

K clearness index [7]

Table 3.6 Air Temperature (0C)

Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Avg

21.5 22.2 22.4 21.4 20.4 19.9 19.8 19.9 20.2 20.5 20.6 21.0 20.8

[7]

comparison of radiation at different tilt angles

8
solar radiation (kWh/m2/day)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
month of the year
averaged direct tilt 0 tilt 15 tilt 90 OPT

Figure 3.2 Solar Radiation at Different Tilt Angles

22
3.3 Load Assessment

Shinakotsi area’s load was assessed and relevant data collected and analyzed. Table 3.7 shows

the area’s daily energy consumption with its corresponding load curve shown in Figure 3.3.

Table 3.7 Shinakotsi Daily Energy Demand

AC LOAD QTY HOURS WATTS TOTAL ENERGY

DESCRIPTION PER DAY EACH KILOWATTS (kWh/day)
HOUSEHOLDS bulbs 250 5 8 2 10
security lights 30 11 15 0.45 4.95
radio 25 11 15 0.375 4.125
television set 8 3 70 0.56 1.68
iron box 3 0.5 1100 3.3 1.65
HEALTH bulbs 15 12 8 0.12 1.44
CENTRE
security lights 5 11 15 0.075 0.825
refrigerator 1 24 400 0.4 9.6
water heater 1 2 1500 1.5 3.0
portable fan 1 3 100 0.1 0.3
well water pump 1 2 1200 1.2 2.4
SHOPS bulbs 6 2 8 0.048 0.096
security lights 10 11 15 0.15 1.65
freezer 1 11 400 0.4 4.4
PRIMARY bulbs 15 1 8 0.12 0.12
SCHOOL
security lights 5 11 15 0.075 0.825
desktop 1 6 100 0.1 0.6
inkjet printer 1 2 30 0.03 0.06
POSHO MILL machinery 1 4 3750 3.75 15
security lights 2 11 15 0.03 0.33
TOTAL 14.783 63.051
SYSTEM LOSSES (10%) 6.3051
TOTAL ENERGY DESIGN 69.3561

23
 Load Curve
8
7
6
5
Load (kW)

4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

hour of day

Figure 3.3 Shinakotsi Load Profile

From the load data in Table 3.7 and Figure 3.3 it is possible to calculate the system’s capacity

that will supply the area with electricity.

3.4 Design of Solar PV System

The design of the solar PV system essentially is done using the steps outlined in Figure 3.4.
The daily electrical requirement is as shown in Table 3.7, 69.3561 kWh/day. This is to be

shared between solar and wind power generating units as;

1. Solar PV system – 41.327748 kWh/day

2. Wind generator system – 28.028352 kWh/day

Daily Electrical Requirement of Appliances supplied by solar arrays = 41.327748 kWh

The calculation of the daily output of a module is summarized in Fig. 3.5 and equation (3.1)

shows the conversion of daily insolation from kWh/m2 to daily insolation in peak-hours per day

(Conversion factor is one) [8]. Hence it can be concluded as shown in equation (3.2) that daily

insolation in kWh/m2 equals daily insolation in peak-hours per day.

24
 [8]
Figure 3.4 Summary of Sizing Solar PV System

Equation (3.3) shows the daily output of a single module. The daily insolation in peak-hours per

used in the calculations is 5.25 peak-hours per day for the worst month of the year (July).

Figure 3.5 Daily Output of a Module

𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦) = 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑘𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2 ) × 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (3.1)

25
With the conversion factor of 1;

𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑊ℎ⁄𝑚2 ) = 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦) (3.2)

The solar modules used are the SERAPHIM SRP-315-6MA [E] which have an optimum

operating current of 8.55A and a nominal voltage of 24 V. It is desired to employ temperature

derating at the highest ambient temperature of 27oC be 1.36% (0.04%/oC), dirt derating factor of

5% and manufacture’s tolerance of 5% for an overall factor of 0.89.

𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑊ℎ⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦) = (8.55 × 0.89)𝐴 × 5.25 ((𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)/𝑑𝑎𝑦) × 120 𝑉 (3.3)

= 4793.985 𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦

The calculation of the minimum number of modules needed to supply the given load is

summarized in Figure 3.6. Since the solar system is to be divided into two arrays of equal

outputs for flexibility then load is to be shared as in equations (3.4) and (3.5). Equation (3.6)

shows the calculation of the minimum number of modules required.

𝑃𝑉 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 1 = (41327.748⁄2) 𝑊ℎ (3.4)

= 20663.874𝑊ℎ

𝑃𝑉 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 2 = (41327.748 − 20663.874)𝑊ℎ (3.5)

= 20663.874𝑊ℎ

26
Figure 3.6 Minimum Number of Modules Required

The charging efficiency of the flooded lead acid batteries used in the system (Trojan T-105) [C]

is taken to be 85% even though it is a function of many factors as rate of charge and discharge

and the state of charge i.e. not a constant figure.

𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 20663.874 𝑊ℎ⁄4793.985 𝑊ℎ × 0.85 (3.6)

=5
From equation (3.6) 5, 120 V solar modules are required. The solar modules used are rated at

nominal voltage of 24 V hence to get 120 V, 5 modules are connected in a string as shown in

equation (3.7)

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒⁄𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (3.7)

⟹ 120 𝑉⁄24 𝑉 = 5

Hence the total number of modules in array 1 is given by equation (3.8)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 (3.8)

⟹ 5 × 5 = 25

27
Therefore Array 1 has 25 modules and since there is equal sharing of the load between the two

arrays, Array 2 also has 25 modules. It can therefore be concluded that the PV system is

implemented in 2 arrays of 25 modules each.

To calculate the current output of a PV module the derating factor of 0.89 is used. Equation

(3.9) calculates the corrected current output of a module. The current output of a module equals

the current output of a string.

𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 0.95 × 0.95 × 0.9864 × 8.55 𝐴 (3.9)

⟹ 0.89 × 8.55 𝐴 = 7.6095 𝐴

Equation (3.10) is used to calculate the corrected current output of a PV Array [9].

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐼 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 × 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼(𝐴) (3.10)

⟹ 5 × 7.6095𝐴 = 38.0475 𝐴

The current output of PV Array 1 = current output of PV Array 2

To obtain the corrected power output of the module, 14.62% temperature derating factor

(maximum ambient temperature of 27oC at 0.43%/oC), 5% dirt derating factor and 5%

manufactures tolerance are used. The corrected power output is calculated in equation (3.11).

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 = (0.8538 × 0.95 × 0.95 × 315) 𝑊 (3.11)

⟹ 0.77 × 315 𝑊 = 242.55 𝑊

Therefore the expected power output of a PV Array is calculated in equation (3.12) using the

corrected power output. This is true for solar insolation of 1000 W/m2.

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑃𝑉 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 25 × 242.55 𝑊 (3.12)

28
 = 6063.75 𝑊

The two arrays are similar hence the same output of 6063.75 W is expected at solar insolation of

1000 W/m2.

3.5 Design of Wind Turbine System

The wind turbine is expected to supply at least 28028.352 Wh/day. The operation of wind

generator system is simple but its design is complex due to trying to find the balance in system

efficiency, rotor diameter and tower height to match the wind speeds of the area of study [10].

Most commercial wind turbines work with a cut-in speed of at least 3.5 m/s which possess a

great challenge in designing the appropriate wind turbine for the site that will operate

efficiently. The area has low wind speeds but sufficient to install wind turbine(s) to work with

the PV system. With the right choice of a low speed off-grid wind turbine and tall enough

towers and appropriate positioning the right combination can be found. The power output from

a WTG is given by equation (3.13). The symbols used carry the initial meanings used in

equation (2.2). Figure 3.7 shows the design process of a WTG system for the site.

1
𝑃 = 2 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉 3 × 𝐶𝑝 (3.13)

Figure 3.7 Design of Wind Turbine Generator

The power coefficient 𝐶𝑝 is specific to each turbine and varies from one wind speed to another

in a non-linear manner. Hence it is important that it is obtained from the wind turbine datasheet

29
for appropriate calculations of expected power output from the wind turbine to be carried out.

One way of choosing a wind turbine is by using the Reference Annual Energy (RAE) of the

WTG mostly at 5 m/s or using the energy curve or power curve which can be matched to the

particular site of interest. Equation (3.14) gives the minimal annual energy expected from the

wind turbine.

𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 × 365 (3.14)

⟹ 28028.352 × 365 = 10230348.48 𝑊ℎ/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

= 10230.34848 𝑘𝑊ℎ/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

Using the annual energy demand obtained from equation (3.14) and look-up tables for various

wind turbines the appropriate wind turbine was found to be the Eco Vane eV600 10 kW wind

turbine for off grid applications with an approximate annual energy production (AEP) of 15 000

kWh at 4 m/s. This makes this wind turbine an appropriate solution for the low wind speeds of

the area. Some desirable characteristics include; the low start-up speed of 1.8 m/s and low

engage speed of 2.5 m/s and availability of the used system voltage of 120 VDC output.

3.6 Coupling of Wind Turbine and Solar PV System

After the sizing of the PV system and the wind turbine system they are coupled through

appropriate charge controllers, DC bus, bidirectional inverter and batteries to constitute a hybrid

power system. The system DC voltage chosen is 120 VDC to keep the voltage drop in the

recommended range of plus minus 6%. High voltage is used to keep the currents low for the

various benefits as low percentage voltage drops and small cross-sectional area conductors.

Figure 3.8 shows the coupling of the PV system and WTG system into a hybrid power system

whereas Figure 3.9 shows the hybrid power system.

30
Figure 3.8 Coupling of the Hybrid Power System

3.6.1 MPPT Solar Charge Controller

The solar charge controller is expected to support 125% of the array short circuit current as

shown in equation (3.15)

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 1.25 × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 (3.15)

⟹ 9.08 × 1.25 × 5 = 56.75 A

Hence the nearest controller rating is the 120V/84A model from Deming Power which can

handle a maximum of 10 kW solar power. The two MPPT charge controllers used are the

Deming Solar Charge Controller 120V/84A model [F]. Its features include; MPPT charging,

multi-protection functions such as over-charge, over-discharge, electronic short circuit, overload

and reverse connection. LED display for the state of charge (SoC) and prevents

charging/discharging from the storage battery to the solar panel during the night.

31
Figure 3.9 The Hybrid Power System

32
3.6.2 Wind Charge Controller

The wind turbine used eV600 10kW has a nominal rated power of 10 kW, peak power of 10.5

kW and an output of 120 VDC hence to obtain the maximum DC current from the turbine

equation (3.16) is used. For the site of interest this is a theoretical maximum as the wind speeds

are much lower than the rated wind speeds.

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁄𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (3.16)

⟹ 10500 𝑊 ⁄120 𝑉 = 87.5 𝐴

The PWM maximum current is obtained using the PWM constant voltage as shown in equation

(3.17)

𝑃𝑊𝑀 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁄𝑃𝑊𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (3.17)

⟹ 10500 𝑊 ⁄138 𝑉 = 76.09 𝐴

Using the current, voltage and power limitations the wind charge controller used is the Deming

Power FKJB-10kW wind controller [F] with maximum charging current of 100 A and

maximum PWM current of 80 A. some of the stand out features include; LCD display for

working status of the wind turbine, battery and controller (wind turbine voltage, current, power,

battery charging current and voltage). Two sets of control systems, PWM constant voltage

system and 3-phase dump load system. In case of exceeding the PWM’s capacity or battery

disconnect the dump load will automatically start immediately to ensure safe running of the

overall wind turbine system. Protection function for battery reverse polarity and overcharging

(125% of nominal voltage). Auto recharging of battery at 108% of nominal voltage and

equipped with surge arrestor.

33
3.6.3 3-Phase Bidirectional Dual Mode Hybrid Inverter

The total wattage of all the equipment (connected load) is 14.783 kW but the peak load is 7.325

kW. Calculation of the demand factor is as in equation (3.16) which is a measure of spare

capacity.

𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⁄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (3.16)

⟹ 7.325 𝑘𝑊 ⁄14.783 𝑘𝑊 = 0.4955

The maximum DC current into the inverter is obtained using equation (3.17).

𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 max. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 + 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 max. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 (3.17)

⟹ 2 × 5 × 0.89 × 8.55 𝐴 + 10500 𝑊 ⁄120 𝑉 = 163.595 𝐴

The maximum battery current is obtained using equation (3.18)

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒⁄𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (3.18)

⟹ 14783 𝑊 ⁄120 𝑉 = 123.19 𝐴

The AC current output is calculated using equation (3.19). The inverter is rated at unity power

factor but using the worst case of 0.98 and an assumption of all appliances are connected to the

system at the same time (demand factor of 1) i.e. connected load is used.

𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁄(3 × 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) (3.19)

⟹ 14783 𝑊 ⁄(3 × 240 𝑉 × 0.98) = 20.95 𝐴

The sizing of the inverter is done to match the system load. This is done with the assumption

that all the appliances are on at the same time i.e. demand factor of 1 hence the load used is

14.783 kW. Therefore the Leonics MPT-412E 3-phase bidirectional dual mode hybrid inverter
34
[D] which is a 15 kW inverter is used. This inverter has a nominal DC voltage of 120 V,

maximum battery current of 170 A, maximum AC current of 22.7 A and 240 V/415 V AC

voltage. Some desirable features include; it is capable of using multi-renewable energy sources

in both DC coupling and AC coupling, automatic battery equalization, battery temperature

compensation, IP65 protection (protection against contact and infiltration of water and dust-

IP65-complete protection), outdoor enclosure and efficiencies greater than 94%.

3.6.4 Battery Bank

The battery bank is the most expensive equipment of the system and should be handled with

utmost care. The battery bank is chosen to be a back-up for the health center and primary

school. This gives a value of 21.087 kWh/day (plus 10% losses) hence the battery bank is

designed to supply the same daily requirement. Inverter efficiency is >94% which was factored

in system losses hence no need to be factored in sizing the battery bank and operates at unity

power factor. Figure 3.10 shows the calculation of total usable capacity.

Figure 3.10 Calculation of Usable Capacity

35
Equation (3.20) shows the calculation of total usable capacity. Storage days are usually between

2-5 days. For the regions around the equator the storage days is taken to be 2 due to availability

of the sun all-round the year.

⟹ (21087𝑊ℎ × 2)⁄120 𝑉 = 351.45 𝐴ℎ (3.20)

Figure 3.11 shows how to obtain the minimum number of batteries needed for the system.

Figure 3.11 Calculation of the Minimum Number of Batteries

Equation (3.21) shows the calculation of the minimum number of batteries. For the deep cycle

flooded lead acid batteries T-105 6V C20 = 225 Ah [C] used, the depth of discharge is between

50-80% in order to obtain many discharge cycles from the battery as recommended by the

manufacturer. 52.6% is used in the design to obtain a large number of cycles from the batteries.

⟹ 351.45 𝐴ℎ⁄225 𝐴ℎ × 0.526 = 3 (3.21)

Therefore 3, 120 V batteries are required. To obtain the number of batteries to be connected in a

string to get a 120 V battery bank system equation (3.22) is used.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒⁄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (3.22)

⟹ 120 𝑉 ⁄6 𝑉 = 20 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

36
Hence the total number of batteries in the battery bank is given by equation (3.23)

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑡. 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 (3.23)

⟹ 20 × 3 = 60 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

Hence the number of flooded lead acid batteries required is 60.

3.6.5 DC Cable Sizing

Cable sizing is required to link;

1. PV Array to combiner box to solar charge controller and controller to DC bus

2. Wind turbine to wind charge controller and controller to DC bus

3. Wind charge controller to dump load

4. DC bus and DC bus to inverter

5. Battery to inverter battery terminal and controller

In this sizing the voltage drop is restricted to 3% and maximum currents used in order to

prevent the cables from heating up. The currents used in calculation of the DC wiring are

maximum conductor currents since it is recommended in DC wiring the conductor sizes are

slightly over-estimated taking the financial constraints into consideration. The 120 VDC system

used helps to minimize the currents but is still lower than the 240 V/415 V on the AC side

hence larger conductors are required on the DC side. The NEC (Articles 110-14, 210-19, 215-2

and 230-42) conductor sizing standards require that the conductor be sized to handle 125% of

continuous current. To obtain the cable size for combiner box to controller and to DC bus the

solar charge controller current rating is used as shown in equation (3.24)

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐼 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 1.25 (3.24)

37
 ⟹ 1.25 × 84 𝐴 = 105 𝐴

To calculate the sizing currents between the wind turbine and wind charge controller equation

(3.25) is used.

𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 = (1.25 × 10000 𝑊)⁄120 𝑉 (3.25)

= 104.167 𝐴

To obtain the sizing current between the wind charge controller and the dump load equation

(3.26) is used.

𝑑𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 = (𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 1.25)⁄𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (3.26)

⟹ (10000𝑊 × 1.25)⁄120 𝑉 = 104.167 𝐴

The DC bus sizing current is given by equation (3.27)

𝐷𝐶 𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 + 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 (3.27)

⟹ 2 × 105 + 104.167 = 314.167 𝐴

The sizing current between the DC bus and the inverter used is the 125% of inverter input

current rating which gives 212.5 A (170 A by 1.25).

To obtain the current between the battery bank and the inverter battery terminal equation (3.28)

is used. The conductor between the battery and inverter battery terminal is usually the most

over-estimated to avoid overheating that will kill the batteries exponentially. Maximum battery

bank current rating is used.

𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼 = 1.25 × 170 𝐴 (3.28)

= 212.5 𝐴
38
The PV string sizing current is 10.6875 𝐴 𝑖. 𝑒. (8.55𝐴 × 1.25). The voltage drop index (VDI) is

used in the calculation of the wire sizes according to equation (3.29) and Tables B 1 and B 3

used to obtain the wire gauge together with the recommended current carrying capacity of each

wire gauge (continuous current at 75oC). A voltage drop of 3% is used. The results then

summarized in Table 3.8

𝑉𝐷𝐼 = {𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴) × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡)}⁄{%𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒} (3.29)

Table 3.8 DC Conductor Sizes Used

Connection L (feet) VDI AWG Rated I (A)

PV string – Combiner Box 98.4 2.92 #12 25
C. Box-Solar Charge Controller 16.4 4.78 #2 115
Wind Turbine-Wind Charge Controller 229.6 66.44 #3/0 200
DC Bus 32.8 28.62 400kcml Cu 335
Wind Charge Controller-Dump Load 49.2 14.24 #2 115
DC Bus-Inverter 16.4 9.68 #4/0 230
Battery-Inverter Battery Terminal 32.8 19.36 #4/0 230
REMARKS
1. Stranded THHN Copper conductors are used

3.6.6 AC Cable Sizing

Per phase maximum current is 20.95 A, we adopt the Kenya Power distribution standards [12]

which also gives room for additional load and/or future grid connection. Conductors are made

of aluminium and are referred to as AA. The size used is AA 50mm2 [Table B 2] with rated

current of 181 A and rated capacity of 125 kVA. All phase conductors and neutral are

aluminium. Insulated conductors used are PVC insulated and are used in the following

39
situations; to obtain clearance from buildings, passing through forested areas, in cases where it

is not possible to use underground cables and as per the designer’s choice.

Service line connections are made by the use of the single core concentric cable with PVC

insulation of Uo/U 0.6/1 kV. 16mm2 aluminium cable are used for overhead whereas 10mm2

copper cable are used for underground service lines each with a rated current of 80 A and

capacity of 18 kVA [Table B 2].

Since the generating plant is in the load center there is no need to step up the voltage since no

transmission is required. The distribution is therefore radial which helps to maintain high

voltage regulation and easy isolation of lines to supply sensitive loads in times of inadequate

generation.

3.7 System Protection and Mechanical Considerations

3.7.1 System Protection

The system must be properly protected to ensure safety of both the users and the equipment.

Protection is done using fuses, circuit breakers and proper grounding of equipment. Fuses will

be used between the combiner and solar charge controller, solar charge controller and DC bus,

wind generator and wind controller, wind controller and the DC bus and DC bus and the

inverter. The circuit breakers are employed between the inverter and AC load. Equation (3.30)

shows the calculation of solar string fuse rating to be installed in the combiner box for each of

the 5-strings. NEC (Articles 210-20, 215-3, 240-3 and 384-16) recommends 156% of the

module short circuit current and 125% of rated current for controller fuse ratings.

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.56 × 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (3.30)

40
 ⟹ 1.56 × 9.08 𝐴 = 14.1648 𝐴

With a short circuit in a single module it is possible that all the array current can flow in a single

string. It is recommended by the solar module manufacturer that the maximum series fuse rating

be 20 A. The overall array fuse is calculated using equation (3.31) where the string short circuit

current is multiplied by the number of strings.

𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 (3.31)

⟹ 14.4768 𝐴 × 5 = 72.384 𝐴

Therefore the standard 80 A fuse is used between the combiner and the solar charge controller.

The solar charge controller is an MPPT type and therefore the output fuse does not have the

same rating as the input fuse. The rated output current is used to calculate the fuse rating as per

equation (3.32)

𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.25 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 (3.32)

⟹ 1.25 × 84 𝐴 = 105 𝐴

Therefore the standard 110 A fuse is used.

The wind generator has a maximum current output of 87.5 A. The wind controller is a PWM

type which uses the same fuse rating for input and output. Which invites the use of the 125 A

fuse (wind controller fuse rating) between the wind generator and the wind controller.

The inverter has a rated DC input current of 170 A (215 A DC disconnect) and 22.7 A (per

phase) for AC system and has its own protection in the panel which includes; over-current (30

A per phase), over-voltage, short-circuit, over-temperature, over-voltage and under-voltage

protection. Summary of the protection is shown in Table 3.9. The equipment are put as close to

41
each other as possible and common grounding is done. This single point grounding greatly

reduces the potential for lightning damage to electrical equipment.

Table 3.9 Summary of System Protection

PROTECTION FUSE RATING (A)

String – combiner box 20
Combiner box – solar charge controller 80
Solar charge controller – DC bus 110
Wind generator – wind controller 125
Wind controller – DC bus 125
DC Bus – Inverter 215
Battery – Inverter 215
Inverter – AC Load AC Breaker Panel
REMARKS
1. Fuses used are gPV and gG types
2. Circuit breakers are adjustable amp + trip 3-phase

3.7.2 Mechanical Considerations

Since the modules are much greater than four, ground mounting is done. It is ensured that no

object should shade any part of the modules at any time of the year during daytime. The

modules are secured on racks fixed on concrete and tilted at 5o facing south which also allows

water to run-off washing away the dust. The modules are therefore off the ground (out of dust,

run-off water and animals) and can be cooled naturally by wind. The racks are made of

corrosion resistant weather proof stainless steel.

42
The wind generator is mounted on a 20 m tall tower secured on a concrete foundation. The area

is clear of obstructions with care taken to ensure that the generator is 30 ft. above any object

within 300 ft.

The batteries are stored indoors in a well ventilated area on wooden battery boxes which helps

minimize self-discharging of batteries. They are kept off highly used areas.

The controllers and inverter are mounted on board then to the wall, not wall directly, in a secure

but easy access area.

The plant area is secured by a fence for security purposes and the equipment installed indoors in

a well ventilated room.

3.8 Conclusion

In chapter three the design of the hybrid power system based on solar, wind and battery as a

back-up system is done. The battery bank is implemented in three strings which is in line with

the manufacturer’s recommendation of a maximum of three strings to ensure uniform charging

and discharging of individual batteries. The required sizes of conductors for both DC and AC

systems were also obtained. The protection of the system is done using majorly fuses and

earthing, breaker panels were also employed for proper isolation. The distribution is done

radially as the plant is located in the load center. Selection of the equipment used is based on

performance, cost and availability.

43
 Chapter 4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter the system’s results are looked at and analyzed in the following subsections;
1. Solar system power and energy output

2. Wind generator system power and energy output

3. Hybrid power system power and energy output

4. Financial Analysis

In the first section the power and energy output of the solar array system is calculated, graphs

plotted and relevant analysis made. In the second section the power and energy output of the

wind generator is found by fitting the WTG energy curve into the area of study. Then

contributions of the solar system, wind generator and battery back-up are looked at, analysis

made and relevant conclusions drawn. Finally the financial viability of the system is looked at

in the last section.

4.2 Solar System Power and Energy Output

The power and energy output of the solar system are calculated using the solar insolation data

module efficiency of 16.7 % and dimensions (1956 by 992 mm) for the 72 (6 by 12) cell

module. To obtain the power output of a solar module equation (4.1) is used.

𝑃𝑃𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑛𝑠 (𝑡) × 𝐴 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑉) (4.1)

Where PPV (t) is the power output of the module (kW), Ins. (t) is the insolation data at t (kW/m2),

A is the area of a single PV panel (m2) and Eff (PV) is the efficiency of the module, converters

44
and conductors. Module efficiency of 16.2% is employed and default performance ratio of 0.75

for an overall efficiency of 12.15%. The energy output is calculated using equation (4.2)

𝐸𝑃𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑛𝑠 (𝑡) × 𝐴 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑉) (4.2)

Where EPV is the energy output (kWh) and Ins. (t) is solar insolation in kWh/m2

The power output of the solar arrays is captured in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1. This was

calculated using the 3-hourly day data for the worst month of July.

Table 4.1 Solar Array Power Output

TIME INSOLATION (kW/m2) POWER OUTPUT (kW)

0000 0 0
0300 0 0
0600 0.07 0.825134688
0900 0.56 6.601077504
1200 0.84 9.901616256
1500 0.52 6.129571968
1800 0.07 0.825134688
2100 0 0

Table 4.1 shows that solar insolation is available from about six in the morning to six in the

evening. The power output is maximum at about noon where there is maximum demand as

shown in the load profile. The energy output of the solar array is given in Table 4.2 and Figure

4.2.

45
 SOLAR POWER OUTPUT
12

10
POWER (kW)

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
TIME (24hrs)

Figure 4.1 Solar Power Output

Table 4.2 Solar Array Energy Output

MONTH No. OF INSOLATION ENERGY ENERGY OUTPUT

DAYS (kWh/m2/day) OUTPUT (kWh/month)
(kWh/day)
JAN 31 6.24 73.55486362 2280.200772
FEB 28 6.58 77.56266067 2171.754499
MAR 31 6.39 75.32300938 2335.013291
APRIL 30 5.86 69.07556102 2072.266831
MAY 31 5.6 66.01077504 2046.334026
JUNE 30 5.39 63.53537098 1906.061129
JULY 31 5.25 61.8851016 1918.43815
AUG 30 5.6 66.01077504 1980.323251
SEPT 31 6.14 72.37609978 2243.659093
OCT 31 5.25 61.8851016 1918.43815
NOV 30 5.7 67.18953888 2015.686166
DEC 31 6.02 70.96158317 2199.809078
ANNUAL 25087.98444

46
 SOLAR ENERGY
2500

2000
ENERGY (kWh)

1500

1000

500

0
JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
MONTH OF THE YEAR

Figure 4.2 Solar Array Energy Output

4.3 Wind Turbine Generator Power and Energy Output

The energy and power output of the wind generator are estimated using the manufacturer’s data

sheet of the energy curve. Table 4.3 and Figure 4.3 give the power output of the wind generator.

The 3-hourly data used is for the month of July.

Table 4.3 Wind Generator Power Output

TIME WIND SPEED (m/s) @ 20m POWER OUTPUT (kW)

0000 3.77 1.780821918
0300 3.39 1.255707763
0600 3.88 1.96347032
0900 3.97 2.054759452
1200 3.54 1.426940639
1500 3.59 1.47260274
1800 3.97 2.054759452
2100 3.80 1.940639269

47
 WIND POWER OUTPUT
2.5

2
POWER (kW)

1.5

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
TIME (24hrs)

Figure 4.3 Wind Generator Power Output

The wind generator energy output is given in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.4.

Table 4.4 Wind Generator Energy Output

MONTH NUMBER WIND ENERGY ENERGY OUTPUT

OF DAYS SPEED (m/s) (kWh/day) (kWh/month)
JAN 31 3.47 32.32876712 1002.191781
FEB 28 3.59 35.34246575 989.5890411
MAR 31 3.44 31.50684932 976.7123288
APRIL 30 3.39 30.1369863 904.109589
MAY 31 3.67 38.35616438 1189.041096
JUNE 30 3.75 43.83561644 1315.068493
JULY 31 3.77 45.20547945 1401.369863
AUG 31 3.77 42.73972603 1324.931507
SEPT 30 3.59 35.34246575 1060.273973
OCT 31 3.39 30.1369863 934.2465753
NOV 30 3.38 29.5890411 887.6712329
DEC 31 3.31 28.76712329 891.7808219
ANNUAL 12876.9863

48
 WIND ENERGY
1600
1400
1200
ENERGY (kWh)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
MONTH OF THE YEAR

Figure 4.4 Wind Generator Energy Output

4.4 Hybrid Power System Power and Energy Output

The hybrid system power output is given in Table 4.5 and Figure 4.5. The battery is used to

supply the peak load for a few hours at night as is evident in the results.

Table 4.5 Hybrid Power System Power Output

TIME SOLAR WIND WIND + BATTERY HYBRID AC

POWER POWER SOLAR POWER SYSTEM LOAD
OUTPUT OUTPUT (kW) (kW) OUTPUT (kW)
(kW) (kW) (kW)
0000 0 1.781 1.781 0 1.781 1.35
0300 0 1.256 1.256 0.1 1.356 1.35
0600 0.825 1.963 2.789 0.11 2.899 2.895
0900 6.601 2.055 8.656 0 8.656 0.905
1200 9.902 1.427 11.329 0 11.329 7.325
1500 6.130 1.473 7.602 0 7.602 4.075
1800 0.825 2.055 2.880 0 2.880 0.52
2100 0 1.941 1.941 2 3.941 3.91

49
 HYBRID POWER
12

10

8
POWER (kW)

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
TIME (24hrs)
SOLAR POWER OUTPUT (kW) WIND POWER OUTPUT (kW)
WIND + SOLAR (kW) BATTERY POWER (kW)
HYBRID SYSTEM OUTPUT (kW) AC LOAD (kW)

Figure 4.5 Hybrid System Power Curve

The energy output of the hybrid system is given in Table 4.6 and Figure 4.6

Table 4.6 Hybrid System Energy

MONTH NUMBER SOLAR WIND BATTERY HYBRID AC LOAD

OF DAYS ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY ENERGY DEMAND
(kWh) (kWh) (kWh) (kWh) (kWh)
JAN 31 2280.2 1002.2 205.5 3487.9 2150.0
FEB 28 2171.8 989.6 185.6 3347.0 1942.0
MAR 31 2335.0 976.7 205.5 3517.3 2150.0
APRIL 30 2072.3 904.1 198.9 3175.3 2080.7
MAY 31 2046.3 1189.0 205.5 3440.9 2150.0
JUNE 30 1906.1 1315.1 198.9 3420.0 2080.7
JULY 31 1918.4 1401.4 205.5 3525.3 2150.0
AUG 30 1980.3 1324.9 198.9 3504.2 2080.7
SEPT 31 2243.7 1060.3 205.53 3509.5 2150.0
OCT 31 1918.4 934.2 205.53 3058.2 2150.0
NOV 30 2015.7 887.7 198.9 3102.3 2080.7
DEC 31 2199.8 891.8 205.53 3297.1 2150.0
TOTAL 365 25088.0 12877.0 2420.0 40384.9 25315.0

50
 SYSTEM ENERGY
4000

3500

3000
ENERGY (kWh)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
MONTH

SOLAR ENERGY (kWh) WIND ENERGY (kWh) BATTERY ENERGY (kWh)

HYBRID SYSTEM ENERGY (kWh) AC LOAD CONSUMPTION (kWh)

Figure 4.6 Hybrid System Energy

Figure 4.7 shows the annual energy output/consumption of the various sub-systems.

ANNUAL ENERGY
45000
40000
35000
ENERGY (kWh)

30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
SOLAR ENERGY WIND ENERGY BATTERY ENERGY HYBRID SYSTEM AC LOAD CHARGE ENERGY
(kWh) (kWh) (kWh) ENERGY (kWh) CONSUMPTION (kWh)
(kWh)
SYSTEM

Figure 4.7 Annual Energy of the System

51
The hybrid power system is capable of meeting the load throughout the 24 hour period with

battery back-up boosting the supply for night peak load. The system power output curve shows

that there are times when power output from the system is greater than the demand, the extra

power is used in the charging of battery bank simultaneously. The battery bank is a load and a

source depending on the demand and its state of charge. Figure 4.7 shows that the charge energy

is greater than battery energy output which means the batteries are able to recover all the charge

delivered at night hence maintain a full state of charge increasing the number of cycles

delivered by the batteries. For a good site a WTG operates on average between 25-33 % of its

rated capacity. Hence the WTG in the site operates to the required standards. The dump load

serves to remove excess energy from the micro grid which helps to control the system

frequency. Hence it is used as a fast acting stability control unit.

4.5 Financial Analysis

The cost of the system is estimated using the current prices in the market. This is summarized in

Table 4.7. To estimate the minimum cost of per unit generated equation (4.3) is used. The load

factor is 0.4 with a maximum demand of 7.325 kW.

𝑚𝑖𝑛. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑛. = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠⁄𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 (4.3)

⟹ $5093.31⁄25315𝑘𝑊ℎ = $ 0.201/𝑘𝑊ℎ

This translates to about 𝐾𝑠ℎ (0.201 × 101.45) = 𝐾𝑠ℎ 20.41/𝑘𝑊ℎ. This is the minimal cost of

a unit of energy and depending on how fast one wants to recover ones capital this value is

increased by a factor.

52
Table 4.7 Cost Estimate

EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURER/MODEL UNITS COST/UNIT TOTAL COST

Solar Module Seraphim SRP-315-6MA 50 $238.80 $11,940.00
Wind Turbine Eco Vane eV600/s 10kW 1 $10,500 $10,500.00
Battery Trojan T-105 60 $123.95 $7,437.00
Inverter Leonics MTP-412E 15kW 1 $2,400 $2,400.00
Solar Charge Controller Deming 120V/84A 2 $570 $1,140.00
Wind Charge Controller + Dumb Load Deming FKJB-10kW 1 $860 $860.00
Combiner Box Sunny Central SCCB-12 2 $92.82 $185.64
Cables East African Cables $2,500.00
Fuses and Circuit Breakers Schneider Company $120.00
Product Cost $37,082.64
Services (10% of PC) $3,708.26
Others (4% of PC) $1,483.31
Capital Cost $42,274.21
Charges
Taxes, wages, salaries, maintenance $1,500
Interest and Depreciation (8.5% of CP) $3,593.31
Total Charges $5,093.31
REMARKS
The prices are in US Dollars with an exchange rate of Kshs. 101.45 as of 10:03:16

The Cost of Energy (COE) is the value of the energy produced by a system over the lifetime of

the system. It is given by equation (4.4)

𝐶𝑂𝐸 = {(𝐼𝐶 × 𝐹𝐶𝑅) + 𝐿𝑅𝐶 + 𝑂&𝑀 + 𝐹𝐶}⁄𝐴𝑘𝑊ℎ (4.4)

Where COE is the Cost of Energy, IC is the Initial Cost, FCR is the Fixed Charge Rate,

Levelized Replacement Cost, O&M is the annual Operations and Maintenance and FC is the

Fixed Charge

⟹ {(42274.21 × 0.02) + 0.0668 + 1500 + 3593.31}⁄25315 = $0.2346

The payback period SP is given by equation (4.5) where the initials retain their initial meanings

𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼𝐶 ⁄[(𝐴𝑘𝑊ℎ × $/𝑘𝑊ℎ) − (𝐼𝐶 × 𝐹𝐶𝑅) − 𝑂&𝑀] (4.5)

53
 ⟹ 42274.21⁄{(25315 × 0.2346) − (42274.21 × 0.02) − 1500} = 11.8 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

The cost of energy is $0.2346 (Ksh.23.80) which has a slightly higher grid parity compared to

the grid prices as of February 2016 of Ksh.19.68 for domestic consumer and Ksh.20.59 for

small commercial. However these prices keep varying as is evident in July 2014 where the cost

was Ksh.25.57 for domestic consumer and Ksh.25.96 for small commercial [H]. Hence the cost

of per unit of energy should compare favorably. The cost of per unit of energy generated

reduces for larger capacities hence the system has its place in the energy world.

4.6 Conclusion

This chapter has provided detailed analysis of the performance of the hybrid power system. The

system provides power throughout the day and night with minimal use of the battery bank at

night. The system generates enough energy to keep the batteries in a full state of charge to

prolong their lifetime. The prices of the equipment used quoted in Table 4.7 are worth investing

in as the system is expected to run at low costs and generate affordable electricity for the

village.

54
 Chapter 5 CONCLUSION

5.1 Conclusion

The objectives of the project have been achieved as a hybrid power system based on wind and

solar energy has been designed to meet the load of Shinakotsi Area. The battery back-up system

has also been designed for 2 days of autonomy for the health center and lighting system. Both

DC and AC conductors used in the system have been chosen after appropriate calculations were

made and matched to look up tables. System protection has been done to protect both the

equipment in the system and the users. The physical and financial constraints have been taken

into account in the design to come up with a well-balanced system presented. Through analysis

it is evident that the system provides reliable electricity throughout the day and year. The

slightly higher grid parity is reasonable enough relative to expenses to be incurred in connecting

the area to the grid or use of diesel generators. The hybrid power systems tend to become

cheaper for bigger capacities.

The project has presented an insight into renewable based rural/remote power systems that can

help supply energy to rural needs in a clean, inexpensive way that does not burden the national

economy. To achieve universal electricity access by 2030, it is estimated that 40% of new

capacity will need to be provided by Mini Grids (WEO 2010). Hybrid power system is the

future.

5.2 Recommendations

Majorly the low wind speeds provided the biggest challenge in the design of the system. This

can be improved by the use of taller towers which come with extra costs.

55
The success of the stand-alone hybrid power systems is dependent on user being well informed.

Many such systems have failed because the user thought they could get more than they could

actually get from the system. Hence proper user education should be done to ensure the success

of the system.

The ministry of energy should work with the meteorological department to provide precise data

on wind and solar resource that could help in designing of more such systems that can help

elevate rural areas economies.

Combination of improved technology and economies of scale has pushed down the cost of

renewable energy technologies. Renewable energy technologies are already the least cost

electrification option in rural areas even without internalizing environmental costs. The initial

high costs are offset by the low operational and maintenance cost and the longer expected useful

life of renewable energy technologies. The government should therefore do more investment in

RE and provide incentives for clean energy to realize vision 2030.

56
 REFERENCES

1. Bruno Burge and Klaus Keifer. (2015). Photovoltaic Report. A Journal of Fraunhofer

Institute for Solar Energy Systems, ISE with support of PSE AG Freiburg.

2. Anurag Sharma and Ankush Kansal. vol. 2. International Journal of Advanced Research

in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering. (Issue 8, August 2013).

3. J F Manwell and J G McGowan. (2009). Wind Energy Explained. Washington, USA:

John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

4. Edward Hughes. (2008). Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology. Harlow,

England: Pearson Education Limited.

5. R. A. Messenger and J. Ventre. (2010). Photovoltaic Systems Engineering. Boca Raton:

CRC Press.

6. (2016, Jan. 13). NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy - Available Tables files

[Online]. Available: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-

bin/sse/retscreen.cgi?&email=skip@larc.nasa.gov&step=1&p=&lat=0.23.55&submit=S

ubmit&lon=34.59.28

7. (2016, Jan. 13). NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy - Available Tables files

[Online]. Available: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-

bin/sse/grid.cgi?&num=215091&lat=0.23&submit=Submit&hgt=100&veg=17&sitelev=

&email=skip@larc.nasa.gov&p=grid_id&p=swvdwncook&p=swv_dwn&p=sol_noon&

p=ret_tlt0&p=mnavail1&p=surplus1&p=day_cld&p=T10M&p=wspd50m0&p=gipe_wn

d&p=RH10M&p=toa_dwn&step=2&lon=34.59

8. Simon Roberts. (1991). Solar Electricity. New York, Prentice Hall.

57
9. Dr. Justus Simiyu, Prof. Bernard Aduda, Prof. Julius Mwabora, Dr. Sebastian Waita and

Dr. Robinson Musembi. (2012). Training Course on Solar Photovoltaic Sizing,

Installation and Maintenance. Nairobi, University of Nairobi Press.

10. John W. Twidell and Anthony D. Weir. (1990). Renewable Energy Resource. London,

Chapman and Hall.

11. (2016, March, 28). Electricity cost in Kenya-Historic electricity cost data for Kenya

[Online]. Available: https://stima.regulusweb.com/historic

12. Distribution Standards & Guidelines Manual – O & M Module. (Issue July 2010).

58
 APPENDIX A: CLIMATIC DATA OF SHINAKOTSI AREA

Table A 1: Monthly Averaged Insolation Incident on a Horizontal Surface (kWh/m2/day)

Lat. 0.9 Lon 34.42 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
22-year Average 6.24 6.58 6.39 5.86 5.60 5.39 5.25 5.60 6.14 5.97 5.70 6.02

Table A 2: Minimum Available Insolation over a Consecutive-day Period (%)

Lat. 0.9 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lon 34.42
Min/1 day 37.5 37.8 31.9 37.3 46.9 23.5 46.2 39.4 26.7 38.1 21.2 37.2
Min/3 day 56.6 57.2 62.2 60.0 67.7 59.3 65.4 70.3 65.3 61.0 57.8 64.8
Min/7 day 70.5 60.5 71.9 77.7 78.1 71.2 79.6 80.5 72.9 75.1 64.4 74.2
Min/14 day 75.3 76.2 80.6 82.8 85.5 78.3 85.6 83.8 79.7 84.0 78.3 82.7
Min/21 day 83.1 83.5 88.5 87.2 89.1 83.4 88.1 85.2 85.9 90.7 80.1 85.3
Min/Month 91.1 83.5 90.6 91.8 92.6 88.3 92.9 96.0 86.1 93.1 83.5 90.3

Table A 3: Monthly Averaged Wind Speed at 50 m above The Surface of The Earth For

Indicated GMT Times (m/s)

Lat 0.9 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
Lon 34.42 Average

Average@0130 3.95 4.20 4.21 4.21 4.29 4.23 4.32 4.28 3.98 3.90 3.90 3.73 4.09
Average@0430 3.58 3.82 3.98 4.09 4.05 3.98 3.91 3.89 3.76 3.60 3.57 3.40 3.80
Average@0730 3.26 3.39 3.42 3.48 4.38 4.63 4.50 4.50 4.18 3.57 3.32 3.25 3.82
Average@1030 3.97 4.00 3.75 3.74 4.73 4.81 4.63 4.70 4.49 4.08 3.90 3.85 4.22
Average@1330 3.59 3.61 3.31 3.00 3.58 4.04 4.03 4.15 4.05 3.64 3.41 3.38 3.65
Average@1630 4.29 4.41 4.01 3.72 3.66 4.01 4.16 4.24 4.09 3.88 4.01 4.04 4.04
Average@1930 4.90 5.05 4.62 4.56 4.55 4.45 4.63 4.48 4.25 4.36 4.66 4.59 4.58
Average@2230 4.37 4.58 4.30 4.29 4.47 4.34 4.48 4.41 4.18 4.15 4.28 4.13 4.33

59
 APPENDIX B: CONDUCTORS AND CABLES MANUAL

Table B 1: DC Wire Gauge Table

WIRE SIZE (AWG) AREA (mm2) VDI

16 1.31 1
14 2.08 2
12 3.31 3
10 5.26 5
8 8.37 8
6 13.3 12
4 21.1 20
2 33.6 31
0 53.5 49
00 67.4 62
000 85.0 78
0000 107 99

Table B 2: Rated Capacities of Cables and Conductors (240V/415V)

60
Table B 3: Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics of Bare and PVC Insulated

Conductors

61
Table B 4: American Wire Gauge

62
APPENDIX C: TROJAN T-105 DATA SHEET

63
64
APPENDIX D: APOLLO MPT-SERIES DATA SHEET

65
APPENDIX E: SERAPHIM SRP-315-6MA DATA SHEET

66
APPENDIX F: DEMING SOLAR CONTROLLER SERIES (120V84A)

DATA SHEET

67
APPENDIX G: ECO VANE (ev600 10kW) WIND TURBINE DATA SHEET

68
APPENDIX F: DEMING POWER FKJB-10KW WIND CONTROLLER

DATA SHEET

69
APPENDIX G: MIDNITE SOLAR COMBINER BOX (MNPV-6) DATA

SHEET

70
 APPENDIX H: ELECTRICITY COST IN KENYA

Period Average Electricity Cost (KES/kWh)

DC SC CI1 CI2 CI3 CI4 CI5 IT
Apr 2014 20.26 20.72 16.73 15.28 14.67 14.43 14.19 21.93
May 2014 22.85 23.31 19.32 17.87 17.26 17.02 16.78 24.52
Jun 2014 22.94 23.40 19.41 17.96 17.35 17.11 16.87 24.61
Jul 2014 25.57 25.96 20.46 19.00 18.40 18.16 17.92 25.66
Aug 2014 25.54 25.93 20.42 18.97 18.37 18.12 17.88 25.63
Sep 2014 23.66 24.05 18.54 17.09 16.49 16.25 16.00 23.75
Oct 2014 22.66 23.05 17.55 16.09 15.49 15.25 15.01 22.75
Nov 2014 21.21 21.60 16.10 14.64 14.04 13.80 13.56 21.30
Dec 2014 20.55 20.94 15.44 13.98 13.38 13.14 12.89 20.64
Jan 2015 20.17 20.56 15.05 13.60 13.00 12.75 12.51 20.26
Feb 2015 20.29 20.67 15.17 13.72 13.11 12.87 12.63 20.37
Mar 2015 20.01 20.40 14.89 13.44 12.83 12.59 12.35 20.09
Apr 2015 19.99 20.37 14.87 13.41 12.81 12.57 12.33 20.07
May 2015 20.28 20.66 15.16 13.70 13.10 12.86 12.62 20.36
Jun 2015 20.28 20.66 15.16 13.70 13.10 12.86 12.62 20.36
Jul 2015 19.72 20.63 15.42 13.97 13.37 13.12 12.88 20.63
Aug 2015 21.11 22.02 16.81 15.36 14.76 14.52 14.27 22.02
Sep 2015 20.11 21.02 15.82 14.37 13.76 13.52 13.28 21.02
Oct 2015 21.05 21.96 16.76 15.30 14.70 14.46 14.22 21.96
Nov 2015 19.92 20.82 15.62 14.17 13.56 13.32 13.08 20.82
Dec 2015 19.85 20.75 15.55 14.10 13.49 13.25 13.01 20.75
Jan 2016 19.68 20.59 15.39 13.94 13.33 13.09 12.85 20.59
Feb 2016 19.68 20.59 15.39 13.94 13.33 13.09 12.85 20.59

71