STEAM CYCLES

• Steam Power Plants work on the same phenomenon as that

of the Carnot Heat Engine with a few modifications
• The power cycle (Rankine) remains same where as the
source of energy changes

Source Power Cycle Sink

Electricity
• Energy Source
Fossilized Source Nuclear Sources Clean Sources
Concentrating Solar
Coal Uranium
Plants

Oil Thorium Geothermal Plant

Natural Gas

• The energy source determines how clean and sustainable

the process is and becomes the major differentiating factor
among various steam power plants
• Power cycle in a steam power plant (vapor power plant) is
based upon the Ideal Rankine cycle.
• This is a closed system and the working fluid is 𝐻2 𝑂

Schematic of a Rankine Cycle T-S diagram of a Rankine Cycle

Typical example of a power plant on fossilized energy source
To Sink

Power Cycle

Energy
Source
 Typical example of a power plant based on nuclear energy
source To Sink
Power Cycle

Energy
Source
 Typical example of a power plant on clean energy source
Energy To Sink
Source Power Cycle
The Rankine Cycle Assumptions
• The ideal cycle involves internally reversible processes
• All components are assumed to be at steady state
• Steady flow energy equation per unit mass of fluid is used to
evaluate work and heat interactions. (Any kinetic and potential
energy changes are ignored)
• Work consuming and producing devices ( Turbine, pump etc.)
operate adiabatically and without irreversibility. Thus making
them isentropic
• Potential and kinetic energy changes are ignored
• Boiler and condenser operate at constant pressure i.e frictional
pressure drops are neglected
The Rankine cycle has four basic components. Each operating as a
control volume. Therefore applying steady flow energy balance yields an
equation for each component.
Turbine 𝑾𝒕 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐

Condenser 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟑

Pump 𝑾𝒑 = 𝒉𝟒 − 𝒉𝟑

Boiler 𝑸𝒊𝒏 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟒

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑾𝑻 − 𝑾𝑷
Efficiency 𝜼=
𝑸𝒊𝒏
=
𝑸𝒊𝒏

𝒉𝟒 − 𝒉𝟑
Back Work Ratio 𝒃𝒘𝒓 =
𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐
Different components and work calculations
Areas under process lines on the T-s diagram can be
interpreted as heat transfers, each per unit of mass
flowing:

Area 1-b-c-4-a-1 represents heat

transfer to the water flowing
through the boiler
Area 2-b-c-3-2 represents heat
transfer from the water flowing
through the condenser.
Enclosed area 1-2-3-4-a-1
represents the net heat input or
equivalently the net work
developed by the cycle.
 Reheated Cycle Regenerative
• Supercritical cycle • Stirling Cycle
• Ultra supercritical • Open FWH
cycle • Closed FWH

Superheated Cogeneration
Cycle Rankine System

Cycle
variants
Super Heated Rankine Cycle
• Super heat allows the temperature
difference at turbine inlet and outlet
to be higher, therefore it has a higher
thermal efficiency
• Since the turbine outlet line now
shifts from state 1-2 to 1’-2’, the
overall quality of steam improves at
turbine exhaust. This improves
turbine operation • The only difference is the
• A boiler that has an attached super superheating of the steam
heater is called a steam generator beyond point 1.
Rankine Cycle with Reheat
• Thermal efficiency is further
improved by reheating the steam
• Two turbines are used HP (High
Pressure) and LP (Low Pressure)
• Steam quality is increased from HP
exhaust via reheating
• Reheating improves steam quality
even further when compared to
Superheated cycle
Rankine Cycle with Reheat
• The superheated steam expands in HPT 1-2.
• It is then reheated in steam generator 2-3.
• Steams re expands to condenser pressure
in LPT 3-4.
• The net Work now includes the additional
turbine output, and additional heat input
during reheating
• Due to average increase in the temperature
delta, thermal efficiency is increased
• Efficiency can now be given as:
𝑾𝑯𝑷𝑻 + 𝑾𝑳𝑷𝑻 − 𝑾𝑷
𝜼=
𝑸𝟔−𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐−𝟑
Supercritical and Ultra Supercritical Reheat Cycle
• The schematic remains similar to reheat
cycle
• There is no phase change in the steam
generator. The process 6-1 occurs at a higher
pressure then the critical pressure of water
• Supercritical plants can achieve thermal
efficiencies of up to 47%
• Ultra Supercritical plants with much higher
temperature deltas can have thermal
efficiencies exceeding 50%
• Thermal efficiency relies on temperature
difference within the cycle
Regenerative Cycle with Open Feedwater Heater (OFWH)
• The feedwater heaters increase the
average temperature of heat addition
hence increasing thermal efficiency
• 𝑚1 𝑘𝑔 of mass is extracted at “2” to
mix adiabatically in the OFWH
• (1 − 𝑚1 ) 𝑘𝑔 of mass expands to
condenser pressure in the turbine
• Mixing occurs within the feedwater
heater, hence a source of
irreversibility is introduced in the
ideal cycle
Regenerative Cycle with Open Feedwater Heater (OFWH)
• Referring to the T-s diagram, heat transfer
to the cycle takes place from state 7 to
state 1, rather than from state a to state 1.
• The turbine, pump and condenser
equations change accordingly.
Ideal Rankine Open Feedwater Heater
Cycle Cycle
Turbine
𝑾𝑻 = 𝒎(𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) 𝑾𝑻 = 𝟏 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 + (𝟏 − 𝒎𝟏 )(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟑 )

Condenser
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟑 ) 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = (𝟏 − 𝒎𝟏 )(𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 )

Pump
𝑾𝑷 = 𝒎(𝒉𝟒 − 𝒉𝟑 ) 𝑾𝑷 = 𝟏 − 𝒎𝟏 𝒉𝟓 − 𝒉𝟒 + 𝟏 𝒉𝟕 − 𝒉𝟔
Regenerative Cycle with Closed Feedwater Heater
• The feedwater is not allowed to mix
directly
• These are basically shell and tube heat
exchangers. Feedwater is in tubes and
extracted steam condenses in the shell.
• A trap is used so that the condensed
steam can be feeded back to the LP
closed heater. No vapor passes through
the trap.
• After the LP heater, a drip pump is
used to mix the condensate in the
feedwater instead of sending it back to
the condenser, which wastes thermal
energy to the surroundings.
Regenerative Cycle with Closed Feedwater Heater
• Ideally, an open feedwater heater is
used (operates at higher than
atmospheric pressure) after the low
pressure closed heater
• This has an added advantage, as it acts
as a deaerator and helps to vent mixed
oxygen in the working fluid thus
preventing corrosion
• The T-s diagram represents similar
working as that of the OFWH
• The energy balance on each
component changes accordingly similar
to that of the OFWH
T-s diagram for simple CFWH
Cogeneration System
• Apart from Rankine Cycle, this system is widely used with other power
cycles such as Brayton Cycle, Otto & Diesel Cycles and with Fuel cells.
• An added advantage is that the heat wasted via condenser can now be
utilized to heat water for other processes.
• Either Water or Steam is produced as an additional product of this cycle.
• The steam/water can then be used in a variety of commercial or domestic
uses. Examples include domestic use of hot water, food processing plants,
textile industry and other processes which use hot water or steam as an
input.
• The thermal efficiency is less then that of the dedicated power plant which
produces no water or steam. However, the overall effectiveness of the
system is attractive to industries where constant supply of steam or hot
water is required.
Cogeneration System
• Typical example of a cogeneration system where electricity and steam is
provided for domestic purposes.

Electricity provided to the

community

Steam exported to the

community
Overview
• A typical Power Plant Schematic
Overview
• Rankine Cycle forms the basis of all vapor powered cycles
• Energy balance across every component is used to derive its equation
• Thermal limit dictates the maximum thermal efficiency attained via such
cycles
• Realistically, most of the Rankine cycle modifications discussed here are
present in an actual steam power plant
• With each component added, the complexity of the system increases
exponentially where as the increment in thermal efficiency becomes
stagnant
• Only a limited number of added modifications e.g Open and Closed FWH,
reheat and regeneration can be added before the costs become too high
to justify the increment in efficiency
Pb1. Consider a steam power plant that operates on an ideal reheat–regenerative Rankine cycle with one open
feedwater heater, one closed feedwater heater, and one reheater. Steam enters the turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and
is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam is extracted from the turbine at 4 MPa for the
closed feedwater heater, and the remaining steam is reheated at the same pressure to 600°C. The extracted steam is
completely condensed in the heater and is pumped to 15 MPa before it mixes with the feedwater at the same
pressure. Steam for the open feedwater heater is extracted from the low-pressure turbine at a pressure of 0.5 MPa.
Determine the fractions of steam extracted from the turbine as well as the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Pb2. Consider the cogeneration plant shown in Fig. 10–23. Steam enters the turbine at 7 MPa and 500°C. Some
steam is extracted from the turbine at 500 kPa for process heating. The remaining steam continues to expand to 5
kPa. Steam is then condensed at constant pressure and pumped to the boiler pressure of 7 MPa. At times of high
demand for process heat, some steam leaving the boiler is throttled to 500 kPa and is routed to the process
heater. The extraction fractions are adjusted so that steam leaves the process heater as a saturated liquid at 500
kPa. It is subsequently pumped to 7 MPa. The mass flow rate of steam through the boiler is 15 kg/s. Disregarding
any pressure drops and heat losses in the piping and assuming the turbine and the pump to be isentropic,
determine (a) the maximum rate at which process heat can be supplied, (b) the power produced and the utilization
factor when no process heat is supplied, and (c) the rate of process heat supply when 10 percent of the steam is
extracted before it enters the turbine and 70 percent of the steam is extracted from the turbine at 500 kPa for
process heating.