a.s....._.......__..*..,. ..a.........

THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL
FACIES ARCHITECTURE OF
TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR
HYDROCARBON DISCOVERY
AND RECOVERY
Edited by

Andrew D. Miau and Noel Tyler

Geology Department Bureau of Economic Geology
University of Toronto The University of Texas at Austin
Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada Austin, Texas 78713-7508 U.S.A.

Copyright © 1991 by
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology)
Barbara H. Lidz, Editor of Special Publications
Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology, Volume 3
Tulsa Oklahoma, U.S.A. ISBN: 0-918985-94-3 November 1991
 Contents Architeclural-facien aralyuis of normunine depositiosal systems in the SHELF ENVIRONMENTS
Upper Triassic Chinlo Fonuatian, noutheastem Utah
PREFACE Dubiel. R. F. 153 Archilecutre uf moslorn subridal dunes (sand warm),
PREFA Bay of Bnargneaf, Pounce
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Variations io alluvial architecture ocrera the Gligo-Miocone Huesca flusial Berné, S., Darund, J., and Weber, 0. 245
This hook is the outcome of a SEPM Research Symposium held ut Ihr Aenual system, Ebro Basin, Spain
Meeting of the society in Sao Antonio, Tesas, April 1989. Tho intent of tho mooring Hirer, J. F. P. 111 Suad bank and dune facies architecture ata wide inlracratunic seaway:
was lo bring together modem research on facies architecture, and tu apply thu roseurch to Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceoas Raakelv Furmalson. Jameson Land. bunt Greenland
tho invostigatioo of ersorvuir heterogeneities and production problems. Facies architecture uf a Dovonian noft.sedimrus-defrnsnted ullaviul Jurtyh, F., und Nae-Nygaard, N. 261
INTRODUCTION sequence, Broken River Province, northeastern Aunnaliu
While there has boos much ioterost in recent years in concepts of sequesce Lang, S. C., and Fielding. C. R. 122 Facies chasoctorieation and architecture of u maddy shelf-sandstone
Architecoseal controls un the recovesy of hydroearbossn loom sandstone reservoirs cumplen: Mancos B interval uf Upper Croraceoun Mancos Shale, nerthweut
suuligruphy, this book focuses on soutigeuphic toits that are, in general, un order of
magnitude smatter sIsan sequences. A knowledge of auch architectural dotait is of Tyler, N., asdFinloy. R. J. Three-dimensional reservoir arvhitecsarn eta valloy-fill sequence Cnlorudn-northeasl Utah
considerable significance in the development of detailed. scaled facies models for anda delluic aggsudutionul sequence: influences uf minor relative nra-level variations Cule, R. D., und Yzang. B. G. 277
Hierarchies of architectural units in terrigonuss elastic reeks, and their (Scalby Formation, England)
deponitional environments, and is of paramount isnportaace in the officions design of
mlatiemhip to sedimentation rate Eochard, R.. Racen,ro. C., ¡Jarret, F., and Knira. R. 133 DEEP.WATER ENVIRONMENTS
udsaecrd petroleum ercuvety pmjecrs.
Miatt, A. D. 6
The atlas format has hoes selected in order tu pennit authors tu present derailed Ceneeuic fluvial-facies architecture and aquifer heterogeneity, Contrasrog styles of Lute Neogene deep-waler sandstone deposition,
documentatioa of surface and subsurface architectural details without Ihr usual Facies heterogeneity, puy continuity, and iahll potential in barrier-island. Groville, California. Super Fand site und vicinity nffnhrxe Tesas
fluvial, and submaeirr.fan mnervoirn: esamples form the Tesas Gato Blair, T. C., Bu/arr, F. G., and Turner, J. B.
illasoalive distortions necessitated by the conventional page dimensions. 148 Morses, R. A. 285
CausI and Midland Basin
Andrew D. Mialt Ardo'oee, W. A.. Tyler, N., and Puruley, M. J. 13
Constnsteling a three-dimensional rock-properly model of Anehileelnee of the Winters submarine fan, Sacramento Basis. Califumia
Noel Tyler fluvial sandstones io the Found Field, Colorado Cherces, V. B. 296
Fhuromosaien of outcrops: useful photographie techniques
Chopin, M. A.. and Mayor, D. F. 160
Wiaovich. M. C. 22
Flsvial-sandntene reservoirs of the Travis Peak Formation,
ROLlAN ENVIRONMENTS East Tesas Basis
Tye, R. S. 172
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Outcrop und semi-regional three-dimeasioral architecture und
twconslraction of a petisos of the rutian Page Sandstone (Jurassic) DELTAS AND OTHER COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS
The editors would like to acknowledge the following isdividaaln who acted as Kooarek, G., Knight, J., and Hacholsn. K. 25
critical readers of the papers is this book: Regional to subregional facies architectore of river-domiruled deltas
Inside Ask- the anatomy of an rutian oil reservoir indio Alberla subsurface, Upper Crelacruas Danvegan Formation
W. Ambrom, K. Barrow, R. Blakey, R. Brenner, D. Cant, i. Diner, P. Ethridgr, R. Howard, A. F. 44 B/rattachaeya,J. P. 189
Finley. W. Galloway. M. Gibling, D. Hasoilton, S. Hasnliu, A. Howard, J. Hubert. S.
Johnson, W. Kaiser, D. Kerr, J. Knight, G. Kocnrek, D. Leckie, M. Leedor, J. FLUVIAL ENVIRONMENTS Aechitectural peltems isa large-wale Gilbert-type delta complesen,
Lusemaser, J. McFheevon, W. Nemoc, D. Nummedul, G. Dei, G. Flint. H. Posamenlier, Pleistoceno, Gulf nf Curioth, Greece
W. Psyor, A. Ramos, D. Smith, K. Soeguard, D. Swift. B. Turner, R. WnighL Subsurface cbaeacterieution uf Mesavrede rotervoirn in Colorado: Ori, GG.. Rocen, M., and NichoIr, G. 207
geophysical and renrrvuir-rngireering checks ne predictive
One uf as (NT.) gratefully acknowledges lIte logistical support in thr sedimentolrgy Architectaml elements of fan-della rumples in Pennnylvasian
preparation of this colume of the Burras of Economic Geology, The University of Tosas Larme. J. C., Wurpinoki, N. R.. and th'ansagan. P. T. 57 Sasdin Formation, Taos Treugh, northern New Mesico
at Austin. Editorial assistanCe wan precided by M. E. Johunsen. Photographie Seegaar-d, K. 217
reproduction of the cover illustration mas by David Stephens. Desk.lup publishing man The large-wale archirectare of the fluvial Weslwator Canyon Member.
by D. Ruote and L. Tyler. The editors thank L. Tyler and M. Evans for the design and Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic). San Jans Basin, New Mcsico Sedisuentology of a sequence boundary within the nonmarine
pasteap of the volume. Cowan, E. J. 80 Tennivin Member, Gallap Sandstone (Cretaceoun). San Juan Basin, New Mesico
Miall, A. D 224
Cuver illustration, courtesy of Michael Bromley, represents architectural Variations in fluvial style an revealed by architectural elements,
elemrots in the Kayenta Pormurion, Colorado. See Bromley's papee brgirnirg osp. 94. Kayenta Frrmatiun, Mena Creeh, Colorado. USA: Evidence foe both Evolution of Middle berre tide-dominated deltaic sandstones,
ephemoed and perenuial fluvial procosms Laganitlas Field, Maracaibo Basin, western Venezuela
Brenne,, M. H. 94 Magaregai, J., and Tyler, N. 233
 ARCHITECTURAL CONTROLS ON
THE RECOVERY OF HYDROCARBONS
FROM SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS
NOEL TYLER
ROBERT J. FINLEY
Bureau of Economic Geology
Ths Uoiceroify of Trous at Auosin
Austin, Tesas 78713-7508
Annwuoo Donolopmera of tho 330-billion-boost oilresomc000maingioUoitrdSsntonamoe000i
sEso cormontional tyrmasy and aocondary oac000 y willho depend son thu wtnaarced uoderatnodiog
nf inner onlatoms nod compnosoontaliontioo irrIteront in roaoavoio dnpostsronal systems. Stylo of
dopositiort roflsctod irs itoeroal omrrvoio sochitocttnrt dofmon Bono units thon dor000ino hown
ooaot-ooir donoso, wherohydeocariroro romain 000m00000d at tho iotoowoil (ma000acopic) acato, md
wharappooschoswtllhonffactivoinamoaniogtnnm0000adoh Aatsbarataialpa000fthemreocovnood
oUreroominoroeajdoalojlthaalthoughmobioithom-nofrramemem000downigto
poor 000tacs by aniarirrg wella nod oortical or aoosl bypasaiog by tho waterilood f0001
Bocaoao hororogonooy atylo in a poodoct of dopoaitional aystoOr, it in prodictahio and caro ho
chnoactericrd io tonno from low to high io a latoral and conical rororo. For sasdaronon, tho wavo.
d000mared dallas, hamm coma, and rand-rich sourd plaira show atom dogooc nf hotoaog000iry in
both diotonsiorn, whroass thohigbly aggoadutiooal bachharriao fars, flaoially domirratoddolrsn, md
flun-ganoodmoaodoohalu show abig)rnoirornairyofhnrnroganoiry. Othnoayar000a caahn aiooilariy
olaasdind. Tho roaulrirrg muoio loada to delineation of targotod appmachos to incoemoorsl oil
000o000y spncrftoally railooad to the disroibstion of rootaioing oil aaruoarioo. Such ap100achm,
optsooiznd to the cbaoactor of tho deponiriooal ayat000c may motado geologically rargotod infili
dadlmg, roleocco oscompletion, hooiaontal drdliog, nod anarogic cooaa.00an000io Bonding
i000lomg flood ondnaigo and pooflla modification. Such tocboiquoa ma heroin reamad Moa000d
Smoodaoy Rmooary )ASR) and rnposaont adoaocnrnants in toctmology doso will lanitonrar and
md-atam oop0000monm in oflïcinocy that aotiloo stngnfor later approachor ro Enhanced Oil
Roconory FOR).
R000voay of osI foom oosoevoins nalionwido utilizing ouroonl lochnology has
avemgcd 3d porconl, moarrang tirai of the woof than 508 bdhoas haroolo of oil discovered
thon fao m Untoid States oose000ios some 330 bubon barrots oomgin oneocovesod, mo
iwmodtate economic vitality of otre domestic nit industry depends on tonrsstnlion of mom
of ihn known mt000ce into acttsal iw-lïold reserve growth through application of advancod
gooscronco and eagineoring teclsaology. Reserve appoeciation through stratogic
placement of infili wells, secondary flooding and pressare maintenance, and tertiary, or
enhanced, omovoay bus aloeady contoibated to renoove growth. Vol nne of don greatest
snadeslluoctes so advanced oocovoey is the timilod undeosizrrding of the gmtogic oesorvoie
framowook and of the contents tIsai the framework elements osarios hydrocarbon flow in
the subsurface. This impediment constrains nao access ta the full votomo nf ia-
piace hydrocarbonn.
The tant 20 years of nodïmorrtotogic rovoarch baco primarily yielded a set of goologic
models that sappnrt nil atril gavenploration. Thesoftesl-gemseratioonetiimestologic models
fanon on ontema] temgennas c)astic and carbnaaln-hody geataretay und anderstate ihr
Tyler and Finley
smponanceofthemtemalreseroniofoamrwork,therebyfailingtoenpiain internatresorvnir
comparmsrrertlalsrattnn mu conootonhyilrocuebnorocovory. Cnaventdopositional models
encompuss too targn a scale for tho nords of reservoir exploitation and do not provide the
quantttattve etement caiticat so the onginrerirsg component nf hydrocarban onnsction on
the interwott acute. Without an understanding of tho iotonnal hutniern ta effective
hydrocarbon deutstagr, rnunvory factors cannot be reatisticatty assignod on a gontogic,
reservotr-specsficbusiawithnnpticitconniderationofdepositionat synlom,andmuchofthe
hydrocarbon ronmarco witt ermain untapped.
Reservotr geotogssss are now developing lochniqum ta norecome the complesity nf
soternaleoseevoirgeosnetsy. Newseconil.g000mssionmodets,whichdencribecharacteoisfic
facses thmenssons and mutual relations with surrounding farios, are omoeging. Facim
damonxsons, oesontataonn, and dorio vertical and talora! relations define the architociure of
the oeuem'con, and srdtmesls deposited in different systems diaptay cantrnvtisg msorveir
archstecttsres. Failure to determine rrservnir urchitectam usiag innovative concepts and
nophrsttcased tocirnalogy wilt constrain stltinrate hydrncurban-reoovery effacienciex.
Thn mtesnat aechtteottsre of rouerooirs results from the styte nfsedianentancnmutation,
whrch ins stngle roservoir (for example, a dettaic sandstone) muy iuctude progradation
(dotta front), aggsnilatioa (crevasse splays in the associated intoodistaibumary bay), and
tatorutuecrotion (mrandesingrtivtribntarychunnol). Thechaeacterefcompononmresrrneir
fanion, whsch is the product nf these thffering dopasitionat processes, will be markedly
diverse. Although broadly similar io iotemal geometry, pregeadatiortal facies and luterai-
uccmflos facies are chaencmeeized by, enspectivoly, upward-coaesenirg and upward-fming
tenktresthaturnlypicattyreflrctedinvnrticaltrendsinpetrophynicalproperties Asarosult
of cosunsttatg vorlicat pemnseahihty profiles of these two classes of facies types, fluid
(indigenousorinjroted)behavinrwillhemomallydivorgont, Furtheamnoro.intomonneemrdnrun,
and cannequentiy Buid communication, between the nun facies can br poor if located
udjacent tonno another in the reservoir.
Our abdity In predict the disteibulion of rock fabrics and to deienrsisr hnw thnm fabrics
conlrni 11usd gem through resorvoiss is related te oso knowledge of the physioat and
cltensacat processes of sedimentation and of the processes of diugenesin after burial. Thr
geologie frumrwnrkofeaeh reservoircontistsofdiscsete volamos nf rook (that in, facies).
euch of which basa distinctive intorral composition, estemat geometry, sedimentary and
btogomc sustenter. tithrlogy,00gaaic content, and muociated rock types. Superimposed on
depostliosal facies ix adiagonohc ooerpoiatl that modiftes the prtinuay pore structure nf don
rook. Oingenetically mortified dopositional facies compose discrete uohelemnnt,v within
don reservoir sisal either foncer or inbibit fluid flow in tho muervoir. Facies arr the
fandamentat building blocks of resornoirs, md they provide the pathways by which the
reservoir dasins. tntrrconneetednrss with adjacent faeim promotes effective reservoir
drainage; intcrconnectrdnesn inhibited because of permeability differences results in
resorvosecompaesmentalizasion and taltinsatety in inefficient eruoovoirdeuioagr. Facien,or
aasatgumated groupx of facies, compose the fundamental flow unite (}iearn and ntheos,
1904; Ehanku, 1987) mttrmngh which the reservoir drains.
in tlus paper we examine the relation betwoen reserveir architecture and hydrocarbon
recovery md propose an architocuarat-otesnent ctusvilication matois that can be used to
pordsct doe sature and distribution of ormairsing oit saturations. From this matrix,
appropriato eroovery strategies dont aim torneammo the adverse effects cf heterogeneity
onhydroearhonrocovosymaybeimplemrntro.i. Tlsispapeefocnsenonsondssoeon,atthough
thecyclicnaiuoeandvooticatsequoneexnfsorrsecarbonuteoeservnnitype maybeanalyred
and esploilad an the mane may.
Architectural coniroin on hydrocarbon recovery
10e
Coneexsioxalifeeoeery Efficiency
A well-defused reliman between reservoir architecture and conventional (primary and
secondary) recovery efficiency has bees enlabtished uxing a subset of 451) major Texan to no
reservons. The tiara base for thin anutyuiu includes only those reservoirs staat had produced
mnredsan lOmtilinnbarerlsnfnulannf 1981 (Gallowayandothem, 1983). Tlrenereservcirx
have occeunird for almost 75 percent of Tenm productiox (us of 1983) and dons previde u * sneniny
representatrve sample nf the doponitiorsat complexity and recovery efficiency of Tesar
ne
\\. \\
\
A coons-plot nf reservoir genesis and dove mechanism againvt convenlionat recovery e MoBbed br
efficiency for them mujer reservoirs yields a lmxd of declining secnvery with weakening
natural dove mechunixm and, more importunity, iocrraxed reservoir complevisy (Fig. t).
Prolecseduttimatereooveryrfficiencicsinsandsto5000srrvnirs npanannrderofmagnuiadc
S
\.
\\
\I I' rsntneg
and mango frema high of over 80 percent in don wane-dominated dellaic reservoir in East
Texan fieldtoalow of 8 percent in the mud-rich submarine-fm reservoirs in the Spruheroy
41-
N
\\ . 'Ouv
Trend. in carbonase reneroniox, Use vunatira in reconnaint is noi ax broad, rujrging from 2g N
N
toSO percent nf Ihe original odio placa (001F).
toToum,almostattofthomajnrresrrvnirxtltathaoeweujcreservnirenorgy(nolutiongan
m \\ "u
drive mechanisms) have been nabjected ta secondary recoverymostly mater flooding. \\
The effects of u weak doce mechanism bane thus bren addeenued by engineering and
dovelopmenl practice. Vol the trend 0f doconasing recovery efficiency with increasing
renrrvotr complrsssy persists. Evaluation of them dota lead ssmo the conclusion that in a
vanety of depnuitimnal sestingr, the dominant factor controlling recovery efficiency ti
ooservnirgenesin,includingbolssdepositionstprocoxsrsanddiagoneticl.5stary. Reservoirs
mtth relatively high continuity and nimpto aechiteclurex, uuch ax vvave-ilrmisaled deltas, a
nand.nch utrand piains, and barrier cores, display high secnneay efficiencies, More
comptes suasilstonen, such an those characterized by channelizatian and mpid facies
vanatton, aro loss efficient. Lowest recovery efficieseirn (weighted avemge of 8 percent)
typify fmr-grained. nr muddy bnsin-llooring laabithses.
Hrghentr000veriesincarbosratrreservoirsarefrutsdincartyjnaiebuilttnps (alolts,eecfn,
platform msrgtnn), particularly if they have nndoegone leaching, and in open-xbelf and
ramp depontts (Fig. i). Dopooitiooaliy and diugenetiealiy comples Falearoic restricted-
platfoow ilepossts and equally enriablo unconfonnity-retated carbonate reservoirs display
the lowest recovery efficiencies.
The relation nf recovery efficiency ronds In votomes of ait coxtainod in key xatodxlone
eeuervoirtypex inTesm isdsewninFigsee2. Fluvial doltaic (farsdettauandclosrlyrelated
ixsoeheddrd fluviat and deisaic dopnnitx). drttoic, and nubmarine-fan reservoirs contain
similar psxpmlions nf 001F, ranging belmnes 3d and 30 percent of the resource bane
(Fig. 2A). However, deitaic reservoirs mill account for utmost half nf the productiun from
sandstone reservoirs in Texas andas machan 75 perenni of tho production if Ihr guvual
dellaic group of reservoirs ti aggregated with ileltaic reservuiev (in contrasl 1059 percent loss, l.Cross'pisi nf rrcovery'rfficirncy rango vrrnan depovilinnal syntom and
oftheresoarce). Sebmaoino-fanreservoien,ontheothrrhand,arrprojected inproducojust drive meehuninm for major nundninase und carhnnatr rexorvoirn s'n Tenas shnwing
5 percenl of the tomaI estintaled ultimato recovery at current development levels (Pig. 2B). decreasing rrcnvrry rffictrncy with increasing renorvoir onmplevity, Dricr
Tholthe8-pnrcrai,wrigjtted-aveesgr-mnceceryefftciexcyofshrnemud-richbasin-fltesring mruhanismst W . muter) GCE . gan cup axpanninn; GD . gm'uvtiy drainage;
turbidites occurs in a syxtem thai cossains an 51-biltinn-buerot onsanece base clearly SG . uaintinn gm; M . misad (enmbinatinn nf W, GCEr and SG), Madtftrd from
hightïghts the need far reevaluation nf recovery strategies in thin depositional syutem. Tyler and nthrex (1984).
 Recovery of Mobile Oit
Fluvial
(A)
3%
A moco eecsisive iodicaloc of she initueoce of hesomgeoeity on recovery is mabile oit
recovery efficioccy. Recovery efficieccy io coovenlionally expressed as she votasse of oil
recovered as a peroras of the 001F. However, oit cemoiniag io c000tvoirs fotlowing
cocvrssiooal operalians cae be thvided into two categories: t) immobile, residual oil and
ssorecovesod mobile od (UMO). Residsal oil faxas a diocoorieuous phase irs the
cosrcvoio and sdthsiocally may he bold io porcs by physical and chemical forces soch as
Fluaia(deltaic copillary schon mrd vms dec Wools bonds. Pssdactioo of residual oil osiog tertiary or
30% enlsanced oil recovery (EOR) lecheiqurseequieoo dro iotroduclioc of thersoal energy, gas.
vechomicals loto the roscrvvietodesleoy the comscaisricg phyvicochemivat forces holding
this odin place, In corsons, UMO is oit that ecmains io the reservoir afIre primary sod
secondary recovery (esclusive of eereeves) bol thaI ir movable by peimasy recovery re
waive floodiog. Unrecovcrcd movable oil is preveoted form migraring so the weil hereby
geologic helcreg000ity in lulemlly comptes reservoirs or by facies and permeability
stratihcarien io versically complex reservoirs.
Cross-plotlissgUMovolumeuicsagaiortenvieonmensOfdeposisiOeterTesassandstOoe
and carbonale eesersoiro using the sause reservoir dala base yields o curve of increasing
UMO volumes with bscreasiog deposisionul mrd diagenehic complesiry of the reservoie
(Fig. 3). le wavo-doosissasad, sursd-rich deposiliocal syssems such an wuvo-dominured
delta, slcoodplaio, ocal bornee cere sediments, almost all of the mobile od is recovered. As
Original ail in place rho other cod of the recovery spectrum, is mud-rich, basic-flooring luebidiles, moco thuc
7Opewenlofthemobileoilisplacewillremaioafrrrrecaveryofpreveoreuerves. Between
those cod memhers is a luego group of reservoio types liraI will rosaio hetweee ocr-dried und
Fluoial see-half of the onigissal mobile oil io place al the end of conveetional recovery al csesmsl
(B) 3% levels of efficiency and deselopmeol.
The salume of UMO remoining even io laege, mrs-macaged reservoirs cue songe form
less 1h00 20 ro 70 porcoot of she mobile oit in placo. The fasdamenlal canse of the
iolrarosorvoireosrupmrclafUM0 isrosersoiracvbitecrsrretho iotematcowpooitioouod
sOudure of the erserveirwhich excess a fuodameolut conleel en the manner in winch
fluids move llsrough the subsurface. Reservoirs with comples inlomul aechisecrures
cowmosly have lower mebile-oil recovery rfficieocien; those of simplee ielrroal sresrclssre
have higher recovery efficirecios. As will he shown is this pupee, mobile oil remaisirsg ie
riso reservoir is theided lolo Iwo broad classes (uoconsuctcd and bypassed) depeothog en
residency is the revcrvoir.
Rosorveirgeologisrvaedrogisseersrecogoiae fear levels of heterogeneity caogiog from
Deli o microwopic so megascepic (Atpuy, 1972) (Fig. 4): 1) Microscopic heterogeneity is u
47 / funcliec of variability ut the scale of poem and pore throats (juars) arsd is the wale of vari-
ohihly thasgovensn the outareofoil satueatiocandreleotionofrevidualoil. 2) Mesoscopic
hrsreegeaeily reflects variability al the ripple-lamiourier to cross-bed wale (cm ro m).
Macroscopic heterogeneity in defined by the dopotilional patlem of tithofacies and
subsequent modification doriog burial and is manifested as welt-lu-well variability (mro
Estimated ultimate recovery 000aw
lOOn of or). 4) Megascopic heterogeneity isa product of variabilisy acenso depesitional
Flu. 2Pie diagrams illustrating the relalien between reterveir genesis and (A) systems mrd in eefiecicd av fleldwido and tseswrno-held variations (more thur 1,000 re).
tt is at the macsoecale that bounduries enist between lithogenetic and diagenetic facies.
distribution ef angina! eli in place und (B) estimated ultimotr recovery from mejer
Texas sandstone reservoirs. From Tyler and others (1984). Fluviat/deltaic reservoirs For esasssple, a simple point-bar sandstone (Fig. 4) iscorpomirs coliche layers or mud
drapes deposited on lateral accretion surfaces daring charnel migration mrd a clay plug
will account fer three-quarters of the production from sandstones in Texas.
Aechitcdlofal controls an hydrocarbon recovery
Tyler aod Fioley
deposited during channel abander0505L These features compose physical bosanding
surfaces that servo ta cosrqrarrrnenralire the reservoir. In ilsis example, compuesmonis
adjacenl te thai peselsoled bya well will nolbo drained or wdl he incompletely drained by
the esisling producing well. Addilionat wotts thaluro geologically tuegered masrbe drilled
ro caprure this ancosiacred oil remsieisg io the reservoir, If the osinsing well were
conveeled toinjccliooefwrterfornecondalyrecoveoyerisjectienofchemiculn feetortiasy
recovery, theadjaccntcompartsrsenis would sriltremain iselatod from theinlroducedtlssidn.
These comparnnoniv ace described as being as'eally byp,srnedby the flood (Fig. 5). Thun,
tise models developed io aoewprirg te improve recovery of remaissing mobile osi arr a
critical stop toward esnariog maximum effrcienr recovery of the residual oil. Yet shiv step
often receives iradraeuate astention in dro design of advanced-recovery peojocv.
In adthtior se the uncoslacted od compartments in reservoirs, there in o emend
component of UMO drus becomes particelarly imponurl in strict/or und highly stratified
reservoir intervals that display both vertical bd toicrat penneabdsry vuesatiens. Hrghly
aggcadasionat sandstone systems md thick carbonate reservoirs. sach as those of the
Permian Basin in WesI Tosas, typically thspluy these chorocteristics. Water 'mjecsrd arto
drene reservoirs during secondary mcovesy preferentially facones into the higher peono.
ability unIx mrd dam cot cansad or mobilien the odin lower permeahibly intervaln. This
vertically bypassed oil becomes the largel foe improved secesdary recovery th000gh
modification of injection profdes, temporary tord nosdesteuclive neuling of dr more
persoeable stringent, and to seme estenl, geologically targeted infilI drilling. Delineation
of bypassed oit resources. as in the case of nnconsacled comparessonts, reqoires derailed
geologic characterization of the internal ntrnctuee, er architecrsee, of the reservoir ro map
and quantify paths of fluid movemess.
Deposilienal System
Oiraedpinin/waca-deoinaind dnitrs
Larga burnus buns
Largn rue) s and arolls
Floviai/maoc-medifind doliat
Cashrratn ramps
B ank b a n nia n
Carbnnaio plarferms
Waoo-demiratrd delios
Fan dulia (and nand-rieb submarinc tans)
Fluoial sosiams
Flovially-dosrnieaind douas
Rcstnieind.pinifonm vanhonninS
Platform-margie varhenainx-
Turbidsins -
Mod-rieb nubmarino-infl turbidiins -
25 40 st
Unrocovered mebile nil (percent)
Reservoiraechilectueeeserluafrsndm000lalconteoloohydrecarbonrncevesyrfficieucy.
Av thseantrd earlier, wave-dominated detsaic and shorerone tystemnbavrhighmobdn-oil
recovery nfticiencion; mined-load chanselired systems have much tnwm recevory
efficiencies. This prethdtable trend reflects the style of heterogeneity in the reservoir.
Much aulention km been facaned on helorogroeity at Ose scale 0f micrometers sen few
meters. Saturation characteristics, capillariry, and local flow pothwuys around well
perforutions are controlled at tIsis wale of poro structure and sedimentary enmelare.
Heterogeneity stylo at the ocote of melees toas much an 1,000 meters, however, is more
important in controlling flood-flew pothmayn and accenn to the OSmIO and residual oil
remaining in the reservoir.
Because heleregeneity stytr, thr geometric composent of reseevoir coospaelaoenlaliza-
tien, iv a producl of deponitionul process, it is prediclable. Conventional pmducnoo
renponse,ilsen. mayatsoheprediclable,uvcbaeacteristic tecutionsofbothuncootacrcdard
bypassed nil can he defined on the basisofdepositieealsynlem. Deponitiexal systemo, rod
the pracessen by which rise large-scale reservoir urchilectnrul elemeom are deposited,
therefore become a fstndamnensat basin for the etseapolutien of research results from key
reservoirs to larger groups of nimilur reservoirs for which fewer dala evinL Fer esamplo,
aggradationat reservoirs are lypically hostom ftoodiog or have multiple Seed fmgert mrd
poor vertical conformance. Laterally, within fluvial reservoirs, the flood in strongly
confined se pateachassets, and hydrecarhoos io adjacent facien aro bypassed (Frg. 5).
Peogradationat reservoirn are top tteodisg and recovery efficienr bowmen, henndurirn
ORI VE
streng (WD(
Modorafe
k Wuak (5G)
Ftc, 3,Unreeovreed mebite uit an a functien nr
drpnnitiunal nnigin und dnivr mechanism. In
nnnheterngeneous simple systems (such an wave.
dnminated deltas and shore Innen) mebtle nil in
effectively flashed fram the resersele, In contraslr
en ret
mobile-nit reenseny is inoflicient in highly chunneliord
reservuiex, Modified frem Tyler (1988).
Ccssasaed vs puge 4
2
 (A)
.
Dislribotory chonnel
Megascopic heterogeneity Delta-front sandstone

Mesoscopic Microscopic
heterogeneity heterogeneity

EXPLANATION
Direction at increasing permeability
(J 'nv Permeability barriers
Permeability buffle
Producing well
o::
Injection well
-O- Dry hole
LI Perforation intervol
Macroscopic heterogeneity
Contacted,
EXPLANATION flooded 0A15676

Drained reservoir
E::: comportment
Untapped mobile oil Introreservoir seals Fig. 5.Schematic floviotty dominated detta IA) drilled on 40-acre spacing. Conventionat
devetopment practice (B) allows onty parlial contact and floodiog of rmervoir compartments.
Non-reservoir Residual oil between
and around groins 00 9301

Fio. 4--Scales of heterogeneity in a meanderbelt rmervoir sandstone and relation of macrosvate

heterogeneity te swept and ancontacted rmervotr compartments. Moditted from Tyler 11988).

Tyler aod Fioley Architectural cootrols 00 hydrocarboo recovery

TAOIE 1Heterogeneity ma/rio wherein deposatonal systems are classified according marino proccsses. such as thom uf the core of borner islands, sand-sich rnand-plaios. and
to vertical aud lateral heterogeneisy. wave-dontinated deltas. Al the other end uf the npectrsus are systems characterized by
intense internal heterogeneity. Them deposits ate typically chaeactoriaed by welt-
developed channel networks, such av in ushmarine-fan cenes, slacked flavially dominated
deltas, and nome backbaerierisland mdinurnts such au wauhover fansand flood-tidal deltas.
LATERAL HETEROGENEITY The other cud members indie matein are systems with pronounced complesity io one
dintonston and minimal variability in the other. voch as busin-flooting tarbithtcs (gond
LOW MODERATE HIGH lateral coutiusity bat highly slentitied) and tingle-storied meandering-steam deposits
(highly variable laterally but minimal vertical heterogeneity).
The stihty of the heterogeneity matrix is that it allows prediction of primary and
secondary recovery efficiencies and nf the location ng the movable oil remaining tithe
Wave-domivoled dclta Delta-fenol moath bar Meander hell'
reservoir afIre conventional recovery (Table 2). Fuethenoore, we can new design the
Barrier core Peovimal delta fenol Fluvially
appropriate advanced xocondaty-rocovety strategy hemden the geologic heterogeneity of
o
mf
Barrier shove face
Sand-rich seand plais
(occoeliosary)
Tidal deposits
dominated
delta' the reservoir. In nynlemu with alow degree of isternal heteregexeity. most of the movable
Back baeeier' od is svcevered; because uf their iutensal hnmogreeity, these reservoirs become ideal
Mud-rich xtrand plain
candidates for bOB. Systems with a high Ioleeal-heterogeneily component have lowle
medemte recoveries; the reminning movable od ix contained io anconlacted or poorly
Sholf bars
drained compatstnenls that typically arr areally bypassed by injoclauls. Targeted infdl
drilling by vertical or hotieontal wells together with strategic placemeut of injection wells
Eolias Alluvial fan Braided socam in the optimum recovery 050ulegy in them remevoirx. Vertically complex reservoirs aloe
Wave-modified
Fon dclta
Lacuvrrixo delta Tide-doreinaled
display low te moderate recoveries. In those reservoirs, advanced-recovery applications
must focus on strategic recompletion of bypassed onoro and wuterlloxd optimization,
including modthcation of iojection proftlrs to seal high-pvsmcabdity uniogers. Finally, io
D delta (divtal) Distal delta front delta
vystems ofgreatvrrticat and latreal complexity, conventional recovery is very low, and the
O Wave-medifted delta
(provimul) esime xpecnnnn ofadvancedrecovery options must he considered und sostegically applied
on thohasixofreualtuufdclaited geoxciontiftccharactoriaati000fthecanthdaleresorvoirs.
Back banier
Basin-Ilanring Coaru-grained Fluviully
rsebidilos moandcr hell dominated
Bnaid delta delod
Mostofdte matueefieldsofTexanbavrpauund throughthepeitnatypreduction utage(iu
which oil ix recovered via the indigenous energy of the reservoir) and aceti secondary
E Fino-grained
recovery (inwhichreuervoirenergy.thatin,prnxssre.isbvingminntainedthrnngh injection
meander hel1
nf gan or waler). Historically, as reservoirs approached the laser ulages of xecrndaty
Submarine fanC
locuvoty, they became candidates for lettiaty nr enhanced reunvety lo extract rexidsal ed.
Il was thr commonly hold view that primary and necondary predaction effectively
single Units recovered the majority of dte cunveutionally recoverable (noseexidaal) oil. Experience
stacked systems with reservoirs in Texan illuxteales thaI this is not the cane and that substantial volumen of
movable nil (un average between 40 and 50 percent and sp to three-quarters of the osiginal
movable odin placo) may still remain io these marvin reservoirs following conventional
between accretion wedges can provide flow baffles. Lateral accretion in fluvial and tidal primary and secondary recovery. The aggregate volume of UMO ucrosv the slate in 35
sandstones also can pendevo such flow baffles ÇFyler and others, 1991). billion barrels (Fisher and Galloway, 1983; Fishes and Finley, 1986), a volume equal to
The preceding discussion han emphasized that reservoirs display varying degrees of more than half of this stale's historic peeduction. On a national banin, nlmout 100 billiun
lateral and nertical heterogeneity. Because internal heterogeneities in a reservoir are the barrels of 11MO await advanced-recovery apphcationu (Fisher, 1987).
prodactofthepreeesses thatcreatethatreservoir,bydovrlopingan anderstaudittgofthom lo addition lathe sheer maguitude nf thin resource, snrecosemd movable nil in a key
processes, the styles and scalm of heterogeneity that typify the reservoir type becente near-term research, develnpmret, and recovery ubjectivo for mveral other reasono. Finse,
predictable. Fxrthenuore, with this understanding il becomes pomible toctassify reservoir wo know in a general sonso where the oil ix; itresideuwithis the confines of misting fietdn.
types into a hetzregeneily matrix according to the intensity of vertical and lateral Second, the oil is mobile and does not require the conily injection nf phyuicsl orchomical
complexity. additives for mobilization and recovery. Third, bocuom the oil ix located within existing
The heterogeneity matin for major saodntone reservoir types in shown in Table t. field boandaeirn, the finid infrasonctxrr, such an holding lauks forolorago anilpipelinmu fue
Systems displaying ntiuimat internat heterogeneity are associated with nteong noarshore lmanvportatinn, in already established. The cumulative effect is that movable nil remaining
ssssS
Tyler and Finley Architectural gOnIrOls un hydrncarbon recovery
R..SS*ø*e*S* .*.S..SSØ*SS
Tance 2.Projected recovery effteienry, residesry of usrecocered ns,bile oil, and I) geologically targeted infili drilling. 2) horizontal drilling, 3) selective recomplelionuof
appropriai e recovery otrasegies, an afunction of renercotr heterogeneity, so target previously unrecognized and bypassed pools nr znnen, and 4) slealogic creuu-reservzir
remaining mobile-oil nasuraoi000. flooding with water, possibly ansisted by polynsor isjoctiun.
Geologically Oargeoed iegill drilling.Conveotinnal oiffield peucuco allows fur infdl
drilling (nubject to regulatory approval) in existing firlth by followiog finId rulos that
typicallynnlablivhmtgmomuincpaurmx. Iufihlwetlsareplacedbetwrenesiotingwolluand
LATERAL HETEROGENEITY are urparalod from thom by distances dofmod by regulatory agoncim. This precedare
results in a regalar gnsd uf wells that may not match istenoal variability and panornn of
LOW HIGH reservoir comparsonentalioation and thus may mira large amoants of oil remaining in the
1, Very high te total 1. Luw mubiln.uil In conlesst, geologically targeted infili wells are drilled os the hanis uf a thorough
recovery efficinncy understanding of the intenoal character uf the reservoir. This strategy usen infonnation
derived from existing wells, sopplemontod by predaclion engineering data and advanced
3. Encellent llOR
caadidaseu 2. Cumparumentalized, geophysical information, to targea poorly dooised or uncostacted serai of the reservoir.
New wells are not evenly distributed acento the fold harem claolcred in arras of grealent
mf ancuntacted, and
>0
lalorully bypassed potential (Fig, 6). In this way, the number 0f subeconomic vr anecoxomic wells is
minimieed,which iacritiesltntheeconoreicnacoesuufthrprojretandtherofuretoultimatr
(1f 3, Targeted tnfrll recuvety. Geologicallylargnleilinfilldrilfingcaubeappliedutaraingfmmanywellnpacing
z drilling and is mont coot effective whes well spacing is matched to the length scalen uf the
heterogeneities controlling unrecovored oil and gas. For oil, such spacings haro bern
L, demoannateducunumicallytoacconsuthrrwiseuneecoverodmohilenildownto5acresper
o well. Elsowhem in the same (1.6 lnss°) mction spacings below 20 acres may ont be Inch-
nically and economically justifiable.
(-n Horirontaltfrilling.HorizuulalwellxoffeepotenlialferincrraoOdcontactandrecuvery
(5f in revorvoieo where lateral er areal variabilily in great. The higher the degree of lalorul
I, Low 1. Very lose mnbïtr.oil
recuvery effleimney variability in a reservoir, the vmallor the area that will he contactod and drained by a given
ref 2, Vertically bypassed vertical well. Horianntal wella allem penetration of the flew haaniern doy separase the
mobile oil 2. Both uocenlaesed enrepuesnoenlu inn mesorvoir (Fig. 6). They also allow contact with vertical fracturen that
rtay he conduits foe llnw in low-permeability eexervoirsa ntategy that has boon
and bypassed
3. Frefde modification, extremely offective in the Austin Chalkin Snuth Tonan and the Bakheu Formation of NoOh
Daltota. Targeting horianutal mollo te obtain masimum yield requires detailed character-
wateelband redeoigo, 3. Targeted infili
iaatinn of the reservuir. Although horizontally drilled wells have applicabilily in EOR
recempleliens drilling, watenlinud
efforts, they are largely drilled to capture difficalt-to-recovor. remaining movable oil and
redesign, profite
mv thus classed an an ASR technique. The pmodactinn resporoe nf horizontal wells it
modification, and
esprcoed tube nabstantial, became nationally almonl 25 hillier harroln nf unrecovered
recompletinns
movable oil reside in revervuiru specifically asnonable te horizontal drilling.
SelrcOire recosrspleoioro.Many remrvoirn display a high dcgreo of vertical complexity,
I,Mobile-oil recuvery efficiency especially vertical variability in permeability. Thun, oil may flow much mere easily
Residency of mobile nil through name layers than through others, resulting in bypassed zones. Detailed geologic
Appropriate mrcnvemy strategy and geophysical characterization of douse rnoorvuimxtoilelineaae bypassed anses can ginde
recompletious nf wells se Iargct layers containing large volumes of bypassed movable nd.
Sorategic creoe-reoervoir floodingMany reservoirs with weak-drive mechaninmn
in inefficienily draiaed reneevnirs nationwide composes a resoarce that is immediately requim the injection of maos to move hydrocarbons to the well. In rexervoirs with o high
avinlablr fur rn-field rresploration and development at low tu modemso cent. degree of vertical variability, ensuring that injected water contacts oil in annex of lower
The nation's UMO resoarco lies in established, mature reservoirs that are typically in reservoir qaality compared with adjacent voues becumes a major problem, particalarly
declining conventional necundaty recovery. Translation of thin r000urcc te reserven wilt doming the later stagen of a water-injection pmgram. Injected water tenth to follow thief
reqaineapplicalionnfadvunced-recovetystrulngiesgnidedbyathornagh anderxtandingnf rones, the easiest path of flow; than, ovre time, the effectiveness of thin pmcedarn
reservoir complexity. lt in pmpusmd that these tuategien hr collectively categorized an decreases. Based on detailed geologic and engineering analynin, ASR utealogies seek to
advanced secondary recuvrty (ASR). ssasisr.ize recovery by optimiuisg matonfloed design through relocating injection tu
Advanced necoudaty mecevety an catrendy defined inclndex feue techniques that weald intervals that have been bypassed (Fig. 6), pethupn conpled with inleedocing chomicob
br deployed according to dio utyle nf renorvoir hrtrregeneity. The techniqoes arr (polymers) thaI help seal the high-flow cones.
4
a.................
a a
Arecesi analysis 6y Boolcoataod olbees (1990) indicated that approximately 50 billion
barrels, a colame equivaleot ta half uf tise nation's UMO resource, uhoaldbe the goal foe
inceemeotal rocovesy from existing reservoies duelug the nest 50 yearn. Aunais reserve
additions feom ltsiu level of activity wawldbe I billiow barrels pee yearn sobslantial aer000t
bat less than half of the annual U.S. reserve geowth acisieved from 1977101988. A similar
cooclosion was reached io as American Association of Peteoteam Geologists (1989)
analysis, which suggested that at prices of less Wast 025 pee barrel, applying advanced
technology and effsciency could eecovoraa incevmental4s billion barrels of anrecoveerd
movable uil over the mid to long lotos. Al higher prices, ist the $2510 $50 mage, 65 hilliest
barrots of remaining movable oil way be rechuicalty sod ec000mically recoverable.
Advanced secondary recovery offers iaceeaxieg psmtootial as the ration's reoeevoies
appeuavh the lanee sesgos of secondary production. As bas been emphmizod in Ibis papee,
Use successful application of ASR depeods on integration of geoscience and engineoeing
divcipbneuanddata. Twoaddiriooaletemeotsarerequiredfonimprovrdeecovreyfromthis
nation's matare reservoirs. First, ASR eeqaires maximam infonnalion reteieval and
examination followed by iotegration into lire reservoir model. Since moot of the ersonece
lies in large, bot old, fields, dala (well logs, coren, and infomsaliondersued from cores) are
often isasteqsato; thus, a special effart mast be devoted te euOapolaling dala from a few
. modem wells (and the associated Asta sels) lo afiliar the large populalian of nId wells.
Second, accepted theories and beliefs ecgaethsg Ihe oeiginand deaiaage mechanisms of the
reservoirs or plays in question should be closely scrutinized and challenged in light nf
censtandy evolving uodeeslandieg uf reservoir gesesis and behavior.
The coocenteatien uf this en00000s UMO resource in a kstawo and relatively small
geographic area (in esisbeg fields) makes recovery of this ada nigrritbcant near. to mid.
loess national resource. Advanced undeeslanding of recovery fmm reservoirs will also aid
small-fieldexplomtios, whichwillbrdeprnslastoobudseffscientdelectiontechsiquesand
EXPLANATION ASE to optimize economics osceonew field has been fosad. Finagy,an isoxemplifiedhy
Ihr historical tack of succem of many EORpenjects, advanced andrestandiog of reservoir
(,_J Permeability barriera
architecluee is also a prerequisite for ssccessfat implementation of EOR tevhniqaes to
Permeability baffle ensure cootact, as well as mobdiratios, of the remaining oil resource.
Producing well
Injection well Horizontal
4t
recamp let ion Pabhcation aathoriaed by the Director, Borean of Economic Geology, Th University
Q Dry hole of Texan at Austin.
D Perforation interval Contacted
Geologically targeted infilI well Recompletion, toter
Contacted, Cofluersion to injection
Contacted
Drained compartment flooded flooded
Fas. 6.Advanced secondary recovery strategies applied io a hypothetical (cam-
pare with Fig. 5) finvially dominated delio (A) io tap nnconiacied compartments and Water and discontinuous
ioopiimiae issjenilos. proflies io waierflood eones bypassed by the flood. Appropriate globules at residuo) oil
advanced secondary-recovery strategies (B) inolode infili drilling of verhcai or
horizontai wegs targeied io peneiraie unconlacted compariments and waierflood 0616194
optimization io flood bypassed aunen rffeciiveiy.
Tyler and Finley Archileclural couleols on hydrocarbon recovery
000vovvces
.Aa.r.uv. O. A., 1972, A penchent approach to defmieg reservoir betezognnnity: Journal of
Petreleam Technology, v.24, p. 041-848.
Asermc.sec AsnorranuvurPrnuat.nesrGcem.aumses, 1989,Dalasoppoetneed farexploeation
(shot.): American Asseciatios of Petroleum Geologiots Euptoere, u. IO, no. 4, p. 42.
Buovosmo. J. F., Fmuueo, W. L., Mavcrsev, C. B., 199g. Oit and gas recovery researcha
recommended program: Governor's Energy Caancd, Cammillee on Rrnrnrvh and
Davelopmenl, Tesan, 6 p.
Sauves, W. J., 1987, Flew onic cunceplisslegrated approach lo reservoir deacriptiou
foe engioeering projects (abnt): Asnceican Association of Petruleom Geologists
Bulletin. y. 71fb. 5, p.SSl-S52.
thsrseu, W. L.. 1987, Can the U.11. oit and gas ersoarce bave support uuntainest peodaction7
Science, v.236, p. 1631-1636.
orso Frz.ev. R. J., 1986, Future trendy in Tenas oil and gas: peenentatien lo
TesnsHouneCommilllreooEoergy,Januasy23, 196f 23 p.,rrpm'istodinpam'rorTexan
still has big hydrocarbon resource bose: Oil and Gas Juaeuat, v.84,00.22, p- 57-69.
ursoGuu.uwuv.W.E., 1983.PotentialfoeadditiooaloilrrcoveryinTesas:The
Univeesily of Tesan at Asstin, Bseeaa uf Economic Geology Geological Circalae 83-
2.2Op.
Gut.tuwuv,W.E.,Ewmu,T.E.,Gcnoerr,C.M.,Jn.,Tvs.ro.N.,aeinBeoouo,D.G., 1983.
Adas of major Tesan oil romrvoirs: The University of Texto at Austin, Burean of
Economic Geology, 139 p.
He.suv, C. L., Enuvus, W. J., Too, RS., orso R.sxuaxsnnax, V., 1984, Geological factors
affecting reservoir perfeesnauce of the Harteog Draw field. Wyoming: Journal of
Petroleum Technology. v.38.00.8. p. 1335-1344.
'l'film. N., 1988. New oil from old fields: Geotimes, v.33. no.7, y. 8-1g.
Booms, M.D.. orso Feo.cv. EJ., 1991, Oalcecp quastilicalino of flaw-unit
and seal peopretirn nod geometricI. Premo Sandstone. Usah (Obst): American Asso-
ciation of Petroleam Geologists Bulletin, v.75,00.3, y-865.
oes, Guus.srov, J. K., 1988, Heleeogeseous sabmaeine fas reservoirs, Peoaiao
Sprahenylresd.WestTesas: TheUoiversityufTenasutAsslis,BureauofEconomic
Geology Repass of Investigations No. 171.37 p.
Guu.awuv, W. E., G000err, C. M., Je., aun Esvsrcu, T. E., 1984, Oil accuma-
lationo, production vbaeacteeislics and largess far additional recovery ir majue oil
ecuervuirs uf Tenas: The Ursiveesity uf Trsan as Austin, Bareau of Economic Geology
Geological Circular 84.2.31 p.
 HIERARCHIES OF ARCHITEcTURAL UNITS
IN TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC ROCKS,
AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SEDIMENTATION RATE
ANDREW D. MIALL
Gcoiogy Dcpnrtmseeat,
Usaiconily o) Topt,,slo,
Toisn,to, Oeatsario, Caenada MSS 3B1
ABSTRACT: Sedimanaallon rafes easy by ciro,, Orders of msgairode and the physical seal, cf
depoatfional 050m oaaion fly foon000 Bedo,, of magettado. Those nania000a soggoatahioaaoororsr
ordemag of depoadionat oeils o Oiaabo sedoeoarta,y deposias.
Aaesrauoe ynoopiog nl anOhitrCtaeat amis has hear tonatosotod. based pomartly or the
ioaernatofrhedepoatooeslene,lo:Groop I depoaaras,erhependscnofeoeerorahiagressofsemada
aoafe,sminsrrs,anohasthobar,t-sad-s,aeepaortaiayofaflntdhOo,dsoyfayer.OteOapddepnattssne
ahoao f0001,0 io s fa, ttnistttea to a feas hotos, asd iaolnde flppiea oSa dIeto deposiatosal ascrOt,tesm
Geottp 3 depoalls ato those foasttog a a feas booS, tos day to anon. tsolsdasg alIteRai tidal boadtes
Grnctp a depoatra Item in days IO, fear mo,aths. and incitado aSCII penoeaaos as ecosp-apaiag t,dsl
oynles,genep 4 depoairs aise eeonmpaaao che allAtiagOf maso StoRte eTesio Genap 5 dopoaals eepreaOel
onernafe.cyeanLsnthasaaasooateneeIa(ap,angennOff.gl5oaato5eRos),sndntOaaaOOatsInlet
arornna.Geoaptiafnnaodimeeraeyp,coraaeanfahla,daedtothottssodaofyescsdctaricnhinottcdtsg
che 000hafinr nf 5mai51 macenlnanrh oRlan dasca Sad tidal aard-an0 fields. Gencp 7 aepaesosta losg-
rormgeomoaptaiopeoeesaoa.onenrhnmaadsloteaaofthOtaSsndaofyaaes.asohaachaRselasddraa
naigaarins. ttnoatp h pemoasas essend Roen ceta an hs,rdnOda of aboBaRas of erses, asO aepaeaotat snob
depomhonal elements as channel beim, oega sed asnd-aidge fi,tda. Ftfth-oedee arratigeaphac aetj0000ns.
many geoensaed by Mitsskoanlch cateas, sse alan of chia aank. Gensp t pemoaann are nf hsndreds nl
thotaaeda se s fo., RilIcon yea,, dn,atins, aaoh as fnnaah.cnedoe aaealigeaphtc ystles (e.g., Rapta
oyocnthoms. shall cnaasanieg.op.rand cycles d,icacs by thetma-loadt,g 0000m. ecc.(, Depoacta asatgead ro
gacnp tore chose Iskieg s io,t smillions to cana of millie,, nf yes,,. caolnding ahind-o,OOa amattgeaphto
cycles
Inaaarnsaeocta aodtmencartoe saes sae of s aaeailsa ondee nf eoagsialado .5111cc, each gennp. Beging
femes il5 m/ka foe 1go smallest acAte nl deposil. to hTt lo IT2 m/tta Ion genspa Osad Il. Dopoatta nf
each geoop c,cay ho defi,ed, in same casos, by eaoloacng hosadiasgasehaces. Haeea,chlas of alten acolacas
hace hoes enecned foe Iltotaf asO enlias depnalm and fOrmase asiles of aaatcanise and shell hodfoema,
lsoostagaaioaa of osch grmnp eoqsire dcffee,nl reolreiqnea Deposim sp lo gennp 7 rd poasabty 8
mayhed000ccseetadan eaceplinaollygnodnnaoenp.Scsdaeaofmodemdopoaitsnfg000llaolobneaybe
caaeaed oca mang higb-maolnlioe ganphyaicat tocicstqsea (inncpa 7 am IO naqstne lanealigatims md
eermrsaaeaotimn mang hasi,-nsappteg ioohsiaoa lraaod mo osnofot coanelaain,. Sabam,faca .cot ScIa
aommto dala may be employed
TIME SCALES AND PHYSICAL SCALES IN SEDIMENTATION
II has become a geolegical thuisec Ocal many ootliaaaentaay noifa accumalalo ab
a aeSnIl nf sfIorI imlorvals of aapid sodimeofalioaa separslrsl by long ielnrvaln of lime
when hIlf o ea no bedimelnf is deposilod (Ages 1981). II in ales anse widely aealïood
Ihal calos of sodiaaaeslalioo meanseed in modem deposilinalal esaviennmoals cre Ore
ancient eneRo] vary ist ympoelion lo the lione scale Roce which ùaoy are meassood.
Sndloe (1981) docamenlrd this in delail. and showed thaI meansreal hedimonlalioa
esITo vary b y cloven ordeon of mafnilsdo, from 10a lo l0 mflaa. Thas wade
....._......_
varialion coIled s the incro.ssiaag nambor and longfb of inlorvals of nondeposanon 0e
orosion facloroth into the moasneomonls as flac f ongfh oI Ihe measueed sloalagraphac
record 'moceases. Breaks in flac mooed 'melody soch OVOISIs as the nomdeposalaon 0e
erasion thaI lakes placo in fr001 of an advancing bodfornn (a fono seconds Io
minules), the nndeposiIion dur lo drying RBI al ebb lido (a few homos), ay IO the
majoo regional nnooufcremily gonoealod by 000goey (millions of yeaeh). The
variation in sodiosonlatiom ralo also eellects the variation in aotlaal calos of
canlinnouh accaanadalior, from the eapid sandflow or grainfall aconmalalion of a
cross Ieod foronol lamina (limo meaaared in seconds), and the dnmping of goaded
beds from a traabidity ooeeont (lime moa,atrod in hones io days), lo Iho dow pelagac
fill af an 000anic abyssal plain (undislarboml foe hnndreds or thonnands of years, or
more). There cl eaef y OxisIs a mido varioly of lime ocales nf sedimenlary pr000sees.
Threo also OnisIs a hioeaeohy of physical ooalos, which the came two esamples
illaslralo - the cross-bed foresol al ono esleemo lo the basin-fill al the ether
exIremo. At least f ourloon ordoes of magnifado are eepresonted, from the few
sqtlaee confimotorn in area of Ihe smallosl scale of ripple formel, Io the loes of
Ihousandn of square kilemelors of a major sodamonlary basm.
This papee is offered as an rnempl al a systematic osploralion of these mido
rangos in scalrs. The ways by which earlb scientists study sodimenfaey p0000snrs
and the rosullanl depcssilioaal peodncls vary acoording lo the scale of inl000sI.
lodI ornas in flames aeo stodied during onporimenfal runs of, al mml, few days
duraliom. Nnnmnrino and marginal-macinc nodimenls and petwosses beve been
mach analyzod in modem onvieoumeuts, usiasg stadaos of sarfaco prooesnes, and by
sampling the sedimenls lhomselvcs mlrenches and shallow cores. The use of old
maps and aerial phologeaphs eslend, thr recoed as far back as abRuf 100 years, and
lac dales may add several thousand years lo the record Slrahigraphio slndios
typically deaf with much langor limo periods, ah ropeesenled by the doposils of
basin fills, which may bevo taken hundreds of thousands In mil ions of years lo
aecnamadalo. lalfoemodiaf e scales, eoprosouled by snob major dopovalioual elemenls
as large channels and bars, della lobos, deaas, coastal barriers and shell sand radges,
which ma y coproseol thousands lo hens of thomands of years of accamalalion, aro
particularly difficrall In documenf in the amdieul ee000d and lo aaafyoo in modem
environments. The limo scales of the relevant sedimentary procossos aro diffacull lo
resolve, und the physical soale of the deposils falls belweer the normal size of largo
oulcrops sad the drilling deusif y or the scalo of geophysical resolunon In Ibo
subsuaf ace. Yol ills this scale of drposil thaf is of parhicolar inleeesl Io economso
goologislo, representing as il does the scale of many slealigraphoc peleoloum
resgrvoies and llaeie internal hnlerogeuoifies.
EAnI.lEe APPROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS OF DEPOSITIONAL HIEnAnCHIE5
Time scales and areal scales have bren tackled by geologasls in a vanely of ways
and for differout reasons. convoefioral slnaligraphic torminology, feom the basf and
longnae to the group aatd sapergeoup, is a tong-established method of formaltasng
physical scales of depotitional nails for mapping puapvsos. Resorvose
hotorogoneities vary according lo the scale oser mhich they are measured, and have
boon slodlietl by peteoloom ongineors and othors as an aid fo msprovnmg reservoir
peefonuanca (1{aldorsan and Lake. 1984; Weber, 1986; Miall, 19884). Ctaslic thnpernai
patloms, as determined by paleoccaaeesl aoalynis, display differml vsriancm according Io
the areal scale repaeseoled by the dala sela, AlITa (1966) und Miall (1974) allempled lo
classify thmso leales md established a hierarchical omi-fold groaping of finsiat-deltaic
paleancarernl palfomn.
Hierarchies of architectural aeits je clastic rocks
A parficalarly n,ofuf and soccessfut proposal was thaI by Beookiiold (1977), who
classified oofiasa doponils irlo a four-fold hioeaechy of arohileclnral nails, each
bounded by ils own distinctive bounding snrfaces. Three hypes of surface were
recognizedm bah fcaethor work by Talbol (1985) and Kocarok (1988) has indicated
the nood for a f onrth hype of surface. Brookfiold's dooeloymenl of the rotalioaaslaip
brl'ceevo the timo durado, of a dopositionul eboal, the physical scafo of thy
doposilioual poodadl, and tho geomefry of thy resutling lithosome, was a major
conceptual slop foawaed, which has boon much espl oiled in sIndico of ancienf rollan
doposif s (e.g., Kocneoh, 1988). T
Othee classifiealioms have boost allempted foe other typos of deposit. For
esamplc, Eylen (1983) defined three classes of "landscape unils" in gfaciatod
lorrains, the land elomoul, the land farol, and tho land syslom, in oedee of increasing
scale. Bridge und Diomer (1983) and Allon (1983) erected simple biorarchical
subdivisions of fluvial deposils, in recognition of the hierarchy of channel, majoe
bar (o.g., poinf bar) and bndfoem. Shure (1984) eroded a five-fold broakdowo of
Al 4
shell doposils, inclading small-scale facies packages, shotf sand ridges, ridge fields,
and shell-wide sandsheols and lithosomes. Multi and Normark (1987) propasad a
similne Iypo of broakdonvu of the scales of dopositional elements in Iraebidito
syslems.
Al the scalo of individual bedforms und sequnnoesof bedf onus, Jackson's (1975)
woek is noteworthy. Building on Russian work, ha defined theoo classes of brdf oros:
microfoems (e.g., ripples), mesoforms (e.g., dnmos, sand waves, produced by
"dynamic ovenln", such as floods) and macroforms (longer form geomoephic
prodnacls, such as paint bars). Allen (1980) developed a theoretical model of sand.
wave sedimonfalioo, which inclnded the definition of a three-fold hierarchy of
dopositional unito and bounding surfaces. refloolinf depositional rhythms imposed
2
by diarual tidal cycles Vissce (1980) demonstrated tho Osislence of longer 10cm
rhyfhms in sand waves general ed by neap-spriug variations io tidal-vircnhalion
o a
pallcens. Dolt and Bourgeois (1982) devoloped an idrahizod sborm cycle coutaiaaieg
hummocky cross-stratification, which contains a thom-fold hierarchy of inlOeual
bounding snrfaoes.
A more comprehensive archileofsaral subdivision of fluvial deposits was proponed
by Miall (l988a,b), the pneposo of which was fo facthtate tho documentation of
comples bar and channel formo onpvsed in large ouforops. A sin-fold classification
of bounding sorf aces was proposed (Fig. 1). Case sludira in which ibis scheme has
boon used have appeared elsewhere (e.g. Mlall, 1988a,c). If was noled thaI other
channolized deposito, snob as thosr in tidal, canyon and sabmarino-fan sollings,
could probably ha subdivided in a very similar way, umd an archilectural subdivision
of some deep-sea fan und channel deponils was illnslraled by Mmli (1989a). Tho
enistonco of a nagnrol classification of channel, bar and othor deposito according to
facies assemblages and nail goomefay has also been suggosled ("archilecbaral
elomenhs" of Miall, 1983) bnl this is an idea thaI, op fo tho presonl timo, has only
Pto. 1.Sosies nf doponiglonal elemenhs lar a fluvial nyslnm, showing u
himrueehy of bnmadirrg surfaces. Circled numbers imdioute ranks of bormdiarg
surfaens. In (C) IWO-letter casina are used f nr arehltentueul-olenrenl types:
CHnbunnnl-fihh, DA. downsteeum-accrnggd macrof nr,,, LA=ialerui
urernlann dnponit (muaenfor.n)(Minll, 1988u, b). lar (D) sand fIaI ja shows, as
bmia.g built np by migruhiaag aunad wuens. FornacI leran'matinns of tlrosn urn
shown on top nf tire diagram, bnl rnsfrllanl internal crOs5-seruhifieatinn bus
been omiftml for clarity.
6
 been applied systomaticatly to fluvial deposits (e.g., too adaptations of riso method groupIng el some types of drpeuil lu the discossiou Aol follows is somewhat
by Songaard, Bromley, Miall, and Lang and Fsetdiug, in this volstmn). A first Table 1. Hierarchies of architectural units lis elastic deposits arbitrary.
attempt to appiy a similiar approach to a classification of shelf deposits is reported lu a recmnt uttempr to syslrmalize our knowledge of large-scale subaqueous
horn by Surtyk and Non-Nygaard (this votume). bedforms, Ashley (1990) snggoulrd thaI the scalo of u bedform may simply be a
Tho current oxptosion of interest in sequence stratigeaphy roprnsents an GroapTime examples Instar. FLuVrAa. rOLlAN COASTAL, sHELF SunMAglylE
nain ot sturem DELTAIC ESTUARINE FAN rnfleolirn of the physical space, vobusse of soslimeul, and elapsed time available for
inerrasing mtorost in largr-scaln stratigraphic architecture, and its dopendenee on of pricosiei red. ruin its formation within a flowing syslnm. Dunes, sand waves, and other 2-D and 3-D
such altocyctic controls as tectonics and sea-level change. This work is roferred to pen. In/hal ModI Rmootdlrld, Allen Dan and Mate und bndfomms, which have gone b ysarious names in the pass, may all br port of a
bninfly horn, but the main foens of this paper is to discuss architectural subdivisions lyni) Kmurek uoargooiu, Normark genetically rnlaled continuum. Whereas this argues against any attempt to impose
smaller thon those that comprise sequences, and that commonly constitute the Shier
an arbitrary hierarchical snow classification on hydredynamie sodimenuary struetsires,
components of sequnnces. the fact remains than the liming of dopesilioual and erosioual events within trains of
A review of thn depositional pracesses in elastic environments, and din ways by t 100 bura.swrrp landau grniugon lunuma immun bedforms is strongly ooulrolled by rhythmic er nplsodic nvnnts un various time
which vannes workers have syslnmatizod thnrn in dopositionat hiorarchies, has Orne genuInO scales (diurnal, seasonal, ele.). Fuckages el eross-bodded strata and thrir enclosing
revealed some common themes, although lt is premature to propaso a unified bounding surfaces urn, therefore, amenable tea hierarchical classificution based on
hierarchy of deposilional elements for uso rn the description und classification ol all 2 10-' bedtonn i8 ripple ripple nippse l3.smi
.toa morusas (nierotorm) lE3 surlueej 'n HCSJ depositional recoereuce interval, as dircussed in this paper.
clastrc rocks. Most wilhiu-basin (aetocyclic) or external (altocyclic) sedimentary lIa-0,40, The rankings that have boon assigned so the types rl bouuding surface thaI
contrats have durerions of rather coustaul und predictable order of magnitude, suulncel enclose the deposits al a givre group are shown in square bruekels for the
permittiag u grouping of sedimentary nuits according fo the length of depositional fluvial/deltaic, eoliau and ceastal/eslniaeinc columns in Table t. The boandimrg
lime that they represent. The sedimentary results vary from environment lo 3 to' dinmnal In' Anisai daily litaI bundle 12.smi snsrfaces have typioal geomelnic shapes, areal extents and lithofacins associations,
tidal cyde cycle lE2 surfawl ti HCSJ
environment because of the various combinations of processes that recur. Thus, a and can be used to defme hierarchies el depositional units nr architectural rlements.
rearE surf. l3rd-ordrr
comparison between subaqueous enimodal flaw (e.g., fluvial systems), subaqueous ha-order snmfawl The raekirgs are tentative, as discussed in the nest section. In the shelf and
oscillatory flaw (nidal envrronmeuls) and subaerial flow (rouan environments) is sumfacof subrnaaiue-fan columns, the numbers in square brackets rnlrr to proposed
not straightforward, bol assigrsiug common groupings facilitates clearer thinking hierarchical classifications of depositionzl units that have not been extended yel lo
about depositional controls. As a simple esample, the recognition of 'super 4 10-' urap-ipniug le' seup-spnsg Hes include specific lypes of bonnding surface.
surfaces m volsan systems enabled Kocurek (1988)10 speculate about the potential .10-1 tidalcrcle (mruolorm) l3ril-order bnndk poi, iormnosw
Iced-order rurlaml itorni tayrs It-smi The esamples of sedimentary processes shown in column Ihene are not inlended
for the mapping el msgratiug ergs, the detailed eorrelzliou cl ergs with marine sarfacrl to remprise a completo list, but to provide a flavor of thr variation in procese with
mats, the application of sequenee.stratigraphy concepts to nournanne systems, und time mule. This list is amplified in the following discussian. The groups pertain both
the drcnmeutatiou of regionat climatic and Inctonie controls ou eolian dnposits. The 5 58' roasoualto ro'-' ,eavliealiau iuielnnen, Hes to thr drpesitioual elemeuls and to thrir boundiug surfaces, where shown. Order-
eventual availability ol a common hierarchy of architectural nuits based on time .toi tOyrflood growth IZud- 3rd-ordrrl hEll, nuise sequence
naluees, storm layer
of-magnitude values for rates of sedimentallou are indicaled in column 4.The basis
scale and physical scalo would facilitate more of this type of correlation of eennts li-snilucel
l3rd-ordor unnual ou which these values have been assigned is discussed in a later scesioc of this
and cross-fertilization of ideas between contrasting euvirouments. This is especially isrlaml trete paper.
importad in an era of comparlmnnlalization of knowledge, where sedimentary Group f deposils are shove loomed in a frw seconds, such as the lnminaliou
geologists studying dillerent aspects of u basin fill might specialize in such diverse s to' ogyrar Io- nncrofur dimo, dru, saud warn Itiries perk- urarrolons developed by the burst-and-sweep process in traction enlrreuts, and the sediment
amas as (Irr nsample) fluid hydraulics, facies analysis, geochemistry, -10' Rood ea. pomi bi, lust-, 2ud-erdnr 5,11, ign (VII 151
lacro, iplay saefueosf nashorn, tau layers aceumlnlaled by eolian grainfall and grainflow.
paleoclimalology, regional tectonics, or geophysical subsidence models, yet have lan-ordre Group 2 deposits nrc dicen formed in periods of a few minutes lo a low hours.
very htlle common fauguage to fataIr enen of ideas and concepts. The iu,taeol Ripple trains are the typical drpesitional unit in many elastic euvironmenls. As
ctassslscauon and grouping discussed in this paper are offer ed ava first step toward shown by Soutkaed and others (1980), the linie taken foe the migration of a
a 'grand unified theory' of architectural classification. 7 18' trug err, tOO.tOi thua, erg rssd-tidgr, lelongaln moor leEr,
waterlain ripple set by one wavelength typically varies from 20 miaules lo two
-18' gromorphir della lobe 110-order, bumnier island, tenu (IVif charmE
prmeiieu 15th-order super lutai ehanurl leere 141
hours, with shorter tiares (20-60 minutes) more common. Wind ripples may form
THE GROUPING 0F Aecurrecn,RAL tJNtTs IN CLASTIC ROCKs and migrate in sisuliar lime periods.
rurlawl rurlucol
ACCORDING TO IIEPO5ITIONAL TIME SCALE Group 3 deposils arr those that loon in periods el a frw hours loa day or two,
8 10' 5th.o,drr sO-1 vuanerl brin erg suad-edre Imeuronut orujo, Diurnal processes are thn moss important in this calegory of timescate, such us tidal
A leutalive classification aud grouping of architectural units into ten classes -los (Milaukoritehl 6th-order 15usd, field- - lentil (111)1 lobe Irumb,
cyclns, daily variations in spring-melt ennoff reflecting tempeeotssre variations, and
spaumug at least twelve orders of magnitude of lime scale is shosvn in Table 1. cycles rurtacol malacrl s-u cydr stagy 3f
changes in wind strength and direction. These processes typically develop distiuctive
Deposils in oc ost elastic environments can be assigned a grouping bused primarily to-1.lf-a sediment brmdtrs or cyclic sequences on a smuf mule.
on the rinse scale represenlrd by the deposit, or by the total time elapsed during the 9 10' ath.erdnr depo. svsirm, erg o'uyndn lu sheer dopa.
-to' (Miluukorirch( nflunial lus, jonper (11)1 system In ObviaI environments group 3 deposits consisl of complete ripple sols and
formation of the deposit und ils bounding surfaces (which may be coessdreabty syvloi maie, della eafacol 121 growth increments (feretrI brnndies) of megaripples (dunes). In nahm
greater). The grouping here is based primarily on the laltrr criterion - the environments wind ripples, depositing climbing translatent strata, leim group 3
recurrence internal of the deposilional process. In some cases, such as sediment 10 18' Sud-01dm tO-1,10- burin-611 bimi-fet nounlal-plam Itiihosome bundles (Hunter and Richmond, 1900). In tidal eneironments sand-wave cross-
grnvisy flows, there is a marked coetrast between the duration of a depesitioual .l0 cycles complen comptes eomplee 191 nompinn
tI
stratification may form bundles, reflecting tidal -velocity asymmetry (Allen, 1900) or
event und its ercurreuco interval. The lance may vary by moro than an order of variations in the supply of sand fed to thr formel ernst by superimposed
magnitude within a basin or brtsveen basins, but quaulifymg such variations may be Hirruretnical subdinisiun 01 other authors irr riera 'u square bnmckeiv wegarippler (Dalrymplr, 1904). Vieinar types of tidal ripples were described by
difficult or impossible using present techniques Becaase rl such variation, the Numea of authors are ut head ol each volume, Dalrymple oeil Materno (1919).

Miall Hierarchies of aechiteclural uoils in clasuic rocks 7


Gronp 4 depossts represent time periods of a few days lo a t ow months. Many of
the deposisionat event s that oecur over snob a time frame were termed "dynamic
events by Jackson (1975). They are events that move disproportroieatety fargo
votamos of detritus in relativef y short time periods. Many marine-storm events fall
into this eategory. Hummoeky cross-stratification (HCS) seqnrnces are thought to
form in a few days to a few weeks during major storms. This tune span also
includes the binar rseap-spriiig tidal cyefo. Prriodicity in tidal bnndtes was observed
by Visser (1980) and in tidal rippfos by Dafeymple and Makino (1989) and eqnated
with thr tonar cycto.
Gronp 5 doposits are those that represent time spans of one yrar ton low tons of
years. Seasonal drposits, such as spring runoff events and glacial varves, are among
the mint important types of deposit in this category. The deposits of occasional
major storms (shelf environment) and flash floods (fluvial environment), mcludmg
those of strengths occurring only every few years (e.g., McKee and others, 1987),
arc afin gronp 5 deposits. Anonat changos in wind strength and direction turd to
oydic deposition of rolian dunes, as has bren recognized in several ancient deposits
(Hunter und Rabin, 1983; Koenrek, this volume).
Growth increments on mucrotorms in subarnat and subaqueous environments
are typical dopositionut products, and may be separated by targe-ecate reoctivanon
surfaces showing tow-angie truncations of undertying bedding (bounding surfaces
ace diucussod taler). Euamptcs ore shown in Figaro 2. Cotemon (1989) showed that
in the Brahmaputra River giant 'sand waves (possibly more accurately etassified as
macroforms) are active primarily during seasonal floods. Jackson's (f976) studios of
the Wubush River showed that meander bends in shut river migrated us much us2
km in 50 years, generating an equivatent width of new point bur, lseya und Ikeda
(1989) demonstrated shut, in the rrdgo-und-swute topugeuphy of a pomt hoe m a
meandering ricer in Japan, the recurrence interval of the ndges is estimated to be
25 yours. Huwever, preservation of peint-bar deposits depends on the direction and
styte of meander migration, which could inotude meander expansion, rrunstaoon and
rotation. Net sedimentation-accomrdation rates are highest daring phases of
meander expansion (Jackson, f976). Studies of the Atchafulaya detto m Lomsiunu
indicato that sedimentation during bigh-disehaege events muy add as muchas 1000
km2 uf new fand to the detto during the nous 50 years (Roberts and others, 1980).
Many storm sequences containing hummocky cross-stratification, although
developing in a few days or weeks, muy also represent the action of violent storms
or storm groups that occur only every few years (Dolt and Bourgeois, 1902).
Separation of such deposita from storm deposits of geoup 4 is arbilenry in this
classification. becaase there is probably a continuum of depositional variabdily
between the sequences that represent individual storms darrog an aunant storm
season, and those that represent the "10-year" or "100-year" event. As noted later,
work on hurricane deposits is beginning to suggest some criteria for discriminating
storm magnitude in carbonate environments, but there are no such data relating to
bunimochy cross-stratification or other terrigenonu elastic deposits.
Group 6, in this classification, repoesonts deposits accumntatmg over time spans
of hundreds to a few thousands of years. particularly violent dynamic events are
thought to occur infrequently in many environments, und are commonty termed for
convenience (if not accuracy) tho "100.year events", These mould mctude violent
hurricanes, catastrophic flash floods, and sediment geavity-flow events os many
environments (in some settings sediment gravity-flows uro infrequent enough ta be
group 7 events). Many of the resulting depositional sequences are very similar tu
those of group 5, sachas those described earlier, and could be distmgmshed only by
such clues us the large volume or thichness of the deposit, or the nate of the
Mioll
SOrs
O
VE erro
I I I
muir bound,rg surtncns
,vternnl rrucr,iutpevsurfners © Turning to the alluvial environment, paleosols require several thousand years to
cress Strur,fieutìer
Fin. 2._Enamplei nf depnnitianal malts that accumulate ir. a few hnaidreit
to a few thnnnand years (graup 6). Internal reactivation sm-fares subdivide
the depusits intn intnrually cnnfnrmuble assemblages. The reactivatinn
surfaces may represent the result uf nrnniun during seasonal nr longer term
dynamic events, amt the buds between them typically accnmnlate in periods
at a few years ton few gnus nf yours (grunp 5). A. Fluvial nr estuaria.e point
bar, Torrivin Member, Gallup Sandstnnn, near Gullup, New Mruien (MinO,
this vnlnmn); B, Field of moderar sand waves (dimes), Bay iii Bonrgueuf,
Frenen (Berné, and athnrn, this vnf nine); C, Tniasuic nattai. deposits, Hnly
Cross Mountains, Pataud (Gradeiuski and nthnrs, 1979). Diagrams are
drawn witbont vertical nuaggeration.
resulting bedf arms. For example, Wanless and others (1988) took advantage of the and van Beek (1970) documented the growth of major subdettas m the Massissippi
passage of u major hurricane across the Caicos Ptuttorm in the British West Indies system using old maps, and showed that deltaic growth could fr11 an
te campare ils effect on carbonato tidal-flat sediments with that of "normal" winter interdistributary hay by progradation from u single crevasse in about 1110 to 150
storms. Hurricanes, which are group 5 or 6 events in this area, depasit centimeter- years. Diversion of major distdbotaeies os this ri ver system is capable of generating
scale-thick beds of potoidal grainstone, whereas winter storms (group 5) generate major subaqueous deposits in the space of less than 100 years. Roberts and others
millimeter-thick laminar, Mach mere work of this typo is needed to provide entena (1980) documented the effects of the diversion of flow from the Miisissippi osto the
for the recognition of event magnitude in the sedimentary record, Atehafulayu River since the early part of this century. A major floodplain lake has
Compt ele mucroforms ore group 6 deposits (Figs. 2, 3). Examples include point been filled with sediment, und a subaerial delta appeared at the month of the river
bars, sand flats and crevasse splays in fluviat systems, and the same elements in in 1972. Completo abandonment of the main course of the Mississippi River in
submarine channets; major segments of coastal barriers and spits, and large favor of the Atchafutuyu would probably already have occurred but foe nvee-
wushover fana in coastal settings; und fields of sand waves m continental shelves. control emplacements constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Evidence
A few quantitative estimates ut sedimentation rates are available, including the tram the Holoceno record shows that construction and obandoumeut of major delta
following (those data are used in a discussion of vertical accumulation ratos in a tabes in the Mississippi system takes about 1,000 years (KoIb and Van Lapik, 1966;
Alten (1982) estimated that esluarine sand-wave fields take Frazier, 1967). Individual major distributary mouths indes system advance about 3
toter soction)
approsimatety 1,200 years to be formed, Data given by Hayes and Rana (1976) km in 100 years, with the formation of levees and month-bar deposits (Gould, 1970;
show that coastal spits ou the east cuasI of Ike United States grow laterally by Fig. 3), lt is not yet known whether separate greseth mcrements coerespendmg tea
average cates of about 200 min 100 years, with local shant-term growth rates of np group 6 (or any other) time scale can be distinguished os these fluvial and coastal
tuN) m/year. Galveston Island, a regressive barrier system, has built seaward at an deposits un the basis of internal bounding surfaces.
avernge rate of about 100 m por 100 years (Bernard and others, 1962). Gagliano Granp 7 deposits include complejo major elementi of depositional systems, suck
Hierarchies of orchitectoral nuits in claxtic rocks
au channels, majar delta tobes and same delta complexer. deaux or enlier ergs,
hurrier ietanda, tidal chaermrts, sand ridger on tha continental shelf, und subma-
ruin-fin channels and compensation cycles. They err funned osee periode of
thousands so tees of thousands of years. Euninples are illustrated in Figarr 4.
MaxI Holoceno depoxitional syitenis fomsed since llar pail-glacial inn-Inset cian,
if comidered in their entirety, arr group 7 depoiitu. Storm-generated sand ridges
"take many thoutands of yrnas to build" (Breaner and others, 1905). The pre-
served deposits of Ihr Golverton Island Barrier aystem represrot about 3,500
yenra of occnostdalion (Bernard and askers, 1962). Sandy Neck Spit, Mnusacha-
tetti. ix 10 lars frog and dates bock to about 3.3 ka (Hayes and Kann. 1976).
Tidal.inlot fills formed by lateral migration erse Snpelo Island, Georgia, mo at
trust 3.4 ka old (Hoyt and Henry, 1967).
develop, and take up to 10,000 years to reach "maturity' (Leedor, 1975; Relaflack,
1984). Mont river valleys aggeaded with fluvial and estuarme deposits immediately
following the post-glacial sea-level riso. Following this, many rivers bave had 6000
ta 81100 yours to build major delta complexes. The modern (post-glacial) Mississippi
detta complex is one example (Kalb and Van Lopik. 1966; Frazier, 1967). The
Rhtine dallais another. Both arc illustrated in FigureS.
Group O sedimentary brs represent time periods at lens Io hundreds of
thousands of yours. Examples include major fluvial channel-bell deposits, such as
the 'third-order" cycles of the Simalih Group in Pakistan (ax demonstrated by
detailed studies of the magnetastratigruphy by Johnson and others, 1905). Therme
cation 'complexes' bounded by supersuefacox described by Kocurek (this volume)
each represent an average of about 700,000 yours. Other examples mclude such
major dapositional clemenls as delta compteses and alluvial fans, shelf sand-ndgr
holds (group Ill "ergionat lentils' of Shun, 1904), and major lobes of submarine
funs (Iltird-oeder 'turbidite stages' of Mutti and Normark, 1907). The disteabrtxan os
time and space of such elements is commonly controlled by regional tectonism ne
by regional sea-level change which itself is commonly caused, m tarn, by tectomsm,
astronemical (Milankovitch) forcing, such ax gtacioeaxtasy, or other eastatic carma.
Many stratigraphie sequences are of group 8, such as the "minor' cyclothems cf
Hechel (1906), the 'pnnctaated aggradationat cycles" of Goodssin and Anderson
(1903), and the Candimos Sandstone cycles of Plut and others (1986). These hace
been termed 'fifth-order cycles" in earlier syntheses (Ved and others, 1977; tstiall,
1984, 1998). The Cardium sequences may rrcoed tectonic thrust-loading events, as
suggested by Swill and Rice (1984), who pointed ont the common occurrence of
repeated coarsening-upward cycles in shelf sandstone bodies el the Cretaceous
Western Interior. Other filth-order cycles (group 8 deposits of tins classification)
may be caused by glaciocustasic sea-level change. For example, Suter and others
(1907) dexcribed 6 sequences that have formed on the Louisiana eontinentul shell
since about 150 ka, with au average duration of 25,000 years.
There is increasing evidence of astronomical forcing in the development of cycles
of this duration - the so-called Milankovitch cycles (Fitehor, 1986). Erosion surfaces
within such cycles, therelore, may not be caused by autocyche mechamsms, such as
channel migration, but may be regional in extent and allseycie in nature. Such are
the ravinement surfaces and other typos of diaxtem described by Nummedal and
Swift (1907).
Group O deposits represent major deposisional systems, accumulating over
hundreds of thoasandx te a few millions ol years. Some stratigraphic sequences,
including many eyclothema (the 'major' cycles of Heckel, 1986), aro of des group.
These have been termed 'fourth-order cycles' in earlier syntheses (Vail und others,
0
 Well Borit
m
IO-
Doboy Sopelo Island
Sorted
VE X 50
Smith Knoll
/tupPlrrdo
o
o 3km

Galveston Island
seo
tetre!
tog
AI
head of pasSes. m
0
seo A.0
level

50 - Gulf of Mexico . . ' \9fr58 :. -

bar sands
50
-_ r---.)ideIfa-front clayey silt
100
prodelta clay Fra. 4Euamples nf geonp7 dnpositsc A, B Sand ridges in the North Sea.
Stratification within the ridges has an actual dip nf abnut 35, and represents
o 20 30 40 50km master bedding surfaccs nr reactivatinn snrfaces (See discussion in
tnnt)(Honbnit, 1968); C. Charsnnl-f ill und spit dnposit formed by lateral
Fis. 3.Sedimnutatiost rates (bnth vertical and Interni) are nntenmniy migeation nf a tidal channel. Dashed lines arc limc linns. Suction is parallel
rapid irs sach majnr deltas as the Mississippi. This is an nn,nmple nf a group 6 to anis nf barrier island farming the coast of Sapelo Island, Gnnrgia (Hoyt
deposit, a bar-finger sand forming the enrn of a delta iobn (Seuthwnst Pass). and Henry, t967), D. The Galveston Island barrier system, Tenas. Dashed
Sack lobes are fnrmrd nod abandoned in the Mississippi systnm in abnut lines are limn lines, with dates dnrinnd from t4C analyses (Bernard and
1,000 years. Time lines show the histnnic devnlnpment nf this channel-till others, 1962). Time lines inC and D may be preserved in the rack recordas
and month-bar dnpnsit, which is abaat 7 km wide. 70m thick and al least 40 distinct stratification surfaces comparabln to the reactivation surfaces of Fig.
km in length (Gnnld, 1970).

1977; Misil, 1984, 1990), in a nmuboriag systom shot uses lower group numbees for
cycles of Increasing duealion (the reverse of that oscd here).
Group Ill deposiss are basin-fill complexes (deposilionol systems trocls), repro-
scetiog limo spans of millions io tens of millions of years. They correspond lo
'third-order cycles" in earlice syntheses. There is ample evidence for such cyclm in
the ssraligraphic recueil, including Cambrian grand cycles (Ailkes, 1966, 1978;
Chow osd James. 1987), Carbenifreons mrgacyclolbems (Heckel, 1986) and
mesoltoems (Ramsb000ns, 1979), and the Csntacoona mosotheass of Ilse Western lu-
leiser (Wnisoer, 1960; Kauffman, 1969, 1984). Regional or global sea-level changos
caused by regional leclunism, or by glotul changea in san-flanc spreading mlos. may
be the main mechanism leading to the development of Ibis typo of cyclicity. Au-
06cv promising idea regarding the origin of third-order cycles is that of plato-mar-
gin tilling as a result of in-plane stress eansoined across plate inleriors from exten-
sional or compeessional plato margins (Cloetiogh, 1988). Miall (1990) provided u
review of this topic.
Second- and lirsl-ordor cycles, in the loeminology of Vail and others (1977) and
Miall (1990), may be designated stealigraphic groups lt and 12, if required (nel
shown in Table 1).
DEFINITION OF SEDIMENT onoups BY BOUNDING SURFACES
Foe same elastic deposits, as noted rachee, allempos have bren modelo recognize
the types of facies composition, vertical succession, geumeley, scale and boanding
sarlaces that characterize the deposits of particular sets of processes. Where this can
be done it permits the deposits to be subdivided empirically into a hiorarehy of
architectural units. Characiceislies of the boostding surfaces UsaI enclose those tsnits
may also inclnde features useful lee dislingaishing the deyositiottal smits themselves,
sods av the relationship of the surlaces lo overlying and underlying strata
(erosional, geadational), their shape (flat, irregular, concave- or conves-np), areal
estent, and she nature of associated facies (e.g., they overlie mud drapes, or are
followed by poorly-sorted lag deposits). However, sets of field criteria are not ycl
available thaI can provide unambiguous inteeprosatioas of the time scalo of the
sedimentary processes for every field case. Many deposits, therefore, cannot readily
be classified into the groups lisled in Table t, bnl could fall inlo any one of Iwo or
three of Ilse groups. For example, diurnal, seasonal and random meteorological
processes may predare sinsileresalts in eoliaa (G. Kocurek, pers. common., 1989)
and fluvial strata, particularly if preservation of she graduels is incomplele. For
these reasons il is aol yet possible (and may never be) to estabbsh an all-
encompossing classification of the archileetucal subdivisions and bounding surfaces
of ail lerrigenons elastic deposits. A discussion of the pregonas lo daly in this
direction is the subject of the remainder of this section.
Lamination and small-scale ripples develop rapidly beneath traction currents ina
wide range of sedimentary enviconrneuls. These are group 1 and 2 deposits,
respectively. The superimposition of trains of ripples may geneeale saetases of
bodform climb, er may b e reprn sentad by virtaaily flat bounding surfaces. These
ace set boundaries, in the Iceminology of McKee and Weir (1953). Those dual occur
in fluvial sediments were classified as liest-order surfaces by Mind (1988a, b). This
type el surface is one where 11181e orne erosion is apparent, and the surface records
the vieutally continuons sedimentation ol trains ef similar bedforms (Fig. 1).
Changes in flow characteristics may lead to changes io Ihn type of bedfoem, with
resulting changes in cross-bed style. Bouediug surfaces separallug different
assembla ges of cross-bed vIradores are roseI boundaries (Mckee and Weie, 1953),
and were classified as second-oeder surfaces by Misil (t9tt8o, b)(Ftg. 2). Dynamic
superimposition of bedlorms, such as the migration of inegaripples ever sand waves
(Jackson, 1975), may also lead te the development of second-order surfaces.

Miall Hierarchies of architeclsrol units in claslic recks 9

 in the tidal environment the individaal small-scale bodforms that make up Clave
V and VI sand waves are geoup 2 structures of the present classdicatiou. The
boundaries between them wore boned E3 surfaces by Allen (1980).
lu sterns cycles containing hammocky cross-stratification, peo types of internal
bounding surface have beca recognized by Dolt and Bourgeois (1982). Imhvsdnal
laminac are separated by what they termed third-order surfaces, and are thought to
represent lamination produced by individual wave oscillations or palsalions of scave
trains. This process represenls periods of seconds or minutes, and so the deposits
are of group 1 or 2 in the present classification.
Diurnal changes in bedf arm migration may develop discrete bundles of cross
steala, or rhythms, commonly separated by minor reactivation surfaces. Tidal
bundles ace particularly distinctive exampirs of group 3 deposits. Boundaries
between tidal bundles are F2 surfaces, in Allen's (1980) eceminology, and are
formed by erosion by the subordinate current in the tidal cycle, according to him.
However, Dahymple (1984) showed that, at feast in some eases, the spacing
brlweru E2 surfaces is several times the nel bedform-migeatiou distance per tidal
cycle. He interpreted F2 surfaces and variation io tidal foersel thickness between
the surfaces as a response to the arrival al lbe crest of the sand wave of the peaks
and troughs of superimposed megaripptes. The equivalent structures in fluvial
environments are simple reactivation surfaces, somo of winch probably reffcel
diurnal changes in stage and therefore separate units ol group 3 rauh. The
variations in tidal-bundle thickness related lo neap-speing changes that were
described by Visser (1900) are aise bounded by E2 surfaces, fu this ease the
sarfaces are useful far drfming sediment packages of group 4 rank.
Pulses within individual storm events may occur over periods of hours, days, or
weeks, giving rise lo bundles of hummochy bedforms separated by second-order
bounding surfaces (Dolt and Bourgeeis classification), and representing group 3
deposits (preseac classificatiou). Storm events characteristically develop sequences
that rest on scoured surfaces, pass upward hilo hummocky cross-slralificalion, and
arr capped by plane lamination and ripples. This is the idealized storm soquonceof
Dolt and Bourgeois (1982). The first-order surfaces (their terminology) that bound
these sequroces reprrsenl the completion of single storm events or storm massas,
and therefore may be used ta define deposits of group 4 or 5 of the present paper.
At present there are no criteria for the distinction between the 510mm sequences that
might accumulate during individual slorms within au annual storm season, and
those that represent rarer, and perhaps more violent events, such as humeanes.
lu the callan environment dune cross-stratification may include inteebedded
grainfiow, grainfall and ripple cross-lamination. These can be separated in the field
by their distinctive facies characteristics, but delermining the temporal significance
of each unit may be euerrmety difficult (G. Kocurek, pers. commun., 1988). In
coastal environments differential beating und cooling of the sea and the laud leads
le diaerat lluceuations in ihr strength und dircetiou of sea breezes, with a resultant
distinctire bundling of eoiiau wind-ripple cross-lamination (Hunter and Richmond,
1988). Such bundles are thoughl io have low preservation peaenliai, but yearly
cycles have been tentatively identified in ancient deposits (Hunier and Rabin,
1983). The collait third-order sm-faces of Brunkfieid (1977) are dune eeactivatieu
surfaces, but these could represent daily, seasonal, or longer term (e.g., 180-year
wind storm) erosional evenis (G. Kocurek, pers. commun., 1988). The deposiliouai
units enclosed by Ihese sartaces may therefore be of group 3,4 or 5 of the present
classification. Seme of the callan stratification surfaces shown in Figure 2C may
include third-order surfaces.
The archiirceure of esenarine and shelf saud wares (Alien, 1980; Dalrymple,
Miall
.a....a..sm...... '.aS.SS. *sø .*.aø*.s*u
'Op
N s
sued CB coastal barrer
MB reactS bar
CH distributary chased
pregredaltonol taeles
I distvbutary-moath end dultu-trunt
eluy, sit, silty sand I
uggrudahonal tacirs
I I
lftoodploin cloy, sii, peat,
le ae u slty clay I
'l'id trussgressicr facirs
I buy silt, clay I
Fra. 5.Two euamplen uf post-glacial delta ro.npinnes ballt during the
lasi 6 tu 8 ka. A. North-sooth cross suellen, fhrongh the Mississippi cumplen.
showing flic thin, ururlopping lobes that develuped on the continental shelf.
Lube 3, the uldest seen hure, is about 4.6 ka old (Frazier, 1967). B. Thu
1984) and sand ridges (Honboft, 1968; Harris, 1988) and lhae of dowustaeam-
acereled macroforms in fluvial und deitaic deposits (Miall, 1988a, b; Yang and Nia,
1989) is superficially similar (compare Figs. 2B and 4A, B, although these drasrings
areal different scales). Ia each case the deposit rests on a flat erosion surface und
contains geelly dipping (<10') aceretion surfaces thaI comusoaly teuneale
underlying bedding at a tow auglo (the reactivation surfaces of Fig. 2). Bedding,
including cross-bedding, commonly dossnlaps auto these accretion surfaces. The
deposits lypically arc lens shaped, with a conves-ap upper surface, lai the bounding-
surface classification of Miall (1988a, b), the internai accretion surfaces m fluvial
macroforms are classified as third-order surfaces. The Cl und C2 sarfaces m the
ebb-tide deltas described by Yang und Nia (1999, p. 187) arc comparable. Hoaboli
Hierarchies cf urchiteclaral nuits in claslic rocks
s ore spar se. Because of this, it is premature lo atiempi lo develop a common
Sc/fat Mexico
8arotaria
Say
Ste Marie Med,yerraoeon
dr la Mer Seo
Rhone delta. The greater thickness of this delta probably reflects its location
on the edge of the continental shelf. 'l'bis delta did not build ils dnposlt by
lateral della switching bot by steady seaward growth of barrier rompluans,
behind which a fluvial and logooual doiiaplaim aggradud (Oomkens, 1970).
(1968) Ironed those thai occur in saud ridges 'master bedding surfaces, und this
term has also been applied io the large medem sand waves seedied by Bemnê und
others (1988; this volume). Berné and others (1988) implied un analogy beiwrea
their mosler beddiag surfaces and the F2 surfaces of Alien (1980). There may bco
confusion in brdform lerminology bere, breanse whai Berné and others (1988)
termed sandwarcs are large siraceures 33 lo 7.5 m high, compared to un average
height of 0.81 m fur those described by Allen (1980) und Daleympie (1984; his
height data).
These eseuaeine aad fluvial macroforms are of a wide range of physical scales
and probably rrprrseul scdiiueutary processes actiag ever a wide range of time
scales, allhough data relating le the nuigration aud aecausalalion raies of sand ridges
architeviaral ciassificatioa scheme far these depesils. Fluvial third-ordrr erosion
surfaces (e.g., the reactivation surfaces of Fig. ZA) are considered tobe related lo
seasenal or longer term (e.g., '10-year') floods. They may eeprrsenl the internal
sedimentary breaks belweeu individual ridges in poinl-bar ridge-and-swale
topography. They therefore rncf ose packagrs of sleala of group 5 rank. As noled
above, the ES surfaces in sand waves rociase packages of group 3 aud 4. Berné and
others (1908) suggesled that the masier bedding surfaces in their bedfoems may
represent longer icrm phceemena, longer than neap-spriug tidal cycles. Possibly
they are related lo seorm scorn on a yearly or longer term scale, in which case the
srdimeni packages between the surfaces are group 5 deposics of the present
classification. Berné und others (lins volume) carded oat seismic aud coring
investigations through fields of giaul sand waves, and iliusioaird a three-laid
hierarchy of bounding surfaces. Their 'second-order surfaces (eqaivaical lo master
bedding surfaces, labelled DZ surfaces in vary; their Figs. 10, 11) probably rqualo
le E2 surfaces and are of group 5 rank. The internai stonelnee and migration
dynamics of saud ridges arc very poorly haaren. Harris (1988) snlggesled that they
conseil uf superimposed assemblages of sand waves, mparaied by maslee bedding
surfaces. If this is the case, the mauler bedding surfaces may represeni major
erosional eveuls, sachas the '180-year eveat' of group 6, for example, the scour of
rare violent sborms.
The bounding surfaces that enclose entire fluvial macroforms, sand wares and
sand ridges typically have conves-np shapes. This refircls aceretienary growlh
irrminaied by a shlfl in the deposilional milieu, such as a channrl-avulsiee rvent.
As ooted abeve, however, similarity of form dors nob uccessaeily indicie similarly
in origins, Fluvial point bars und downstream-aceretcd macroforms ura group 6
deposits. Thry are bounded by berth-order surfaces (Miall, 19884, b), although
commonly, in the ancient record, the caps el these deposits are planed off during
uubsequeni erosional rvents, und the iep surlaee is aol preserved. Fluvial
macreforms are typically capped by the fifth-order surfaces that defino the base of
succeedmg chaunci-fdl uoils. LilIle io known aboul the bounding surfaces that
curiose sand-wave aad saud-ridge deposits in the ancient record.
la many outcrops the mosi promincal bounding surfaces arc those between
group 7 elements, such as the fiflh-urder surfaces that define the base ef llurial
chanutyls (Muall, 1988a, b), the 'rast-order' callan surfaces of Broekfieid (1977),
und the 'firsi-order' surfaces in the sand-wave deposits described by 84mO and
ethers (lins volume). These commonly have piaaar geometry, escepi fer the
varvaiure at channel culbanks (rarely preserved), and may represeel hundreds io
thousands of years of nondepositiun, lar esample belweon evenls of flavial-chaunel
or draa migration. There may be linie lo dlsliaguish them, at the outcrop lercI,
frem the surfaces thol defuse sedimeul bodies of groups 8 through 10 (e.g., rollan
sapersurfaces), and recognition ami classification of such surfaces then depends on
careful mapping und regional siraligraphic interpretation.
Lithosiraicgraphic subthvssious (formatien and member boundaries) and
sequcace beundaries conslituic a still larger seule of bounding surface. These
include the seich-order fluvial surfaces of Miau (19B8a, b) and the rallan
sapersurfaces of Kecurch (1988).
10
 SEDIMENTATION RATE AAl) ITS RELATION TO DEPOSITIONAL RECURRENCE
INTERVAL
lt is a common observation that measured or calculated sodimentation rates vary
in inverso rotation to the length of timo over which the measurement is made
(Sadler, 198f, provided detailed documentation). fu general, the sedimentation rute
of the depositioual suits ix each of the ten groups of this paper differ markedly
from those of the aext groop, commonly by an oeder of magnitude. The reason for
this is that sedimentation is rarely continuons for more thou a few weoks or months,
al most, at any one location, and typically is interrupted by erosion or
uoudeposition, so that net accumulation is almost always subslaatialty less than total
sedimentation. Areas where sedimentation might be expected lo be mont nearly
continuous include the drop oceans, where very slow pelagic settling occurs, and in
the sea off the mouths of perennial livres, especially below the influence of waves.
In this section an attempt is made to evaluate variations in sedimentation rate with
respect to the len sediment groups delinrd in this paper.
Au important cousidcratioo in evaluating srafimuentatiou rates is the concept of
recurrence inlerval. As noted fry Jackson (1975), disproportionate volumes of
sediment are commouly moved by infrequent dyuamic events. The sedimentation
(and accumulation rate) during the eveul may be extremely high, bnl must be
discounted for geological purposes by factoring in the (typically) much lengee
perieds of time when sedimentation is slow, or might even he segative, aso resait
of erosion. Spasmedic sedimentation also occurs in arcas characterized by talerai
accretion or progradation. A drpositional element, such as a detta distributary
mouth, or a fluvial peint bar, builds rapidly in a horizontal direction, giving rise to
temporarily rapid local sedimentation rates, bot then the dispersal system switches
elsewhere foe an estended pesied of time, with resultant abandonment and,
perhaps, erosion of the new deposit.
These points can be illustrated by a discussion of some of the sedimentation rates
thur have bren mcasueed for the vanons types and scales of deposits that develop in
rivers, tidal estuaries and deltas. Estimates el order-ol-maguitade instantaneous
sedimentation rates averaged over the rime span of each of the tee groups are given
in Table t. Examples of the type of caleulafiou that can be mude for seme of the
groups ave given taler.
Among the smallest sedimentary structures are small.seale ripples (group 2 of
this paper). These typically migrate a distance equivateul te their ossu wavelength
in 20 1060 minutes (Southurd and others, 1980). A 5-em-high ripple that forms in
30 minutes is equivalent to an instantaneous sedimentation rate of 076,000 m/ku.
Clearly, this number is meaningless, but il will serve te emphasize the extremes of
sedimentation rafe, to compare with more geologically typical cales discussed later.
Tidal sand waves (group 3) have similarly very high instantaneous rates. frs the Bay
of Fundy Duh-ymple (1904) demonstrated that in one tidal cycle saud waves
msgrale u distance about equivateul to their average height, which is 0.8 m. Bay of
Fnndy tides are semi-diurnal, and se this migration is equivalent tea sedimentation
rate of 504,000 m/ka.
The deposits formed by seasonal or more irregular runoff events in rivers (group
5) have extremely variable instantaneous sealimentalion rates. The flood deposit in
Bijou Creek, Colorado, described by McKee and others (1987) wax formed by the
most violent flood in 30 years. ft formed 1 104m of sediment in about 12 hours, au
mstantanvoux sedimentation rato of 738,gOO-2,92Ù,OttO m/ha. Assuming no erosion,
and a repeat of such floods every 30 years this translates into a rafe of 33-133 m/lsa
averaged over a few hundred years. In fact, scour depths during the flood ranged
Miull
from 1.5 to3m, and tree net preservation of any one flood deposit ovor periods of
hundreds or thonsauds of years muy br negligible. Long-term rules measured ovor
hundreds to thousands of years are likely lo br an order of magrsilude less, in the
rouge of lO-t m/ha.
The pomI bars (group 6) in the Wabash Baver are on average about 5 m thick.
The active arca of each bar is about 200 um wide, lt the bars migrate at a maximum
rate of 2 km in 50 years (Jackson, 1976) they would taIse 5 years to migrate one
passt-bar width, whreh is rqmvatent loan instantaneous sedimentation rute of 1,000
m/ho. Comparable rules may br calculated from the migration of distributary
mouth bars. A typical fslissistippi distributary migrates 3 km in 100 years (Gould,
1970; Fsg. 3). The mouth-bce deposits, from the mouth of the channel to the toe of
the distal bue, are about 4 km wide (in a dip direction) and about 45 m thick. This
lateral migeuuon is rquivulenr luau instantaneous sedimentation rute of 340 m/ku.
Data from modem Dutch tidal deposits summarized by Yang and Nm (1989)
showed that ebb-tide deltas (group 6 deposits) accumuluse al rates of 100 fu 450
m/ka for periods of about 20 years, before abandoument occurs.
If we assume that a distributary will only build out ucross u given arca nf the
delta front once during the migration of one major delta tube, we can calculase the
sedimentation rate of the mouth bar averaged over the life of the lobe (group 7). In
the peut-glaviot Msusissippi dotta, major lobes are formed and abandoned in about
1000 years (KoIb and Van Lopik, 1966; Frazier, 1967; Fsg. SA), giving un average
xedlmentatson rate for that period of 45 m/ha. The recurrence interval of detta
lobes themselves depends ou subsidence rates, sediment suppty und the
eoufsguration of the cantinental shelf. lu the case of the Mississippi comptes the
fleer is attemptIng to switch discharge (und delta conslrnelion) te the Atchafulayu
tf.sver, where one of the racheta fakes developed about 6 to 8 ha. Ou this scale
depoution ata 45-m-thiek mouth-bar deposit represeuts a sedimentation rate of 5.6
to 7.5 m/ha, although this calculation dons nor take into accoont the bay-fill and
other forres mterbedded with the mouth bar deposit. This compares with typical
values fan Holocene sedimentation rates of 6 te 12 m/ha that are commonly quoted
for the Mixsissrppi delta comptes (e.g., Weimer, 1970). Other deltas do uot
accumulate so rapsdiy. For example the Rhóne delta has a thichnesu of only 50 rn
accumulated since about 8.2 ka, indicating an average sedimentation rate of 0.6
mila (Oomheus, 1970).
A few sedanentation rates can be calculated for tidal-inlet and barrier deposits.
The Galveston Island barrier is 12 oc thick und 3.5 ha old at its hase (Bernard and
others, 1962; Fig. 40), indicating an average sedimentation rule of 3.4 m/ka. A tidal
mIeras Fire Isluad, New York has migrated 0km in itS years (Kumar and Sanders,
1974). The depoxslionul slope from spit crest to channel floor Is about 500 m wide,
suggestIng that at any one point the rutiw tidal -lujes fill could form by lateral
aceretuon in about 7 years. The sequence is 12 m thick, indicating an instaataarras
scuhmenlutson rate of 1.714 m/ka. This migration rate is onusually rapid. Tidal
inlets at Sapelo Island, Georgia appear lo have migrated only about 2.5 km since
the post-glacial sea-tevel rise (Hoyt and Henry, 1967; Fsg. 4C), indicating a
sedimentation rufe of 4.5 m/ku.
lt is instrueSve to compare these rates with those obtalued by Oomkens (1970)
and McKee and others (1983) axa result of their stadies of modern sedimentation
rules on the conlmental shell off liver months. A short-term rute of 4.4 cm/month
(528 mila) was determined close lo the mouth of the Yungtzo River, China, by
McKce and others (1983), who studied the decay of short-lived radionucleides in
the uppermost 15 cm of recent deposits, repeosentlug about 100 days of
aecumulallon. The uppermont 200 cm of section, representing about 100 years of
Hieroockies of architectural exits in clllstic rocks
accumulation, yielded a rule an euler of magnitude tower, 5.4 cm/year (54 m/hu).
Oomhrns (1970) quoted sedImentatIon rules of 35 rm/year (350 mila) foe the
delta front uf the modem Rhone River. The monthly rute at the Yaagtae mouth
and thus determsned for the RhOne compare with the migration rutes calrnluted for
Hotocenv point bars and distributary-mouth bars, whereas the yearly rate at the
Yarsgton Mouth is siwilar to thus of a delta lobe of the Misxisxippi. Rates of
sedimentation on modem alluvial fans and fluvial floodplains have brou measured
using tac dates on plant material, und lephrochronology. Available data were
summarized by Miall (1978) and shown to encompass a wide range, from 0.001050
m/ka. However, those measurements have aol been correlated to specific scales 0f
architectural msits, ssoh ax the deposillonal groups defined here.
Groups 8 mcd 9 of Otis paper include the Onalemary shelf-margin sequences of
luter und others (1987) and the minor uud mujer eyelothems of Heekel (1986). The
sequences described from the Gulf Coast by Saler und othors (1987) averaged
25,000 ycars in duration and range in thickness from about 25 10 160 um, indicating
average accumulation rules of 1-6.4 m/ha. Heekel (1986) documented the
chronology of 55 cycles of WestpholianStrphauian age in the U. S. Midcontinent.
Estimates of the length of thIs time span rango from 8 to 12 my. The thickrsrsc of
the secession vueles from 260m in Iowa to 550 um in Kansas. These vaines indicale
au average accumulation rate of bvtwren 0.02 and 0.07 mila. Many of the cyles
ceRtain substantial fluvial-deltaic sandstone mils and, accurding to Ramubotlem
(1979), who seudied similar eyclothems in Europe, rates of lateral deltaic growth
must have brou aboul as rapid ax thaI of the modem Mississippi; yet thc average
sedimentation rate is two orders of magnitude less thou that of the Hotoceuv
Mususxspi delta complex and ils Pleistocene shelf-margin precarsOrs on the
Lomslaaa Gulf Coast. Part of the explanation for this marked coxlraul is that the
thoodcroas cyclothems that were the subject of Hccket's suidy are located in a
cralomc region, where subsidence rules would br especled tobe substantially lower
than on the continental margin of the Gulf Coast. In addition, many of the cycles
aro separaled by erosion surfaces.
The long-term sedimoutation rates of groupe 8 lo 10 depend largely on rates of
generation of sodimeatury-accommedation space. This depends both on basin
subsidence, which is controlled by tectonic selling, and by changes in base level,
such ax onslaxy. MiaR (1978) showed thai nonmarine basins, in redoux teclonlc
settings, have sedimentation rates averaged over millions of years of 0.03 10 1.5
mila. Guis sobjecl is reviewed ut grealee length by Miull (199g), und will nul be
addressed here.
MAPPING TECHNIQUES
Rvseareh ut each tevel of the hierarchy requires different techniques.
Depesitional units in the roch record al up lo group 7 and, 'w exceptional cases,
group 8, muy br studied using outcrop data, especially if the lateral-peofiliug
technique described by Miall (i988a, b) is employed. Mapping and classification of
bounding surfaces between depositional elements are a key to such analyses.
Detailed subsurface studies may be successful, if supported by detailed core
analyses.
lu the ease of modem environments, side-scan sonar leclmquex couplod with
ingh-roxoIuIion xhaliowseixmlc profiling arr providing many critical new data
regardnrg depositional puttoms, especially in the study of exfssarinr and shelf
bodformx and larger features of groups 6 In 8 (e.g., BvrnO and others, 1988; this
votume; Harris, 1980).
Units as small as group 6 may be detailed ou ruceptionally high-quality
petroleum exploration seismic data, especially on three-dimensional seismic surveys
(e.g., Brown, 1986). Larger features, including stratigraphie sequences of groups 8
10 10 (the third- to fifth-order stratigrapinc cycles of Vail and others, 1977; trliall,
1984, 19%), are nom analyoed routinely on seismic records. Surface and subsurface
lsthonteutagraphsc eorrolauou, with the aid of mugnetontratigraphy, marker beds and
refined biostratigraphie indicatans, is ulso employed (Miall, 1984, 1990).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Earlier vernons of this paper were read by Bob Dateymplr, Gary Kocureh and
Dug Nummedal, who provided many useful comments.
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12
 FACIES HETEROGENEITY, PAY CONTINUITY, AND
INFILL POTENTIAL IN BARRIER-ISLAND, FLUVIAL,
AND SUBMARINE-FAN RESERVOIRS: EXAMPLES
FROM THE TEXAS GULF COAST
AND MIDLAND BASIN'
WILLIAM k AMBROSE
Noa TYLER
Bureau of Economic Geology
The University of Texas at Austin
Auotin, Tesas 70713
MAT5REW J. PARSLEY'
¡CF Resources Incorporated
9300 Lee Highnay
Foirfon, Virginia 22031
ABSBROEto An Enormous mobilE-oil rm00000 (35 BbbI inTs,,, sod 80-100 Bbbl in Es UnitRd
SrLtss)issRLppsdioanolficioasitydrsinsd,mstunrrsassnOiss. Muchofthiaoitcanbsasconsssd
torn cost through cononntionsl in(isld Rnploration sod donslopmsnt SOstsgiss that tssgRt
uotsppRd Eompn,ototnotn io E sas rosornsoa. Thoro-dimoosionul facisa archarcntns snorts Its
primarycontrolonrrthsdianibotton andcontinoityotrnsosooircompsomnntn. Roasrnoirs
with comptER intonmsl snchitscturn Contsimt largs volamos of nomsiniog mobilE oil. LOSE with
L simplor intRmst SSEhitREtORR so rfticinntty dramnnd.
Tttrso TRuSS rRsRrVOins. oRprsnonting difforRncos in stEnosi aocttmtocturo.
nariutmool ial sssssvoin-psy continuity: baonioo-islsod (41-A nsaor000 in Wost Rasch hold in
LouE-contraI Trnas), flunisi (Jim WohL sod Brnoks LELORROiRI is La Gloria Sold in South
Tnnan),sodLobmnrirsofss(roanrnoinaiaIhsSprabnr.yTRnndin thnMidlnndBsain). Msthods
RfRntinmating psy continuity baRnd on faciRs gRomsny sod Onniations in ponnmaability lmstosasn
cao bR usEd to dosoribs nsaonnoin hstorogsosity sod iodiosts srssa for infiEld snploration
io such of thEse RORRROtR.
Althoughmoatbarniss-islsndroarsnoirassrconnidorsdsoborslatinslyhomognnoonm, Er
41-A busninr-islsnd rnsRrnOia in WRLt 0-och finId contains widE, dip-oaiEotod hRlts of Isoticmslar
tidsl-iolot IsciRa ELm diampt roLornoio continuity ils Es msio baoniss-mmR facioL. Addinionnlly,
Er tidsh-inlot fncira sss intonnslly loss continuous than En hsnnior-corn faciEs. Othorrnsornoo
EornpsnOnrntn ERl Rohibit loss continuity in Es 41-A roanrvoir mcm in tlood-tidai-dslta
LsndstonsL partly sncaaod in lsgoonsl nndstoons updip of Es barsior coLs. Infili mnrlia dnillnd
into Es lowor-000tinuity fLeiss in Er 41-A rsaornoir at woll spscisgs Irs, Ihan Er conosolional
20-ncronpscing cao contact additional od, sssultiog in nubstsotinl rsssrnr additions.
Flunini rnaornoirs hnos a highor logros of iotsntal complonity Eso do bsonior-ialsod
rsLE000iss. and thoy snhrbit aignmficaot hRtROgsnRity in Es fomn of oumsoous Laodatono
LningEos bouudod osrtioalfy sod latErally by Ein mudntonr layors. S0005aaful infili Wshls in
La GlotiS fiEld 000mLct pastly dsaiosd nsRssoois compar5050tn in aplsy deposits thai pinch not
lamnsally into tloodplsin modstonra. Rocomplstiona in hypasand sningsra in Ls Gloria hold
cootacsohsnstnl-Sltsaodntorocompormmtnthntrosiaolstnd nooticallybyfloodplaiomudotonos.
Publinhod by porminsion of Iho Disector, BurEau of Economic Gooingy, Tho
Unicorsily of Tonas ai Austin.
PronoRl addeoss: Maosthoo Oil Company, 125 WoRt Minsosri SL, Midland, Tenso
79701.
Ambrose, Tyler, and Parsley
Mud-nchsobsnrrins-fsndspoaitssrsnnnnmslyhntraogrnsoor sodmsyhsnothr greatEst
potontral for infili thun1 mo sup isolstnd compartments mclasttceosnrnnira. TAo Sprahorry loo
TrsndioWraLTsnasnonnainathinaincontinoousrrrrenoiesandstonsa dopositsdinacomplsn
mallas ctonnnrl- Lad lsvss-syatrns. Although facies relationships ìn Sprsberry ressrrcoims ano
to Loso in flunial ssanrnojoa irs La Gloris held, indinidual psy minar, me thinner sod
moos complrmnly sncad ir lomn.pormeability snndntono facies. Driue
85- StEsEg
L Medrmntr
Cooviderabis nolumos of unproduond oil still romain in maturo fieldn atEo ond of
pensury psoduction. Of Er mushy 505 billion barrots (Bhbl) of oil that hann been
Wrnk
dtneocoront in ibe Untied SLatES, only 33% will be producEd from primary and
vocondury socovoey sning eviniing teohnology. l,oss iban an additional 5% of Lbs
ostginal oil in pince will ho psoduced with oniutirg issoary re000sey projroin. 8 60-
Appeovimatsly 319 Bbbl of oil in enisuing fields nationwidE will semain unprodacod
Ofen all Ihosr se00055y Lochniques ase npplied ai Ourroni technological and
development levels (Fisher, 1987: Tylos, 1981). E
The sowwnisg otl resoarco consisto of Iwo compononlo. renidual and mobile oil.
Rssmdual oil, hold in poso spaces by physical or chemical forces noch os capillasy
action or van des Waaln bonds, reqairnt Es inteoduclion of miscible, thermal or
O 40-
chemical procosnea within the rensevoir to iwplrmont rocovery. Ossly 19 Bhhl of
rsstdsal nil are projected lo ho recovered nationwide from esiablinhed EOR (enhanced
oti recovery) projeciu, such an carbon dionide (CO) injecLioti lsrojmts in Leveihand,
Slaughter, and Wmson fields in WouL Tonus (l'yler, 1988). Now EOR psograms at
1990 prices nf -$2odebl nro largely resleictnd Lo CO5flooding in mgiossv nuch av WeuL 20-
Tesan that hace prooimiiy to saLtonl CO0 sesourcen.
Mobile oil can be prodsced levu enpenviesly iban rrnidual nil Lheough infield
enploration and dsvelopmoni with applied connestiianal lochnology. Approviwnioly
80 to 100 Bbhl nf mobile oil, is encens of proved reserves, remain in domestio oil
renfromes (Fssher, 1987; Tyler, 1988). Howseeo, traditional infili strategien, based on
Ihe ossawplion thai all resorvoirs aro homogoneous and inmoto perfectly continuons,
have stmply maintained oidor grid patierns of weil spacing. These infili soaisgien Deposmtisnnl nyntrm
have missed nnmsrouu untapped or inoffeciivoly nwspl revnrvoir oompasststentv and
h aus sennllod in many nosprodoclive 0e only modoralely productive wells Eat
increave ihn average cosi pee infili well.
A wore efficient moans of rmoveriog mobiioo oil is through a geologically based
infitl-dsvelopmsni strategy Eat selectively targets poorly drained or u000niacted
reusenoir compaetmontn. This development uleutogy is boned on the recognition thai
the LhreO-dimensiOnnl facios fRamEwork in reservoirs events s strong control Over pay
conliosity, reservoir drainage, asd recovery efficiency (evpectrd ultimale recovery
divided by lbs eeigisnl oil in placo), inleorsssrvoir eitirnpment of mobile oil is largsly
tsfluenced by complos mseevoir aechitocturo, which dinidsu the mnervoir into
nnmesOuv compartmenLs thai oes pordy or even iotally sndrained by enisiing weht.
Thons compnetmsnis aseminsly defined by large-scale, doponitimtal-faciss geometry,
allhoagh diagenotic nnd siruciural foalures alun ore important. For esumple, point-bar
compnrtmonts in modoralely complev Iuvial sytteths ars boanded verlically and FLu, l,Unreonvrrrd mnhiie nil rriated In drpnniisionai neigin and drive
laterally by mud drapes depnniioed on luteraI accretioo surfaces during channel mechanism. Large voiumrs nf mobile oil remain in somplrx nnbmarine-fan
migration. Additional compartmoniahiaaltos is provided by nbnndosrd-chansel clay rsSeevnies, whereas mnsi Rf the mobilr oil in homograsoss harrirr-iutaad and
plugs ihat subdivide ihereservois. mavr-dominaied dniiaio rsneennien in ranily rrennreed. From Tyler (1988).
Rsvenvoins with complos internal architecture contain large votamos of remaining
wobitsoil; Eove wiih animplerintorsal sloactareconlais small volumes. Tyler(t988)
demootteated a rslaiionship bsiwsen original deponitionnl envi000meol, drive
wechaniom, and recovery efficiency (Fig. I). Thin retationnbip it based on analysis
Hrlerogeneiuy, coelinoity, and infilI potential in Tenas reservoirs 13
of 450 major Tesas oil rosorvoirs that hove each produced >10 MMbbl an of 1981
(Galloway and others, 1983). Those reservoirs account for almost 75% of Tosas
production and provido oxamples ofoilproduction from a wido caeirtyofdepositional
Homogoneous bonier-island and wave-damisated doltaic reservoirs in rho Tosan
Gulf Coast typically have strong water drives and eshibit high mobile-oil recovery
(Fig. I). Reservoirs of increasing complexity hace weaker deive mechanisms and
contain a turf e percentage of unrecovered mobile oil. For esamplo, fluvial and
tinvial-dominated delsaic roseevoirs, which have moderase drive energies, typically
contain >40% of unrecovered mobile oil; mud-rich sabmaeine-fun reservoirs in Tosas
have weak saladen-gas drives and contain >80% anrecovered mobile oil.
Luogo volumen of mobiln oilcan be added to the reserve bane by selective infilI
drilling that tops undeaised reseeceir compartments, yaeticulacly in helerogencoas
deep-sea fon and platform-margin carbonate deposilional systems. More than two-
thirds of the 35-Bbbl mobile-oil veneno bannis Tesan iv locotrd in thick, samples
carbonate eeservoiru and submarine-fan eeseeceies in the Fennion Basin (Tyler,
1988). The set potentiel foe retorve growth through infili drilling is demonstrated by
the fact that of theO Bbbl of reserven added in Tesan from 1973 to 1983, 73% came
from infili and ostension deillirg in old fields, rather dran through new field discovery
III
(Fisher, 1987). Addtlions to domestic revenos from conventional field development
nationwide hose averaged -'2 Bbbl annually since 1979.
Iv
The inflaesce of facies heterogeneity on reservoir architecture and hydrocarbon
recovery has been demonstrated in several key papees. LoBlanc (1977) provided
numerous esnmples of how the distribution, continuity, sed intemal characteristics of
sandstone rrvervOtis are primarily controlled by original environments of deposition.
Weber (1982) compared coastol-barrier, delta-fringe, delta.plaln, distributary-
channel, and point-bar depositional environments in terms of the continuity of their
shale intercalations and concluded that barrier-island systems arr very continuout,
whereas fluvial systems arr discontinuous. Important case hintories of hydrocarbon
recovery in elastic reservoirs controlled by facies heterogeneity were presented by
Borg (1968) for Lower Cretaceous fluvial reservoirs in the Powder River Basis, by
Weber and others (1978) foe lower Tertiary batnier-inlund reservoirs is Nigeria, by
Dannose and Fayoter 0979) for Miocene deltaic reservoirs in offshore Louisiana, and
by Tyler and Gholvlon (1988) for Peemian deep-sea fun reservoirs in the Syraberry
Trend io the Midland Basin. Similar caso historien for carbonate reservoirs, mainly
platforw-geainst050types in WestTevan, were presided by Barberondothees (1983),
Barbe and Sebnoobelen (1987). Rebout and others (1987), and Rappel and Candor
(1988).
Different methods of quantifying the continuity nf hydrocarbon-bearing 000es
(pay continuity) in reservoirs have been presented mainly foe carbonate reservoirs.
Stiles (1976) described a method of pay contiouity for heterogeneous, stratified
platform-carbonate reservoirs in Fullerton (Clear Fork) field in the Midland Basin in
West Tenas. Pay continuity wan defined by Stiles av the percentage of pry in a well
thai is conli000us to another well (Fig. 2). A value of pay continuity was calculated
for each of several well pairs in the firld, andacurve of pay continuity versus distance
between well pairs was drawn lhrongh a sculler of data points. Stiles (1976)
concluded Ihat 22 MMbbl of oil, in addition lo the 148 MMbbl already produced to
1971, could be recovered through infili drilling and improved wutorflood techniques
in Fullerton (Clear Fork) field. This entimatr 0f 22 Mthlbbl of recoverable mobile oil
was made by calculating the amount of pay in the reservoir and thon applying the pay-
Ambrose, Tyler, and Parsley
D E
A
.
B C
s s s Fork) reservoir, pay occurs in numerous thin, laterally diacentinuoun eones. Barbo
3 dinconlinnous layers, many homogeneous cluslic reservoirs (barrier-island, wave-
EXPLANATION
Fey roves I, , ID, nod ID
Not pey (PhiH)
betweev odjetevt wells
S Well
Well speerg 400cres (1,32091 0612412
Feu. 2.Modified illustration of the Stiles (1976) method nf calculating pay
nontinuity in compten rrnrrvni'rs that eontat'n namernus vertically isolated
stringers. Pay continuity, indicated by the shaded poltern, is defined by this
method at the turn nf eontiranas pay, divided by the sum of all pay (enntinuous
and discortinunox) between meli pairs. Pay valuen are hypothetical bui
representative of those in piaiform.carhouate grainstone ersernoirs in the
Premian Basin, For example, pay couiinotty hrtweefl wells A and B, separated
by 402 rn ix 85%, defined ax the sum of pay in nones I, Ill, and IV (7>8>8 =
17 PhiH) divided by the sam of pay in all aunes (I, II, III, and LV, which is
703>5>5 = 20 FhiH). Pay esutiuuity declines with increasing distance betwrrn
well pairs; Por example, the pay enntivaity between wells A and C, separated by
804 m, is 74%, calculated un the Sam uf pay in annrn I and III (7+15x5+5
32 PhiH), disided by the sam of pay its all rones (1, tI, ttl, and IV, which in
7.15>3.5>8>5>3 = 43 PhiH). Pay eonlinaity between wells A and E in erro
because there arr na nentinuous pay asneo between these wells,
Helerogeneily, cenlinaily, and infili polenlial in Treos reservoirs
continuity curve io estimule the percentage of pay contacted at the canent well
spacing compared wilh the peeconlage that would br contacted at a denser welt
spacing.
Barbe and Sehnorheten (1987) analyzed pay cousinuity in the Robertson North
(Clear Fork) reneevoir, alvo located in the Midland Butin. As io the Fullerton (Clear
and Seheoebelen used a pay-continuity technique similar to that of ShIes (1976), but
uno hourdis parten prensure continuity between iojecter and producer well pairs. A
history match of production dala indicated thaI the pay-cootinaity values were a
reasonable indication of the facies heteregeneily and that they could be used in
estimating percentages of uncontacted mobile oil is the reservoir. Their study
concluded that even at 1g-acre well spacing (200m), 151028% of dr erosonoir wvald
be undrained ut the end of primuey production.
In ceutoast lo carbonate retrevoies, three have been few q000titulise pay-continuity
stadies of cluntic reservoirs. Although a pay-continuity method bused en ceets-
sectional gevmetry, such as thai described by Slurs (1976), cus be successfully
applied to heterogeneous elastic reservoirs, where multiple pu y rouet cocue as thin,
dominated deltaic) tend to contain ouly one main pay zone. Application of the Stiles
(1976) method nf puy continuity lo homogeneous types of clastic reservoirs may
result in valuen vg greater puy conlinuity with increasing distance between well pirro,
which is not is accordance with geologically based espectationu. In reservoirs in
which dro puy cocues io only one laterally continuo us roue, the effect of the Stiles
(1976) method (Fig. 2) tu to increase the numerator (continuent pay only) and the
denominator (continuous and discunti000un pay) by the auree amount, thereby
increasing the pay-continuity ratio as distance between the well pairs irerrases.
Thin paper demonstrates that reservoir archileclure and continuity io several types
of reservoirs can be qasntified by gevtogically bused methods of pay cenlisaity. Wo
istredace a new method of estimating pay c006euiiy, based on differences in
retrrvuir quality, esprensed as kh eolios (permeability multiplied by puy-zone
thieknesn( between wells. Tals pay-continuity method, culled the kh-eutio method,
was specifically designed for mlalivety homogeneous buerier-islasd reservoirs in
which the puy zone occurs in one main, laterally coulinuoun baud.
Faycentinuity in the4l-AeeservoimnWestRanchfield, located in theprolific Frio
Baerier-Straudplaiu Gil Flay in the Central Tenus GulfCoast, was characterized by the
kh-ratio method. Details of the kb-ratio pay-continuity method anditi application io
the 41-A reservoir are furnished isa luter section on barrier-island reservoirs. Pay-
cootinaily curves were constructed foe each major facies in the4l-A reservoir. These
carves were used io the entimatien of Ihn percentage of mobile oil contacted by wells
in each facies in the reservoir, with the remainder representing uneecovered mobile
oil in each facies. The volume of unrecovered mobile oil as current well spacing n,
estimated from the kh-ratio method, compared closely with Ihr volume estimaird
from an engineering-based method utilizing production data from dr e reservoir
(Godec and others, 1989b). A geologically based infili strategy forthedi-Aresersoir
was based on comparison of separate pay-continuity carves for each facies anden the
mapping of areas of low pay continuity belween adjacent weIb on closely spaced
Pay continoily waa estimated io two elbee lypes of mservoiea: i) coarse-gained
meander bell reservoirs in La Gloria field in Soulh Texas, and 2) mad-rich submarine-
fan reservoirs in the Spraberry Flay in Wosi Tonna. The kh-ratio method of pay
..........Sa
coslinauty was nui applied io eesrrvairs in La Gloria field because whole-core
permeability data are scarce. inslead, Ihr Stiles (1976) method was employed Io
estimate the cootiauiiy of th cerneen oir furies in the field. Alhhough the Stiles (1976)
method was originally developed for eesirictrd-plalform, carbonate frainslone
reservoirs, in which pay zanca occur al numerous thin stringers, ihn application
uppearn equally appmpriate fee fluvial reservoirs in La Gloria eield, where the facies
architecture is equally cemples and is characterized by muliiple, discontinuous
stringer sandstones.
The kb-ratio method wan also asedio esiimate pay continuity io two representative
deep-sea fan reservoirs in the Spraberry Flay. Thin melhod yielded meaningful results
fer individual retors air stringers, where the laierai reservoir heterogeneity is great.
However, Ihe kb-ratio method wax less useful in quantifying the noi vertical
helerogeneily of multiple reservoir stringers over hundreds offert of seclies io Ihn
Spraberry because pay-continuity data were combined from differenl genetic
sandbodies in several reservoirs.
Finally, perceotagos of uncentacted mobile ail were compared for the three elastic
rrnervoirtypns (barrier-island, fluvial, and deep-sea fan). Percentages of uncontacted
mobile nil were also compared with those of one of the most common carbosate
reservoir types (platform-carbonate gralostose) in the Permise Basin of West Tesas.
Rzorreesr Arctiitecbure and Rrrovery Efficiency
Barrier-island reservoirs are relatively limpie and peodoce hydrocarhons mainly
from well-sorted, laterally continuous barrier-core and shoreface sandslonen, as well
as from tidal.inlel depouils, which cas he volumetrically significasl in tome
reservoirs. Ranier-island reservoirs typically eshibit high-recovery efficiencies; ihe
average recovery efficiercy for the major barrice-strandpbain oil plays in Tesas,
weighted by original oil in place, il >50% (Tyler and ethers, 1984). These reservoirs
commonly contain oniy au oddilional 15 lo 25% of remaining mobile oil after
conventional primary und secondary recovery (Fig. I).
Barrier-core and related shoreface facies are the main framework facies in homier-
ialand reservoirs. They typically c000isl of laterally continuous and homogeneous
strike-parallel wedges; is costeast, lidal-inlet faciet form cresu-cutting pods that
disrupi the continuily of the burri er core. Tidal-delta facies ace genetically related so
tidal channels and c005ial of lobato sandhodies pinching nui into muddy backbaerier
lagoon deposits. The hackbazrier is net considered as part of the saudy barrier
framework because of ito high-mud content.
Although barrier-island roserveirs exhibit high.recosery efficiencies and tilde
helerogeseity iu the hunier-coco and shoreface facies, limited struligraphic
enlrupmoni cocues in ether facies cemparonentn. Fer example, uncontacted mobile
ed commonly occurs within lenticular tidal-mId deposito, or along the boundary
between barrier-care and tidal.islel facies. where therein cextrasl in reservoir qualily
andpermeability. Gthrr stratigraphie trapa are foundinfloed-tidal-deltoandwanhoree-
fan sendatosca pinching out buodward into lagoonal mudslenet.
Weos Ranch (41-A) Rererrzir, Frio Bui'i'ier-Ssrandptain Play
Geologic Srsnng.Tbo Weul Ranch (41-A) reservoir is ene of 46 major reservoirs
located in Ihr Frio Barriee-Strundplain Play, which is ose of Ihe most productive oil
plays in Tesua (Galloway and ethers, 1983). These Gligocene eeservoizs occur in
barrier-island sandstones thai were deposited er abroad, low-relief plaiform located
14
 U.....
between two deltaic depocenters in the Tenas Gulf Coast (Fig. 3).
Recovery efficiencies in reservoirs of the Frio Baeriee-Steandplaio Play are high,
averaging 53% of expected ultimate recovery nf the original oil in place. Of the
4.2 Bbbl of oil originally distnibatod in the 46 reservoirs nsaking ap the play, -2.2 Bbhl
will be recoverrd at current levels of development (Galloway ucd others, 1983).
Hydrocarbons in thick, sabalar, and laterally continnoas bamer-corn nandbodies in
these retorvoirs have becs drained efficiently at 2g-acre well spacing, which in the
average carrent well spacing for the play.
Reoercoir ArchitectureMany reservoir properties in the West Ranch (41-A),
such as recovery efficiency, average porosity, and water satttnation, arr similar to the
play average, suggesting that this reservoir in representalive of the Fein Basnien-
Strandplaio Play. Additionally, Ehe 41-A reservoir contains a wide diversity of
haeeiee-islaed deponitionol environments present in ether reservoirs in the play.
The 41-A reservoir was described by Galloway and Cheng (1985) and Galloway
(1986) asaprogeading, microtidalbaeriee-ïsland system,consintingofstrike-rlongate
barrier-core deposits, 91021 m thick, eroded by a 1.6-km-wide belt of dip-elongatr
tidal-inlet deposits, 9 to 27 m thick (Fig. 4). Both the barrier-core and tidal-inlel
deposits merge landward (noetlswest) mb mnddy backbaerier Isgoonal deposits that
contain v9 m of sand.
Facies architecsuee strongly controls the average penneabilily distribution and
lateral and vertical continuity uf pay zones in the 41-A reservoir (Fig. 5). A strike-
elongate band of high aseeage penmeabilities (2,000-4,000 nd), which typically
occurs at the top of upward-coarsening sandstones in Ihr barrier-core facies in the
sonthwest Foal of the reservoir, is nitncated by a dip-elongate band of lower
penneabilities (500-1,500 md) in the tidal-inlet facien in the southeast part nf the
reservoir. Permeability variation in the tidal-inlet drpositn in the 41-A reservoir
reflects the complen natare of the channel-fill material. Highest peemeabilities
typically occur at the base of the tidal-inlet deposits, which consist of scour snrfaces
and coarse-graised shell lags. Lower peemeahilitien toward the lop of tidal-inlet
depesits reflect an upward decrease in grain vice and sorting. Lowest permeabilitien
(<500 md) in Ehe 41-A reservoir occur in maddy, abandoned-inlet and backbaenier
deposits.
Additionally, the kb-ratio methed requires that the spacing between wells be cluse
rod relattvely uniform. Fry'centinuityculculutions between two widely spaced wells
will not capture the cumulative rffects uf multiple lateral reservoir heterogeneities
that entend ever shorter distances.
Finally, r subtle limttrtion uf the kb-rabio method of pay contmnaity that must be
eecognieed is that discontinuoun zones of permeability occurring at gerally thffeneui
stratigraphie levels in the reservoir may br interpreted as complelety laterally
centixueas if the kh of the pay zone in each weil in ihn same. This is especially tesse
formell pairs in which use we li penetrates abaerier.cene deposit, where the manimum
permeability occurs at the top of the reservoir, sud the ether well penetrates a tidal.
inlet deposit, where the masimam permeability uccars at the base. For Ibis reason,
the kb-ratio method is imperfect in describing the pay continuity between facies that
have greatly dissimilar peeweabilily pmfiles.
Io adj acnnl w clin on the cress sections in ihn 41-A reservoir, tite estimated pay
continuity is defined mike smallenkh valse icone weil divided by the Iargerkh value
in the other well. Fee example, un cross section A-A' (Fig. 7), the pay rootisoity
betwens wells 2 and Sis 96% because the tower kb (37,000 md fI) in well 3, divided
by the higher kh (30.500 md fI) is well 2, is 0.96. The pay continuity beiween the nest
well pair lathe right, wells 3 and 4, is the lower kh (31,860 md fI) in weil 4, divided
I i
Pttc. 3.Frin (Oligucene) depositional nystems in the Tesan Galf Coant,
nhnwing the mention of West Bunch finid in the Fris Burrier.Strandpluit. Oil
Play in nootheast Tenas, and La Gloria field, located in the Fris Flnsial/Dettaic
Sandstone along the Vicksbnrg Fault Zone Play itt South Texan. Modified from
Gullawny (1977), Galloway and others (1983), and Kosters and others (1989). EXPLANATION
Ateroge Corn Plug Porweabiliry

Kh-Ratia Meshed <f Pay Conrinsisy.A nemiquautitusive method of estimating
pay conlinaity was developed ta describe facies variability is the4l-A reservoir. This
method in an analysis of lateral and vertical variations in permeability in the puy rene.
These variations worn espressed as the ratio of kh between well pairs on closely
spaced crest sections in the reservoir. Kb-rutio data were used lo constencl pay-
continuity curves (see lalcr section) that relate wuervoir pay continuity lo distance
between the well pairs. Permeability valuen from the ancored wells in the 41-A
reservoir were extrapolated from an empirical relationship observed by Galloway and
Cheng (1985) between measured permeability valuen and deep-resistivity responsen
from cored wohn in the hydrocarbon-saturated roue (Fig.6). They deleesoined that the
wide range of measured deep resintivitien in lhe4l-A reservoir is net correlated with
variations inporosisy, butnatheewith permeability ardhydeocacbun saturation, based
os a regrets ion analysis nf iog k plotted agiront log resistivity.
Data from 41 welts on five cross sections, shown in Figure 4, were nsed in Ihn
pay-cunlinaity analysis of the 41-A reservoir. The deep-resistivity curve within the
pay rune (defined rs 2 oe more ohm-m) was broken into fice separate eones of
resistivity, each ranging 2 ohm-m in value. The zone of greatest resistivity wm
defisedas lllohm-m ormone. Galloway and Cheng (1985) nriginally correlated these
deep-nevivlivity eones across the 41-A reservoir. Values of each zone of deep
rnntsneily were transformed mb saloon uf permeability from Ihr cross plot in
Figure 6. A lutai kh value for each well was then derivad by multiplying
peemeabtlity valuen by net-pay thickness of the reservoir.
To achieve coovinteet and salid estimates of puy coutinaily, several important
Ismitattous in the kb-ratio method were observed. First, a reliable correlation had re
exist between measured perme.abilities and log respooses so thai pay-continuity
ca]cuiatsosn cauld be made fer other well pairs io the reservoir whren core canted did
nel cymE. Dragenetic effects sachas calcite cement would hose rendered invalid the
correlation of log response to permeability by indicating misleading, high valses of
deep nexisttvtsy. Fon enample, the West Ranch (Glasscuck) reservoir contains more
calcite cement than does the 41-A reservoir as a consequence of having been
depostted rs shell-rich washever fans io a traangressive barrier-island netting
(GallowayandCheng, 1985). Thekh'ealiemethodcansotberpplird to the Glauwack
reservuir because the high values nf deep resistivity in the calcite-cemented eones in
this reservoir will erroneously indicate greater permeability and oit saturation.
Consequently, kh valuen extrapolated feem these log responses in the Glusscock
reservoir are tan high. By centrant, the 41-A reservoir is mlamisely ancemeoted;
therefore, the log responses for this eruerveir are reasonable foe esteapolatiun 10kb
values in the reservoir.
FIn. 4.Nrt.sandttnne and facies map uf the West Ranch (41.A) eesrrvair,
Continuity in strikr.riongale hnrrier.eorr freien is interrupted by thick, dip.
einngute tidal.inlet facies. Thin mashnver.fun and flnod.tidai-drita sandstones
in thrse facies pinch nul irodward into lagoonal mudstonrs. A.A', one uf five
crans sections by Cailuway and Cheng (1980) analyzed in this study, in shawn in
Figure 7. Mudifind from Gattuway and Cheng (1980).
Suo lxxx SOOn
o 000 ccOo sOxurr
0412411
Ftc. 0.Average permeability in the West Ranch (4t.A) reservoir, nlrongly
eontroBed by the facies distrihotian, is greatest in harrier.uore (BC), moderate
hut variable in tidai.inmnt (TI), and law in backbarrirr (BR) facies. Madifird
from Galloway and Cheng (1985).
by Ihr bigherkh (37,000 md ft) in well 3. andin therefore 0.86. Because the lower kh
iv always divided by the higher kh in each adjacent weil, the pay cuntinuity is never
greater than 1.0(100%) beiween wells. Fon adjacent wells with identical kh values.
Ihr Mt ratio for the well pair in 1.0, and therefore the pay continuity is 100%.
Fon well pairs en the crest section sepsraled by large distances and intervening
wella. ihr kh ration beiwern each ietervesing weil pain arr multiplied legeiher,

Ambrose, Tyler. red Parsley Helecogeneily, conhixuily, axd infili potealial in Tevus reservoirs 15

I 1111111 111111±
I J î'i i i i I I liii i I I III
Deer l"P)), OvO-r,
Ftc. 6,Cross plot of measured core-plug permeability and drop resistivity in
the pay pone its tise 41-A reservoir. Modified from Galloway and Cbrng (1985).
resulting in decreasiog pay conlïauity over increasing distance between wells, io
accordaoce with geologically based enpectations. For example, the estimated pay
cantinoily between wells 2 and 9 (Fig. 7), which 0er both in bornee-cope facies and
808 w apart, is 0.96 X 0.860 0.99. or 0.82. The estimated pay conlinuitybetween wells
6 and 9, both in tidal-inlet facies and 838 m apart, is 0.71 sO.92n 0.36.0e 0.24.
Pay-continuity valses versos inlerwell distaoce for each of apprassmately 240
passible well pairs from the 41 wells on the cross sections iotersectsng all the mojar
facies (haeoier core, tidal inlet, and back barrier) weep plotted osa graph, and a least-
sqsuers. exponential-declior curve was fitto the scatter of data potntn. Other pay.
contiouiiycueveswrredevelopedfoerachmainefacies to the4l-A rrservotr(Fig. Ou).
A enseevoir-enginerrieg analysis of the 41-A reservoir was condacied to deseensior
whether the kh-ratio method of pay continuity could choracterier reservoir
helrrogenrity in the 41-A reservoir in a consistent und valid manner. Using pressure
and prodoction data from the 41-A reservOie, a malerial balance was prefonned to
LAmbrose. Tyler, and Parsley
delennine whether the kh-eatio method of pay continuity could be supported by actual
reservoir behavior. The material balance is simply u volumetric balance performed
on the fluids in the reservoir. With this approach, the original oit in place in the
reservoir in commuoicatiau with production and injection welts wan estimated from
the production, injection, pressure response, and phase behavior of the reservoir A A'
fluids. The production asalysis in each major facies (barrier core, ttdal soles, and beck East
We st
barrier) in the 41-A reservoir by Godec and others (1909b) showed thatprodsction in
each facies was slighdy higher Iban that estimated by the pay-canlinnily curven from 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
the kb-rutio method. Theeefore, the pup-continuity carves were adjnsled slightly
upward to accounl foe Ibis higher production. The pay-continuity curves so Ftguee 8a <055>
reflect these adjsntments, which were diffeeenl for each facies and welt spacing. The <095> <096> <0.86> <0 99> <0 86> <0.7)> <0.92> <0 36>
umounl of odjuotment for each common well spacisg is summaneed in Figure 8h.
The pay-continuity curve for the barrier-core facies in ahe4l-A reservoir indicates
that continuity in thin facies is high, reflecting interval homogenesty and high
sandhody contiouity. Zones of maximum mnervoie quality and permeability in
harrier-core deposita in the reservoir, which sypically occur at the top of upward-
coarsening sandstones, have good laierai continuity, an displayed is wells I throogh
Son cross section A-A' (Fig. 7). The pay-continuily carve for she baerier-core facies 36,500 38.50-) 37000 31,0-0 31,320
indicaten 89% pay continuity at the current 20-acre spacing (pointA, Fig. Sa), und thut 36.650 51,620 47,490 17,1 00 31,090
ouly un additional 4% of the reservoir can be contacted by infili detlling 10 10-acre
spacing, where the pop continuity would he 93% (point B, Fig. 8a).
EXPLANATION
In castrant. pay continuily in tidal-inlet facies in the 41-A reservoir is lower, C> ch- ratio between adjacent wells
reflecting gmater islemal heterogeneity. Zonen of high permeability in Ihn ssdol-snlet
facies are segmented into lenticular inlet-fill compaeuneols (wells 6 so IO, Fig. 7). Kb DEEP RESISTIVITY (ohm-m) ft re
ration between adjaceot tidal-inlet wells show enoemo variolion; foe enample, the kh '00,-so
ratio between the sandstone-filled chaonrl in well 8 ond the sillstone- and mndntonr-
filled channel in well 9is only 0.36. Thrpay.conlinuity curse for the tidal-inlet facses
<2
indicates that only 74% of the reservoir in this facies wan contacted at 20-acre well 37,000 inferred kin (md.ft)
spacing (point C, Fig. Ou), and au additional 8% of mobile oil could have been
2-6 300es
contacted by infilI drilling an 10-acre spacing (point D, Fig. 8a). o
Pay continuity in the backbareier facies io the 41-A reservoir is enteemely tow. 1000f,
Discontinuous pay coses in the hackbareier facies occae in thin wanhover-fan and
tidal-delta sandstones that pinch out luodward mb lag000ut mudstonen. At 20-acre >6 00 11947
welt spacing, on1y 39% uf the reservoir in Ihr backbaeeier facies has been contacied
(point E, Fig. 8a); as additional 11% can be contacted by infilI drilling to 10-acre welt
spacing (poiot F, Fig. Ou). Fis. 7.Stratigraphie strike section A.A', located in Fignrr 4. Zonen of drrp
resistivity that were transferred into valars nf permeability from Ihr cross plot
Geologically Based InfilI Petessiul.Pay discontinatties and areas of in Figner 6 are simplified herr into three snbdinisinns, Kb ratios in Ihr pay anne
ntratigeaphicalty trapped oit in the 41-A reservoir are primarily related so Pactes between adjacent wells are shown in arrow brackets. Consistently high 6h ration
architecture. Infili drilling cao be mere effective by selectively tuegeltng the most (>0.75) between adjacent wells indicate high pay nontinnity in Ihr laterally
heterogenroas facirs, or arcan between adjacent facies where there in strong lateral contin000s and hnmogeneons baeeiee.vOer facies in wells 1 throagh 5. By
contravI in rcsorvoie qoality. Sites foe optimum infill-well developmrol on she 41-A contrast, pay cnntinnity is lower in the tidal.inlet facies, where the reservoir is
renerveie occur is aneas where the pay continuity in relatively low between udjuceol broken into nomernas lenticular compartments. Kb ratins between adjacent
wells (Fig. 9). wells in the Iidal.inlel furien (wells 6 to 18) show more variability than in Ihr
Discontinuons pay indie 41-A reservoir mainly occurs in Ihe hetreogeneous Isdal- barriee.cnre facies. Modified from Galloway and Cheng (1980).
inlet facies, between Ihe barrier-core and intel-fill facies, and along Ilse seaward
(nousheust) margin of she backharnirr facies. The ndct-inlet facies contains an
abundance of arnas whore eones of reservoir quality are dtsc000nuous vertically and
laterally. Vertical heterogeneity is illustrated by the occurrence nf cearse-grained
sandstone besen deposited as the base of inlet channels, which are partly encased In
and overloin by abandoned-inlet sitlstonn and mudstonr. Lateral helneogoneity is
related sa the yrrsescr of madstone-fitted. abandoned-intel deposita thaI disrupt
sandhody and perweabilily continuity Inseralty between sandy channel-fill deponils.
Heterogeneity, continuity, and infill potenlial in Texas reservoirs 16
 facies bave peetsseubilitios of 5.21010 md.
Recoverable Mobile Oitfrom !stfiltDr-illisg.-Tbe amoontofadditiosai mobile oil The kb-ratio method 0f pay continuity was not applied lo reservoirs in Lu Gloria
potentially recoverable lhrongh geoiogicully hourd iofill drilling in each major facies fteldbocouse permeability data in Iho finid were scarce, Instead, as ultemate melhod
90 - is the 41-A reservoio ÇFable 1) wos modeled with volumetric data and poy-continoity of estimating the eenorvoic-facies conlinuity was adapted from a method of Stiles
Border cose functions for roch facies (Ondee aud others. l989b). Additional mobile oil that could (1976), described earlier in Ibis report. Although ibis method wan originally
00
p'
be cc000mically produced with o minimum afIce-tas real rate of retom of 10% was developed for reniricted-pialfoms, euchonale-grainasonr reservoirs in Weil Tesan, in
70

50
estimated for each of these facies under three isfill-drillisg scenarios: 1) 80- to
40-oece well spacing; 2) 40- to 20-acre well spacing; aud 3) 20- to 10-acer well
sporing. Although sobstantial infill deilliog had already occuerod is the 41-A
n which puy eones accoras comerous this stringers, ii ccc also be applied so flusial
reservoirs in La Glorio field. whore ihe facies architeclurn is equally cumplen and
characterized by multiple, diucootisuoun sandslone stringees.
reneevoir by 1988-to almost 10 ocres pee peoducee io tise tidal-inlet facies. 20 ocres in Lu Gloria field, only the erlatinely permeable chancel-fili and splay facies were
Co w b irr e O per yrodocer io the homier-core facies, and 30 acres per producee in the backbaeeier
50 included on cross neclions, in accordance with thu Stilert (1976> method of pay
p' facies-Ibis modeling enereise demonstrates the potential of geologically targeted coolinuity, which analyzes the continnity of Ihe reservoir facies only. The Stiles
40 - infilI drilling in other barriee.strandpluin rescrnoirs in the Fein Boeriee-Strandplain (1976) method wan oppiivd to Ihe Brooks reservoir in the field (Fig. Il). Dip und
Play that ore still at widen well spacings. strike sections (Fig. 12) were constructed through elonely spaced wells is the middle
30 - Table i shows that the lidal-iolet facies has the greatest economic polentiol in each stringeesand in Ibis reservoir. Results ofthisacalysisindicatethaccontinniiy of these
infill-deilling nceoueio io she 41-A reuervoiv. Foe example, with infilI drilling of reservoir facies at 160-acre well spacing is 72% along depositi000l dip but only 27%
20 - IS wells per year feom 401020 aceesperprodocer io the tidal-inlet facies, 6.5 MMhbl along deposttionul strike (Fig. 13). The resorvoir-facirn conlionnily indicates thai the
of inceemental reserven were estimated au producible ata minimum economic price width of Ihr uvera ge chano nl sysiem in La Gloeia field iu considerably less Iban she
50
of $4.28/bbl. Under the same iofill-daillling scenario,unly I.) MMbblaeerecoveroble 160- and 320-arre well spacings in many gas fields ïn the South Tenas Gorydan
in the hoarier-eeoc facies at a minimum peice of $12.92/bbt and 2.1 MMbbt are fluvial system. Traditional views bave held that these well spacings cao efftcieotiy
recoverable in thobackbarriee facies ut $lO.9l/bbt. From 201010 acres porprvdùcee, drasn mont gas reservoirs because Ihey are composed of only one or two
only the tidal-inlet facies is economic foe infili drilling al recent (1988) oil-price Flu. 9.-Areas of low pay eonlinuity (kh catin nO,75) that nccnr between homogenoons sandstone loyees. However, the complex reservoir-facies architocture
tenets. This facies could peodoce 4.8 MMbbl of additional mobile oil ata minimum adjacent well pairs on cross sections in the 41-A reservoir. Facies distribution in the Pris Flasial/Deltaic Sasdutone along the Vickubueg Fault Zone Play has
oil price of $7.37/bbl by infili drilling. and net-sandstone cuntours also arr shown. These areas uf low pay continuity resulled in incomplete drainage at these well spacings.
¿ tnterwefl Distance (fi)
These eenuiiss demonsteate thai pay-continuity studies can be entremoly valuable in
moximiziog the economic life of heterogeneous resnevoirs. Moss of the mobile oil in
may enntain discontinnons pay in puorly drained intrareseevoir compartments
that could br targeted by infili wells in Ihr heterogeneous tidal-inlet facies and
the harrier-core facies has already been voulucted and peodaced al canent 20-acre along the seaward margin of the baekbarrier facies.
(b) welt spacing. By conleast, the tidal-inlet facies will continuo to be economic down to Tant,e 1.-Minimum economic pricer required for recovery of remaining s,sobile
Pay continuity (percenti 10-acre well spacing, primarily because of Ihe relatively large incoemental increases oil In each major facies in the 41-A reoervoir, Wert RanchJteld. Development
Acre- Adirusled by eressrnre and io nel pay that are encoonlnoed wilh euch new infilI woll. The helerogeneoos La Gloria Field. Fr'io Flaniul/Dettaic Sandstone along ehe Vickoburg Fault utrategy baoed onl5 infilI welts/yr and a minimum ofter-tax real rute of return
snuving Kh-ralio method prodrrclion arralysro backbarriee facies also contains relatively urge percentages of uocontucted puy, Zone Flay of 10%.
Q I! B although this pay is restricted io the sand-rich bell on the seaward (sontheasi) margin
80 79 42 13 80 49 20 of this facies. Huweser, because the pay concis the hOckbureior facies is thin, ihe Geologic Setting and Rerervoir Architectare.-Coorse-geained measderholl gas
40 04 56 22 05 63 29 potential for addilional mobile vii recovery 1010-acre well spacing is uneconomic at reservoirn in La Gloeia field aro locosed in the Frio Finvial/Deltaic Sandstone along InfilI Strolegy
20 88 67 32 89 74 39 coerenl (1990) oil prices. the Vicksbueg FaultZone Play (Fig. 3), the second most peoductise nonossociated gas (ucees/producer>
10 93 75 43 94 02 50 play in Tenas (Konteen and others. 1989). The Frio F000ation in Soulh Tusos man
95 81 54 96 08 61 dvposited by the Gueydan fluvial system, a major riser system 1h01 occupied the Rio
Grande Embayment during the Gligocene. The Gseydan fluvial system contains 80-40 40-20 25-lS
00 1243 Facies
Reoervoir Architecture und Recovery Efficiency coarse-gruined channei.fiil and point-bar sandslone flanked by eervasso-nptoy
sandstone and floodplain modstone and siltsiooe (Galloway, 1977). Gueydas fluvial
Fluvial reservoirs display lam to moderate oil-recovery efficiencies (Fig. i). In the sequences may contai n noverai depositi000l units, or ntringorn. In La Glorio field, Tidal tnlr,1
barrier-island 41-A renorvote, compartments ace mainly defined by lateral shone steingreu consist of3to6m of channel-fill aod splay sandstone and repreuent Minimum Economic Price (jhbl) $3.37 $4.28 S7.37
Fac. S.-(a) Pay-continuity curves for the major harrier-istand facies and a hrterogeneily; by contrast, the facies architecture in flonial systems is moro comptes, dopositionat episodes 0f temporary occupation of ihr floodplain by a choosel system incremental Oil (MMbbt) 8.3 6.5 4.8
combined-fades pay-continuity curve in the West Ranch (41-A) reservoir. At and reservoir compartmenlu are consirainod by both vertical und lateral (Ambrote andJacknon, 1989). Stringers io La Glorio field arepartly isolated laterally
current 20-acre well spacing, 89% of the reservoir has Seen contacted in the heierogeneity. For example, concevoir compartments in coarse-grained meanderbeit Sorcier Come
ond vertically by modsiones and aro commonly stacked mb aggregate sandstone
harrier-core facies. However, only 74 and 39% of the reservoir have been systems mainly occur in dip-elongole, channel-fill pods and lobale-splay deposits Minimum Economic Price (/bbl) $7.86 $12.92 $50.00
bodies 15 to 3Ons thick thai form belts 30010 900 m wide (Fig. 10).
contacted in the tidal-inlet and hackbarrier facies, respectively. (h) Comparison Incremental Oil (MMbbl) 1.9 1.5 1.5
(Fig. 10). Sandstones in these resersoir facies are bounded laterally by low-
between pay-continuity values obtained from the 6h-ratio method and values pvotneability, muddy lesee, distal-splay. and floodplain deposits. These channel-fill
8Cv Barrier core, T1= Tidal inlet, and BB= Reserceir-Facies Cvntinuity.-Chaonel-fill and splay sandstones constitute she Bock Bornee
from production analysis. and splay deposits are also bounded serlicully by mudstoses deposited during porinds mois reservoir facies in the Gueydan fluvial spstrm. Whole-core data from chonuel-
Backhaerier, From Godeo and others (1909h). Minimum Economic Pnce (Jbbl) $8.40 $10.91 $25.46
of stream avulsion and eccupation of othor purin of she coastal plain. Localized fail and pronamal-splay deposits in other fields in ihr Sonth Tesas Feio Pluvial- Incremental Oil (MMbhl) 1.9 2.1 2.3
occurrences of muddy abandoned channel-fill deposits farihee isolate ihese Streamplain Play indicute that permeubitiiies in she reservoir facies range from 1010
hydrecacbos-beaeisg oeils into separate cowpaetmrnts. 900 md (Ambrose und Jackxoo, 1989). Nonreseesoir 000dplain and distal-spIny

Ambrose, Tyler, aud Parsley Heterogeneity, continuity, und infill potential io Tecas reservoirs 17
J
 Geologically Based InfilI Polesisial.Poorly drained or uncontacted reservoir
compartmenls in La Gloria field maInly occur in crevasse-splay sandstones dsat pinch
out into distal-splay siltososes. These splay comparonents are almost totally encased
in floodplain mudstones. They have a limited lateral estesI und pinch ouI <460 m
along deposilional strike from channel-fill deposits. At Ihr vorerst well spacing of
16010320 acres per welt, mosy have yet to be contacted. Anomalously high reservoir
pressures rotative to uvera go reservoir pressare have heen meanured in some
recompleted crevasse-splay compartments (1.300 psi versus an ancrage erservoir
pressure of 300 psi; Ambrose and Jackson, 1909). They typically exhibit a cupid
decline in pressure and can have low ultimate recoveries uf 50 MMcf, suggesting the
presence of small, semi-isolated leaps is the reservoir. However, the total production
polrntial in La Gloria field is substantial because maoy splay compaesustests mist
in each eoseevoie. Foe example, infili drilling from 640 to 160 acres pee well
and recompletion of existing wenn io the Brook s reservese, which is only I of /
oppeoximately 30 reservoirs in La Gloria field, could result in addilional gas recovery
of 23% of the post-cycling gas is place (Jackson and Ambrose, 1989).

Rreervotr Architecture and Reca very Efficiency

Mud-rich submarine-fan deposits uro extremely heterogeneous ucd have the

greatest potential foe infili drilling to contact isolated compartments in elastic
reservoirs. Because of pour-reservoir quality and inefficient drive wechamsms.
recovery efficiescien are typically low; only 6% of the original oil in place has been
recovered from all major submarine-gao reseesoirs in Tenas (Tyler ucd others, 1904).
Submarine-faa systems typically consist of slope, canyon, and feeder-channel facies
tracts that grade basinward isla inser faon with a single, active channel (Walker,
1978). Channels is the inner fan ultimately bifurcate and carey nediment basinwued
toward muddy supeufan lobes, which are commonly incised by these channels.
Sedimest-Iranspoet efficiency is high; much of the sand in deposited in the distal part
of the system. Framework facies is submarine fans ace intensely comparnnrntalized
and are represented by channel-fill sandstone and this levee siltslones thatarr encased
in mid- and outer-fan madsiones.

Sprabrrry Trend. Midland Basis

Geologic Selling und Resercoir Archisecture.The Spraberry und relaled Dean

Sundolonc Play is the Midland Basis form the largenl and mont penduclise deep-sea
fan play in Tenus (Fig. 14). Mai or resecooirn in the play contain 10.6 Rbbl of oil
(Galloway and others, 1983). However, only 6% of this oil will be recovered . 'he
current 160-acm well spacing (Tyler and othcen, 1984).
f)
Sandstone distribution is Spmberry deep-sea fan deposits is strongly paleodip
oriented and consists of sandy channel-fill deposits bordered by lesee deposits Flu. 11.Nrt.sandslonr map of the undividrd Branhs reservoir in La Gloria
consisting of interbeddod sillstosen and mudslones (Pig. 15). These channel-fill and field. The fleld contain s several dip.rlsngutr bells of nundstonc that have u
levee deposits cut aceons distal-fan mudsionen and typically display a transition from composite thickness 00121021m. These heltn consist oflhree separate ersrrnoir
stringers that ore srmi.inntalrd vertically. Each stringer contains nhannrl.flll
and splay naudntsne bodies that individually are 3107.0 m thick. Cross sections
Flu. 10.Facies model of roaesr.graiised meanderbelt reservoirs. Example B.B' und C.0 are shown in Fignre 12. Modified from Jackson and Ambrose
shnwu is from Lu Gloria field, in which sandstones arr deposited in dip.rlostgule (1909).
belts 900 m wide. Channrl.fill und splay sandstone bodies in thene hells
commonly hune u combined thicknrss of l5to30m. From Ambrone und Jackson
(1989).

Ambrose, Tyler, and Parsley Heleeogencily, cootinuily, und infili poleolia( in Texas rcseevoirs 18
 ....._....a__.M..
(a) (b)
(a) L
NORTHERN
P5bd1bO, SInIsa seamen SHELF
B B'
West East

DAT U M S HAL E
MARKER SEO
40 loo 40 x160
AOOVE O STRINGER
I,
Distance (tI stOOD) Dinlarco 1001000)

(b)
Frs, 13.Conlinaity of channel-fill and xplay sandstone badiet parallel In
depoxitional dip (a) and strike (b) in Ihr middle Brooks stringer in La Glorio A EASTERN
C C, field. Continnity of these reservoir facies is high (>70%) in Ihr dip direction, Cs canson sccrr,
South North even at 160'aere spacing. Honever, continuity decreases ahroptty along strike; -4
wells offset along strike are nnlikely to contact the name reservoir compartment,

DATUM SHALE braided orl-xandslone patterns that grado bosiowaed into a meandering pattern SHELF
MARKER BES associated with a single Iruok avis.
ABOVE B STHINGEB Maximum hydrocarbon saturation, extrapolated from the dcep-eesistivity curvo, is
xtrongly confioed to chaooel-fill aod levee compoetusests (Fig. 16). Saodstoses and cisne
stltslooex Io these resercoir facies have maximum peemeabilities of 10 md aod are as

houoded vertically axd toterally by nonreservair fao-tobe mudotones that bayed md m

te
ft m permeability (Tyler aod Gholrton, 1988). Low-pcenscability, mud-filled chaooels lo
100-30 provide additional lateral contrast in reservoir qoatily. z
SPLAY Pay Couoiouiry.A pay-continuity analysis, based on Ike kb-ratio method, was
performed on the Upper Spraberry Unit l-b (Figs. 15 and 16), which is typical ofothee
Spraherry deep-sea fas synloms. lo contrast to the Wool Ranch (41-A) reservoir,

500ff
CHANNEL- FILL Itmited production date io this soit did 001 allow o comparison between pay continuity rF
from the kb-ratio method versos pay continuity from production analysis; therefore.
PERFORATED INTERVAL the pay-continuity curves preseoled here for the Speaberry are considered to be
0 150m
ilteorelteot oniy. However, recent pressere teso io this and other Opraberep eeservoirs
(Tyler aod others, 1907) support the steep decline in pay coolinuily suggested by Ihr
pay-continuity curve (Fig. 17), which iodicutes 20% reservoir continuity at the
carrent 160-acre welt spuciog. This pay-cootinaily curse also indicates that infili
FIc. 12.(a) Stratigraphie dip section it-B' in the middle stringer of the Brooks drilling to 10-acre o pacing would be required lo contact 50% of 1h e reservoir in

reservoir in La Gloría field, exhibiting channel-fill and optay facies. Individual
channel-fill sandstone bodies extend 450 to 900 m along depoxilional dip.
Collectively, they exhibit good taleraI continuity is. the dip direction.
(b) Sleatigraphic xteike section C-C' in the middle Brooks stringer. Channel-fill
sandstone bodiex pinch Out obropttp along strike and are flanked laterally by
thin splay deposits. These ohannel.fill and splay deposito exhibit onty moderate
continaity along strike. Cross xeutiono located in Figore lt.
Ambrose, Tyler, and Parsley
Heterogeneity, ceutiuuity, aod infilI poteelial io Texas reservoirs
4
UniI l-b. In contrast, iohll drilling te 10-acre Ipueisg io Ihr West Rasch (41-A)
reservoir would contact 79% of the reservoir (combined-facies curve in Fig. 8).
InfilI Potential and Reeoeerable Mobile Oil. Because Spraberry reservoirs are
heterngeseous, 1 is critical that infili wells are soulegically located sa contad and
produce Ihr rrmatniog mobile oil efficieotly. Pradudlive Speaberry infilI wells
vr,,sn,,y beur ut 101Os
Pro. 14,Location of nnbmarinr.fan nil fields in the Spraherry Play, Midland
Basin, West Texas, From Tyler and Gholslon (1988); modified from Silver and
Todd (1969). *
19

P1m
- close well spacings. By contrant, carres for homogeneous roservolru are plotted sr she
Foc. 19.Log-facies map and typical iog responseo of Unit I-h lopper Spraborry)
reservoir. Unit l-b consists of a dip-oriented channel.00d-tesee system that
eroded into distal, nnconfined fao deposits. Reservoir compartments are located
inchoonet-fillantI levee sandstonosandsiltntoneS oncased in ootrr-fao modstonrs.
Cross section D-D' shown in Figore 16. Modified from Tytor and Ghotston
(1988).
Ambrove, Tyler, and Porvlry
conlacl sand.rich axial oreas; by contrast, interaxial areas contain less rcsercole
quality material, and iofili wells drilled in these arras would br poorer prodacees.
The potential foe recovery of additional mobile oil to the Spraberry inconsiderable
because of the complex depositionol architeclare und cootcast in permeability
between reservoir and eonrenervoie facies. Extreme vertical heterogeneity in the
Spraborry has resulted from fan-lobe switching und shifting of channel ones
lhroughoal the deponitioral history of the submarine fas. Duriog periods of charnel.
axis shifting, sand was deposited away from Ihr malo axial 00000es of olden fan
deposits, thereby creating opportunities for seleclive recomplelion of wells drilled 10
deeper targelu. Many lower Spruberey wollt have not breo perforated in the appen
Spraberry,resultingirbypassi010feamer005erurevoircomparttssenlx. The Spmhcrry
play contains >4 Bbbt of unrecovered mobile oil in poorly drained or totally
uncoolacted reservoir comparlmonln. Becauso of the extremely low peemeabiltty of
1hr reservoirs, only I Bbbl is considered Ihr potential resource baso (Tyler aod others.
1984). However, oven 6% recovery (the curreol recovery efficiency of the Spruberey)
of this eonsrrxatixe estimate of remuiniog mobile oil will double the estimated
remoining conventional Spraberry reserves of 60 MMbbl (Tyler aed Gholsloo, 1988).
The amours of oncontucted mobile oil in a ma leer revrrvoir iv largely o function of
compartmentaliealion and well spacing. Reservoir compartments ore prsmarity
defined by the large-scale fucios archileclaro inheriled from the depontuonal system.
Puy ix relatively conlinuous in homogeneous barrier-inland and wave-domsoaled
deltoic erureveirs, moderately continuons in relatively hotrrogosrous nuotaI and
fluxially dominalod deltaic n0500voirs. and irregularly distributed and dtncoots0000n
io comptes deep-sea fan eeveevoirs. Even io diagenetically altered reservoirs,
depoxilional fuciru have considerable influence on fluid msgrasson and purostty
enhancement.
Recovery potential for reservoirs of different deposilional origin, enpronsrd ana
preceos of. ancoelacled reservoir volames, was calcatated by xebteacttog pay.
eonlioeily values on each carre from 100% (Pig. 18). Cernes sndscated by uolid Itnex
are for rxvrrvoies in which alher pay-continuity valuen were available from analysts
of pmvsuer and production data. Corneo are plollod io the upper left part of the
diagram for helerogeneous reservoirs Ihot contain large volumes of usconlacled ott at
lower righl part of she diagram.
Hntrroge000as typex of reservoir, such audrey-sea fan (Spraberry Play) and back
harrier (Fein Barrinr-Strosdplain Play), arr approuiwatrly eqoal in degree of
heterogeneity; yOUth of thron resercoirs arr uncontacted at 40-acre well upucing. By
contrusl, homogeneous barrier-c ore reneevoiru coslain only limited uncootacted
reservoir volamex. Al Ihr average 20-ocre well spacing in Ihr Frio Barrier-
Steaodplatn Flay, -90% of the reservoir has already been eonlacled.
Three other typex of reservoir in Trous contain moderutely high uncootacled
reservoir volumes. These reservoirs are coarte-grained meander boll (Feto Fluvsal/
Deltaie Saodntone along the Vicksharg F0011 Zone Ploy), tidal iolet (Pria Barrier-
Strandpluio Play), and platform-carbonate grainslone (Sao Andeex/Grayboeg Sooth-
Central Basin Platform Play), located in West Tenas (Galloway and others, 1983).
The carve for this type of carbooatr reservoir (Fig. 18). added foe Ihr salar of
comparison se elastic reservoirs, wax based on the ShIes (1976) method of pay
continuity. Permeability and net pay were correlated between wells on croon sectionu
io platform-carbonate gruinntone renervoirs in Dune field, eepeeuenlalive of Ihr San
Anders/Graybarg South-Central Basin Platform Play. Pay-continuity fractions were
Heterogeneity, coctinaily, and infili poteutial in Texas renervo
D D,
West East
-
p,
p,
Channel Sand -filled channel Levee
Mad-filled Leoee
channel
EX PLANATION 20-_6
DEEP RESISTIVITY (ohm-m)
<5 (8)1199)111; 15-19
800011
5-9 20-25
o
rdoo
10-14 00 5949
Ftc. 16.Strike nection D-D' in Upper Spraberry Unit 1-h, Reservoir
compartments in thin mod-rich sobmarine.fan nuit, indicated by high notons nf
deep resistivity (15 to 25 ohm-m) and low watnr-naloralion valuen, orear in
channel-fill and levee deposits 1h01 pinch ont abruptly 0100g strike. The channel
between Ihn third and fourth wells from the left-hand side of the croon section
reprenrnln a poorly drained reservoir comparlment that can be rontacted by a
new infili well, Location of cross section shown in Figure 15.
plotted versas ore dinluoce between well paies, nod thiu plot was used lo establish the nones and can also be used to provide goed, first-order estimates of volumes of
pay-conlisaitp function for the revervoir. The drainable pay conlinatly at 20-acre usrecavered bydeocarb000 in matare reservoiro. lnfitl-dritling strategies, based on
spacing was verified by historicul primary production. Reservoir compaetmevts te Ihr the observation thaI each type of reservoir cootaiss u ueique faciex aechiteclare
San Aodren/Grayburg loath-Central Basin Platform Play oc curls lenttcular controlling the distribution of uncoulacled or poorly drained compartments, will
grainstose bues eocaucd is low-permeability mudslones and wackrxsoues Ibas were enable produetton geologists to xrlecuvety largel areas for manimow addstt000l
deposited on a usable platform (Behoat and others. 1987). Ec000mtc anutyvus of mobile oil recovery wilh fewer new infili welts, thereby increasing the productive life
Godeo and others (1989a) indicalru 1h01 0S much us 505 MMbbl of mobtiroti at an oil of the reservoir.
pricr of $20/bbl can be recosceed in the play wish geologically bused snfslt drrllsng In
these grainstone bars. This represents recovery of un addilional 18% nf the remaInIng
mobile oit in Ihr play.
In conclusion. puy-contioaily und facirs-aechileclure siadtes are nonfat Thin study was cooducled by the Bureau of Economic Geology and ICP Resouccen
Incorporated, wilh fasding from the U.S. Department of Energy (cuotract nos. DE-
rexervoir-dexetopmenl techniques. Pay-continuity mesheds, such as the kb-ratto
method introduced io thixpaper, orthe Stiles (1976) method, can be used to documeni ACOI-85FE60003 and DE-AC19-S6BCI400) und Ihr, Gay Research Inutilale
the control of facies architeclureon distributivo of discootiuuoau or inaluardeeservea )contruclno. 5087-212-1526). We thank Roben Corwin of Mobil Oil Conpoe0000 foe
20
smaaamms.
 .__._.____s..__
providing production data from West Rasch field. The manuscript benefited from
reviews by Robert]. Finley, Shirley F. Dotino, Steven J. Seni, and Tucker F. Henlz.
Mike Roberto provided poy-costinaity curves foe the 41-A erse evoir study.
100 100 Yves Oberlin, Joel L. Lardon. Tari Weover, Annie Kubeet Kearos, and
Richard L. DilIvo drafted the figures. Word peoceusing was by Melissa SodI and
editing was by Amanda R. Masterson.
80
80-
Cs
Avmnvsc, W. A., ano Jacssuv, M. L. W., 1989, 000logically hated infili potential of
fluvial gas ruseevoirs, La Glorio (Feio) finid, South Texas: South Texas
as Geological Society Bulletin, y. 29, p. 13-2 t.
E Bacoc, J. A., ave Scovvvovs.nv, D. J., 1987, Quantitative analysis of infili
60
o 60- performance: Robvrl000 Clearfork Unit: Josmol ofpetroleum Techovlogy, v.39.
A' p. 1593-1601.
o Banano, A. H., Jo.. Grenas, C. J., Seo.es, L. H., ovo Tuensesov, B. B., 1983, toStI
drilling io increase reservesactual enperience in nbc fiolds in Tenon,
§ 40 s Oklahoma, and Illinois: Journal of Peteoleum Technology, y. 35, p. 1530-1538.
40
tu BcO0UT, D. G., Leas, F. J., H000n, C. R., Foco, G. E., aros Vavoco Oxyde, G. W.,
1987, Churucterizudon of the Grayburg rnsnrvoir, Usivertsty Lands Dune field.
su Crane County, Tesas: The University of Tenar ut Asslin, Bureau of Ee050mic
. o Geology Roport of Investigativot No. 168,98 p.
Bcou, R. iO., 1968, Foist-bar origis of Fall River saodstone ecncevoieu, noetheastem
. 20- Wyoming: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, y. 52,
s p. 2116-2122.
Ftsooe. W. L., 1987, Cas the U.S. oil and gas resource base support sustained
s.. production?: Scieuce, v.236. p. 1h31-1636.
Gau.owoy. W. E.. 1977, Dopesitional architecture of Cenazoic Gulf Coastal fluvial
11 20001 4000 systems, ir Elhrbdge, F. G., and Flores, R. M., edn., Recent and Aseirot Non-
6000 8000 1000. : :4500 5000 Macine Depositionul Environments: Models foe Exploration: Society uf
g Economie Pateoumlogists and Mineralogista Special Publication, p. 127-155.
1986, Reservoir facies aechitectuee of microtidal buff ire systems:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bsllelio, v.70, p. 787-808.
ayo Covvo, E. 5., 1985, Reservoir facies architecture is a microtidal
Distance between well pairs (E) QA1?943c Well spacing (fI) 0611942e hunier nystemFeiv Formation, Tenus Gulf Coast: The Usivernity of Tenas at
Auvlin, Borcau of Ec000mic Geology Report of Investigations No. 144. 36 p.
Eaavo, T. E., Gcoorn, C. M., Jo., Tvt.eo, N., ave 8000cv, D. G., 1983,
Atlas of major Tenas oil reservoirs: The Univerviiy of Tenas ut Austis, Bureau of
Economic Geology Special Fshlieatios, 139 p.
Flu. t8.Cnrves depicting the percent of ancontacted reservoir volumes in the
types of reservoirs described io this report. Values on these curves, calculated W. A., l989u, An asseusment of reserve growth poleslial of the Sao Andees/
Flu. 17.Pay continuity in mud-rich submarine-fan reservuirs represented by subtracting pay-coutinaity values from 100%, show that both mnd.rich Geoybsrg Carbonato (South Contrai Basis Platform) Play in Tenas: prepared by
by Upper Spruberry Unit 1-b, shown in Figure 15, The kb-ratio method of nnbmarinr-fan and backharrier reservoirs have high heterogeneity and contain ICE Resources Incoepoeuled 054 the Bureau of Ec000mic Geology for the U.S.
determining pay cnntinnity, unadjusted by production or pressure data was large percentages of uneontacted reservoir volumes. Tidal-inlet, coarve.grainrd Depurtmrot of Energy/Office of Fossil Energy, contract nos. DE-ACGI-
used for metto located on cross section D-D' (Fig. 16). Pay continuity ut the meunderbelt, and platform.carbonate grainstonr resersoirs, whieh are also 85FE60603 and DE-AC19-86BC14000, 147 p.
current well spacing of one welt per 160 acres is only 25% and remains low tightly clustered together, contain moderately large nneontacted reservoir Teten, N., ava A000vse, W. A., 1989b, Au
(<50%) even at 20-acre spacing. volnmrs. In contrast, hydrocarbons are efficiently swept in barrier-core assnsomenlofthereserve growth potential ofiheprio Burriee.Slrandplaio Flay in
reservo,rs, which represent the lowest valor of heterogeneity in the spectrum nf Tenas: prepared by ICP Resources Incorporated und the Burnus of Economic
reservoir types. Geology fortheU.S. DepartmentofEuergy/OffieeofFossil Energy, coutraetnos.
DE-ACOI-85FE60603 and DE-ACI9-86BC14000, 128 p.
licoreras, J. A., ayo Favsscu, D.D., 1979, Drainoge anomalies is Gulf Count Tertiary
sandstones: Joursal of Feteoleom Technology, v.31, p.1313-1322.
Ambrose. Tyler, and Parsley Helerogeneily, conlinnity, and infili poleelial is Texas reservoirs
Jnvnsov, M. L. W., ayo Asruovse, W. A., 1989, lolSuence nf eeoervoir heterogeneity
on gas-resource potential for geologically based infilI drilling, Brooku and I-92
reservoirs, Feto Formation, Sooth Tevau: Gulf Coavi Aosovialios of Geological
Societies Transactions, y. 39, p. 127-14g.
Konecus, E. C., Beuvere D. G., Svss, S. J., Gaeom'r. C. M., Jo., Bnvttia, L. F, Je.,
H.sye.eo. H. S., Deseos, S. P., Ruera, S. C., Peaces. R. J., ava Toten, N., 1989,
Atlas of major Tenas gas reservoirs: The Univernily of Tesas as Austin, Bureau
of Ecosvmic Geology Special Publication, 161 p.
LeBr.auc, R. J., So., 1977. Distribution and eontiuuity of sandsione reservoirsparto
laud 2: Journal of Petroleum Technology. v.29. p. 776-804.
Ruera, S.C., ovo Carmen, H. 5., 1988, Effects of facies und diugenevis on reservoir
heiemgenrity: Emma San Andree Field. West Tesas: The University of Tenas at
Ausun, Bureau of Economic Geology Repon of luvestigutions No. 178,67F.
So.vco, B. A., .exe Tono. R. G., 1969. Penaban cyclic nlnala, northern Midlund and
Delaware Basins, Wesi Tesas and sautheasiem New Menico: American
Anunciution of Fels-nImm Geologiutn Bullrtin, v.93. p. 2223-2251.
Sru.eu, L. H., 1976, Optimizing watertlood recove.y in a mature waterbed, the
Fullerton Clearfork unit: Proceedings, Society of Petroleum Engineers of Ihm
American lnstitutenfMisiogEngireeru SluiAnnual Technical Conference, New
Orleusu, Louisiana, 12F.
Tyran, N.. 1988. New oil from old tieldu: Genemen, y. 33, p. 8-10.
Gau,owas, W. E., G0000ro, C. M., Jo., ayo Estiran, T. E., 1984, Gil
aecumulalion, production characteristiun, and targein for additional recovery on
major usi renervoiro of Tesas: The University of Tenus al Assoie, Bureau of
Economic Geology Geological Circulan 04.2.31 p.
ave Gaotsovv, J. C.. 1988. Heterogeneous deep-sea fan reservoirs,
Shuckelfoed and Preston Wateefland Units, Speuberry Trend, Went Tenus: The
UOidOdOtIy of Texan al Ausliu, Bureau of Economie Geology Report of
Issestigulionn No. 171, 38F.
Guevara, E. H., ovo Cuaxen.G. R., 1987, Geological churacleriautive and
reserve growth poieniial of Sprabeery reservoirs io the Midland Basin, WesI
Tenas: The University of Tesan at Austin. Bureau of Economic Geology 1986-
1987 Annual Repon by the Reservoir Characleniaution Research Laboratory.
191 p.
Wauuen, R. G., 1978, Deep-water sandstone facies and ancieni submarine fans:
models for esploration for slealigraphic trapu: Americas Asnyciulios nf
Petroleum Geologisls Bulletin, v.62, p. 932-966.
Wnncu, K. J., 1982. Influence of <yermos sedimentary structures ou fluid flow ui
reservoir modelo: Journal vf Peleoleum Technology, y. 34, p. 665-672.
Ks.anowos. P. H., Kovievaex. J., aya vay sen VLyuor, W. R., 1971.
Simulation of water injection in a barrier.bar-type, oil-dim roneevoir in Nigeria:
Journal of Petroleum Technology, v.30, p. 1555-1565.
21
 PHOTOMOSAICS OF OUTCROPS: first two factors aro self osptuuatory; the odian four are diwussed below.
Depth of field refers to the anarest and farthest parte of the smbjecl that can be
USEFUL PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES rendered sharp at a givom mus setting (Hcdgccan, 1910). Depth of field increases
with decreased aperture asad is ateo groaner loe a lens with shorter fanal length. To
obtain o sharp imago of a scbjocn that has consideruble relict aloug the liar of sight,
MICHAEL C. WIZEVICH minimsm apretare opening is uccossary. To maximize the depth of held for o
Dnparfoeoset of Gpologietaf Scirs000, Vltgierrta Tech,
particular situation, it ix importaml to kanp in mind that depth of field extends
Blackobraig, Vitgirtio 24061
farther behimd (about 3/5 of toed depth of fteld) the distunco for which a lens is
focused than in leoul.
ABSTRACT Photomomatta oan be tuofat tania foe ardnrataodaf and tomcnnioattrg goologit feat,ocs FOCAL PLANE

IIÌÏiii iii iii'

oapeeaaod or oatoeop fOtos In Orden to ottime photomosairs peopcely. rnaairotm renotatios and
g000eoto datorajos of the tnut,ors ja uetssssay. Marinar, rraolattor is best obtained by
oatsg qaintly eq,apnenr and by attr,rdieg to proper teohrttqto. fr sorer tusos incresuag oorOssl ritt
tmprnre er5OtnttOO raflons methods can be ntjtitod.
Saft,dmet oncetap at photographs tr the oo,tsnnotiOe of pbotomruaitu eid remane distarnos Ir
nani siruations. A OomnOr pension a porsynotine distoattor. the tomoergenoc at roesoat met, mia
nberthe fitrnptaenardctrteopfaonreesotparatlrtuodrrsotmiaomredoe'aeottisgmosaira
When jr ta roi truribtc to obiaso parstietism, maceat srethoda can be med io help roernot ibas penbicre.
In many ajttttattOss ftttmg s 35-mm ramera 50th s perupnorire arrant tesa a the amrptear sad most
eonnosrtost sosingy for oedtotof or ctitemstmg the problem.
INnODUCTION
Rocent studies of sedimentary ranks lItaI moorporate two- sud theoo-dsmeustortal
espasmos (see Miall, 1988, for a partial list; and this volamo) have oe-nmphasnzed
the tassi tstuess of phatographa as am aid in desceiption aad interprctatioar. Muximtam
rosolution of detail and minimrsm distortion of linear features aro qmafaeios
mecessaty ta convoy proporty Uso sodimnsttory relationships masifesf od in am
ontorop. This papee describes photageaphic toohaiquns that will ensayo Iho best
possible photagraphio reproduction of rank outcrops.
Represontation of estomsivo rank outcrop by photographic moans may reqmre
pies-imp together sennral photographs into a singlo pietIsm (s.c., a pkotomosato).
Umforfmsately, whna joinieg anvooal photographs f ogether, effsets rosattiag from
dissortion esili mtdlipty and commonly ansult in msaccnptublo lovels of errar.
Furthermore, a significant problem may came about when workrug wash fall an
inclined oufcoops (Fig. t). Photographs of such outcrops may shaw convnrgenco of
vertical huas (Fig. 2). When joined together, mosaic cnrving, or "smrlrag' rnsndts,
which distorts Ihr true geometries of tedimontary clement s (Ftg. 3u).
Au undnrstanding of nevrral basic photographie principins and application of a
fow trclsraiqoos will help improve dio qaality of a photomosaic. In dass paper,
improvement of image-dntail ansolotion and elimination of dislortson arc discussed.
Fer simplicity, only black-aud-whibe print film will be discussed; however, mart
concepts are dirantly applicable to notor film. The methods doscribrd are saggrstrd
for photomosaics of sedimentary ranks, bst cam be applied to any type of geologic
study that incorporates two-dimensional representations of nutcusive rank omtcrops.
RE SO LUTf ON
Resolutian is the ability to distiuguish detail in u photographic image. lutegrul to
the resolution of a fnalure is the sharpness (i.e., the distmcttvomnss of Ihn
bonndaeirs of a feature ogainat its boohgrontnd). Isuagn shurpnnss depends on
several fuctors, inclrtdiugt quality al the lens, correct fanusing, sufficient drpth of
field, etiminatiou of camora (nr subject) mafiosa, film sensitivity, amd contoasf. The
SUBJECT PLANE
FIELD OF VIEW
FOCAL PLANE
'V
a-
a-
- T
C.
FOCAL PLANE
V color-sensitive types are mauafanleared, these special films are limited in application.
B
Fie. 2.Sehematin diagram shaming causes of perspective distortion
fur came when nutcrap Face is sloped. Closely spaned parallel lines
Fan. 1.Schematic diagram shmwiasg cansnra positions relative fu mutcrmp represent vertical linen on nutcrop face (e.g., drilled blast tabes),
faces f mr eases where perspective distortion a. is non-existent; b. results dashed line is Straight taud horianntal. Aborel View from ahuve of
from tilting ihn camera bank ta imnlndn all of the mnfnrmp join ihn picture inclined surface (Fig. f e). Eecause Ihr camera field of vires increases
when outcrop height is large relalivn tu camera to outcrop distance (this with distance feum the ramera, it enemmpassmm mure ontcrnp in the
nfíect will bu lnsscned as camera is moved away from motreop); and n. is sapper purtiun of the mntormp than in the hase. Belumt Reualtant
caused by sloped oninemp tace. phmlograph far situalion depicted in Figs. lu and 2 (lop). Cunsrrgmnce
nf vertical lines in top part disturts trae vertical and lateral linear
relationships.
For u givcm fdm seuxitivity, shutler spood mmd apresure musI be matched fan
correct exposures. Whom maximizing depth of field (decreased uperture), dower
shutler spmeiln ano required. Camera moflan becomes u problem when using slow
skull nr speeds, less than 1/00 secend for a standard 35.mm cawnra with a 50-mm
tens. Fnethet'tnorc, film seusilivity is direcily related to dan obtainable resolution. Im
general, the dower the film speed, the bolter the sharpness. Therefore, since stow-
speed film wurnauls longer exposure times (ulf else canslant), slow shstter speeds
arr desired, hunt results are obtaiued by axing dow film (ASA/ISO 100 or tess), s
small aperture and a slew shmlter speed, in coujonction with a tripod, which
proveuts camera moflen.
Coateast cefees to the ronge in tonal vuriafiem in am image. For black-and-while
peints, a high-eantrost imago contains mosily black and white, whereas a low-
contrast image contains many imlcemediutc grey tones. Low contrast, or upparent
blending of tones across the edges of au importaul feature can resell in low
resolution, whnrnas u foalmee that eoutrasls highly with ils nmeroamdiugs is easily
disfingtsithed.
Otsite often it is desirable to increase the contrast in u photograph, to show
geologie (sedimoulotogic) fealumes bolter. To a limited culent, coutrasl ol an image
is increased with decreased apresuro siam. Significaul coutrast increase can be
obtained by using different films, camora filters asad printing techniques.
Most black-and-white films are paneheomalic (i.e., seuxitivo le alt colors of
visible light). However, higb-contrast filmx have variable color sensitivities, specific
colors are et'ther accented (darkomed) il die hm type is sensitive lo that color or
mated (ligblnsed) if il is mot, producing a high-contrast imago. Since only a few
Altenuativoly, Inns filters cam be utilized te produce the same effect on
pameheomalie black-and-while film for a wide variety of crimes. By using un
appropriate filter, the contrast can be increased betwann two difforent colors dial
would otherwise phalogruph as similar tours of gray without u filter (Kodak
Professionol Phologtside, 1986). lu genorat, a filler el similar oolor lo thc objecl
photogruphed will lighten it, whoreas a filter of a complcmrutat'y colme will darken
il, thon seteclively incroasiog the oontrust.
Contrmsl can also be adjusted during printing. Photographic paper can be
obtoimed with differed grodos of Contrast, frem law to high. Peinliug on high-
couleost paper yietds a high-eon trasl image. However, most paper used is
pelycoutrasl, where the contrast cam be adjmted by using ceutrast filters when
printsog.
PERSPECTIVE DISTORTION
To portrny Ihe spaliat relationships io a lwo-dimensio,sat outcrop aceuralely, it is
imperative thaI die camera filman fanal plame is parallel ta dir outcrop fuan (Figure
tu). This is simply because photographs, two-dimeosional ropreseutations of thran-

Wizevich PkolomOtaiCh of rulcrepx 22

 dimeesional features, display closer objects larger than dislaut objects. If the focal
plouc is oblique to the outcrop face (Figs. lb and le), thee part of the outcrop will
appear relatively smaller (Figs. 2 sud 3). 'l'bis type of distortion ix called prropoeticr
distortion. For a single photograph, this may cot be a problem, but when
coustructing a pholomosaic, severe mismatch from photograph te photograph us a
result of perspective distortioe may cause difficulties.
Of course, eat all outcrop faces easily lend themselves to being photographed
such that the local and oetcrop ploucs are parallel. Fer instance, road cuts arc often a. PC LENS COVERAGE
AREA .......... FILM
lhree.dimeesioual, their faces following the curvature of the road. Lateral FORMAT
deviations from ax ideal place are eoemaily easily correctrd by positioning the FILM FORMAT
camera eqmdistaut from the lace for each photograph. However, vertical deviations ii
are sometimes move difficult to correct and may require special techniques.
Two examples of vertical perspective distortion are shown in Figure 1. Rock
oatcrops can cause a problem, particularly il they are tall, relative lo the distance b.
from which the photograph is taken (Fig. lb). By tilling the camera body Io include
the retire outcrop withm dir viewfinder, the focal plouc is no longer parallel to the PC LENS
COVERAGE AREA
image plane, cauuug the upper part el the outerop to appear farther away than the
lower part, resulting in distortion. Similar distortion occurs for outcrops that till II
away trom the vertical plane (Fig. lv). le each case, perspective distortion will
prodaco coeccegcnce el vertical lines and substantial curvature of horizontal bees
(Fig. 2). lu maey utuatious, perspective distortion can be severe and must be C. I'll"
eliminated or sigrificautly reduced in arder lo convey linear relationships in a
photograph properly.

Correction

There are seerral ways to rrdcce vertical perspective distortion wben

Fie. 3.Pictures of outcrop with face mclia,ed 30 to 35' from vertical,
taken from approximately 20 ni from outcrop. Significant lateral curvature
in the outcrop rrqmres large overlap, a. Photographed with camera focal
plane vertical. Note excessive siniling of photomosaic and severe distortion
of linear features (e.g., bedding piones (arrow 1). b. Photographed using PC
lens. Camera was tilted forward from vertical nntil the local plane and
outcrop face were parallel, and the PC lens adjusted to bring ontcrop into
the filin format. Distortion of horizontal surface (arrow 1) is removed.
Compare larger size of feature (arrow 2) with that in mosaic a.
photographing as outcrop. First, the camera may be positioned sa that the
relationship between the focal plane and the outcrop taco is as clous to parallel as
possible and the subject is kept within the view finder. This may require simply
raismg the camera toward the (vertical) center of the exposure, for example by
asseg a ladder, lu this maimer much of the distortion may br elimioaled. By
increasieg the sebjrct.to.oamcea distance, dio effect is farther rrducrd (Fig. Ib).
However, in many situations these simple solutions may not be peactical or
sufficient lo correct the distortion.
Increasing the field of view by using a linear, corrected, super'wide.anglc lens
(18 to 20 mix) will rrdaco the distortion, but the resultant image wilt onty be a
traction of the film formal and signifieanily oft from the center of the negativr
(Kodak Professional Photoguide, 1986). This may require increased enlargement of
the image to got the desirrd size, possibly resulting in decreased resolution and loss
of important details.
Another alternativo for correcting perspective distortion are largr.format.view
cameras, which allow independent control of the tens with respect to the camera
body. The focal plane is placed parallel to the outcrop face and the leus cleweels
arc adlasted to bring the subject entirety withie the viewing scroce, not necessarily
se easy operatieu. There will be no distorsion indie photegraph as long as the focal
ptanc and outcrop tace remain parallel.
Drawbacks to large.format.view cameras include high price excessive size and
boils of rqwpmrnt, aud rrlative complexity el operation. Also, only our frame of
film at a time can be leaded in the camera. However, because of the large negative
size, a sharper and better quallty image is prodecod with these cameras.
With 35.mm cameras ono doss oca normally have the capability to manipulate
Fis. 4.Schematic diagram illustroting fonction nf PC Inns. In a, camera
positioned with vertical focal plane, which in inadequate tu photograph tall
or inclined outcrops (bald lines). Dashed lines emanating from camera show
field of view covered by PC lens; usher linen arc ehe film format (i.e., actual
pietnrr coverage). Corrected position of camera and PC tenu for tali
onlcrup, b, and inclined outcrop, e. Relationship of finid of view and film
format for uncorrected, d, und corrected, e, positions.
the less separately with respect to the focal plane. Perspectivr coelool (PC) lenses
arc a special typo of lens in which limited movement of the lens allows some
control of the image perspectivr (Fig. 4). The maiu camera manufacturers offer
slighily wide.angle (20. and/or 35'wm focal length) PC tenses. They are
predomieouily atilizod by architects for photographing tall buildings and others who
wish to control perspective distortion in their photographs. The main advantages of
PC tenses are relative ease of operatian and compatibility with standard 35'mm.
film format. Unfortuuatrly, atthongh 35.mm photographic systems arr popular, FC
lenses are in ore ces Uy than standard tenses.
A 35.noc camrru fitted with a PC tens reduces or eliminates distortion in

Wizevicft Pholomosaics of oalcrops 23

pictuors taken from relatively dose to the outcrop face, where the outcrop lace is
tall or inclined, without having to elevate the camera (Fig. 3). The principle behind
PC lenses is similar to a large-formal-view camera lens, although movement is
restricted to one direction at a time and the range of movement is limited. PC
tenses have a very wide field of coverage oeca (Fig. 4). A Sob controls movement
of the film format (actual recorded image) within the field, thus regulating the
amount of perspective change (Figs. 4d and 4e).
Acknowledgements
The metheds outlined in this paper were developed as u part of nip Ph.D.
dissertation as Vireima Tech, supported by grunts from the Appalachian Basin
fadustrial Association, f thank Ken Eeikssoa, Llyn Sharp, Matthew Nyman aud
Kuren Jamison for helpful reviews.

s'HOTOOOAPHING FOR PHOTOMOSAtCS ocFFJscNcRs

Eqnipmrut Recoures, J., 19ll0, The Photographer's Handbook: Alfred Koopf, New York, 352 p.
Knuic Peorvsu,osec Poeevocnin, 1986, Kodak Publication No. R-28. Rochester, Nrw
Although any camera is adequate to photograph a rock outcrop, a 35-mm single- York. 40 p.
lens rvfleu (SLR) camera with interchangeable lens capabi 'uy is recommended. The Miau.. A. O., 1988. Pecios architecture inelastic reeks: io Klcinspehu, K. L., and Paola,
SLR camera is best because of its versatility, durabthty, ovaifabthty, and relatively C., otis., New Perspectives in llasio Analysis. Spriufer-Verlug. New York, p. 67-
low vest. To minimize distortion, a 50-mm lens is preferred, but eithve wide-angie 81.
or telepheto lenses can be utilized. To correct perspective distortion, a PC lese caa
be used with this system. Black-and-white film can savc moncy and provides
additieuu] versatility. A sturdy tripod with a there-way adjustable head and bubble
Ivvel is aise suggested, and a cable release for the camera shutter is necessary, to
miniwiev camera movement. A 50-m-long string and field compass may also be
useful in properly erienting the camera relative tedie outcrop lacy.

Methods

When photographing a laterally vsteusivc outcrop, some pluuaing is necessary. fu

order to keep the focal plauv parallel tu the ouecrop face and include the full hvight,
a proper distance away from div outcrop must be found. When optimum distance
cannot be attained, then corrections foe distortion meet be made. Once the
optimum camcea-to-outcvop distance is determined, u lune rcpresentnig an cquzl
disluoce from the fare should be consteocted. The closer to the outcrop that thy
cameea is placed, div more crucial the aceueacy m constructing this lire. Within 50
m it is u good idea te measure sise distance with a suing and repeatedly murk the
distance off along the outcrop as required.
Whvu setting up the camera, the tripod most be level. This wiped setting acts usa
datum surface for subsequent pesitious along the outceop. Adjust the camera so
that thy focal plane, effectively the buck of duc camera, and subject planc are
parallel (a compass with adjustable Ivvel is helpful), then leek the tripod head in
place. At each photograph position, the tripod should be rv-levcled, assuring that
the two planes remain parailvl. fa the case where the inclination of div outcrop luce
changes, the camero must be readjusted, however; seme distortion is mevitablr.
Overlap of photographs is necessary in construction of mosaics, because
distortion, resulting from curvature cf the lens, will occur to some degree m all
photographs. For outcrops prone to perspective distortion, spacing between
photographs is an impertant variable. As can be seen in Figure 2h, vertical hoes are
straight in the center and the effects of distortion are more pronounced at the
photograph edges. st is clear shut when constructing a phocomesasc any additsoual
ovvrlup betwecu photographs will eliminate move and more of the distorted outer
edges reducing the accumulated distortien or "smiling' of a photemosaic (Fig. 3).
Spacing for fully corrected photographs should be ut least one-hall the phosegraph;
these with some remaining distortion should be closer; the degree necessary

ausmsss
dvpends on the detail of the study and practical limitations.

Wizevich Photomosaics of outcrops 24

ssmaaasaa*a..**aa..m. _a....._..a_a.s.
OUTCROP AND SEMI-REGIONAL
THREE-DIMENSIONAL ARCHITECTURE
AND RECONSTRUCTION OF A PORTION OF THE
EOLIAN PAGE SANDSTONE (JURASSIC)
GARY KOCUREK, JULIA KNIGHT, A,°iD KAREN HAVHOLM
Dopnrteosert of Geologiiiai Stiessen
University of Texas
Agotir, Texas 78713
AnsTRACT. It 0,5e, to understand tom at rouan teqoerer Stan geeernord, a 45-m-high, iddiO-mO
ooteeep of Middle Stonaste Page Sandstone lene Page, Amura, eins erapped and eeoosn0000rd ronNie
the unten st a 93-ken-long lateri onnerro. Revogrtiiior os promirent bonedieg saefneea and
dmt,notroe nrqneeeea of orons,snnrn betroeere seriaren atieres the tdsotrtteanoe stone inrrplesrs. lite
A' vompleo tonante primanly of unser geaoed, loro to moderate-angle mica-seppie lsrrnar arranged
in seta, bot aine shores a single net of high-angle geniale. anam. lire utopies in titnared ir a
depresator on the J-2 ornlrfonniry at the top st the Nanay, Sandatovne, and a intorpretod to repensent
deposita et assisted ttaeebae dann. siiptaeeleaa hedlorren, and 'nredgrs' ut sand filling the depertaron.
The 'A' eompiea may he paon et Ihr J-2 'eeent'. predating the Page pee sr and eepreaett,ng leed
depesirioe in an onreall dehrrionsty petiod. or it may herald n'idrnçeead reeetsrd depositare
isornedistrlp peeeedtrg Or Page aynam, 'libe 'B' and 'C rompieses sen separated by a ptomtrent
torraer. but toit tonale of lae5e sers st 005gb ornas-sonta in ethieh the direeninnal spreads or the
lOrenetn defier oreneent,e shapes and the dominante et geainflort sosta ,ndiOater depositioe by
Osntoersednneo.Complen'B'aia000seninaserstlestsretntetpeeodnethe_aaltofarroetejrnut
atong lanka of etesoeroe dta. A rrany-ltmtnsrod, silty, Itre-grasned, rod staedttOne trata ne s
proerirent sneitoe that Onrentra the C temples- Ces-atraen atone this rutiase aro disinotly ditterert
trins these of the ordeelying rompiesen, Cotnpleaes 'D' te 't', eaefl et ohtoh ei sepseseed by a steilste
moth polygonal frsetooes, aro similar to one sototitee and teestst of nett dominated by rrind-npple
larnnsereith strergly deoeioped epeie snatthtasiooa. sad sae interpreted as Oh qnratnne deptrertr, The
oompleora differ, boatmen, in interpreted dnne nine and rttether the brdfotmts mere simple donen or
deans- At complenta or the oseleop shore a mean Oansretrt Jineteen setto tooth, ethicS etorenpoeds
te predortsarxt somberly sommer moda, D000r rrptrreeted by rompleorn 'B' and C' appear to hane
been heir sffrened hyninior .irdn from the eonnheaas, bot dotes er the overlying tompteses mere
moderately modified by more oseiable reiorrr moods,
Radionily differed interpretations of ohm compisses Sod peeretoeer stietaort ene be reaaooabiy
preponed. tnterpretahen of the sinisera aa f innt.00der tartness eer',nions that the terital arta lateras
Page ss-fornen tension from sotototeopted steomuiatton of a rodrtpread rag. elbett ondee ehaogrrg
oordirtoes mrO root-meg done typer. toterpretniort ut the stnfatea as roper sttetarrn Sad the
rompieses as deposita et sommo done fields and ergs forera ile Page arqoonee to br eiented an s
templen atnaignoratton of onerlspprrg mogroents st enge sed done tlelda tormed te a dyrarhe-hasir
sorting earth carping timen. siten. and negrees ot deposition ted tonton, 'fl,rnm nitmrnntr e-coma are
fundamentar ou the ondnrstaodieg of the geneais of eohao seqsrtira at the baaio level, sed arm
ftrenrndy best addressed at the megtonal and ter saine-p stale
Kocurek, Knight, axil Havholm
lNTgODr,JCTIoN
Novudu
Po, pese
The parpose of liait putpor is lo eoasmine io detail n largo, flreee-dimvosiotnnl
onterop of eeliam samdstome im order to amdersfnmd lbs depositiomal pattermo tIsaI
geneenf ed the nnmdslome body. Te nccomplisln this goal, three methods were
employed. Fusi, the outcrop was surveyed at the 'sol level' nmd reeomSfrmef ed ia n
reflet of scaled drawings, Socomd, thoro scaled drawings nod othee emferep dala
woee need te recomulrigof Ihe original bedfoemn. Third, im eomjmnction with vomi-
regnomal lateral Eating of imito and peOmimeml beunding surfacos, tho imleepretatiso
of the snedstoee body nl the done field and eeg (oofiaa-namd tea) stale is enploeed.
The ofraligeaphic architecture of the onlceop from the bedfoem reale to the dante-
field and crg scale is potemtially ilfuratiataled by thin overall approach.
Recogntitien of gemeine umif s thai eeptesrmt the deposiln of isidividnal dome fields
or ergs relies on the ercogmitiom of saper bonndimg surfaces (one rotiere 'in Koeneeh,
1988). Super bormdiog otgefates eepeesomf the ler'msimadom el ergs or done fields, oc
significamt portions thereof, se the cmli of erg or dnme-f'sold drpositiom in am arma,
l'fus can resnit from a variely of faetones or eveot smch as changes im climate, tea
level, rentre labio nud sand supply, et can restaIt from the dome field or meg
nrsageatamg past the area, but super smrf noes always mark Use top of n deposilioanal-
genetic dome-field er erg sequence. Smpee surfaces ore. theerfore, distino! from
other lypes of bounding smrfncos in eeliam seugneneos (o.g., first-, secemd-, and third-
order surfaces) because the lather result from bedform migration widrig n dome field
or erg. The stgnrlicanee of recogmiztng super snefnces im am eoliom soqnoncte inni the
bailar level--how nrc basins filled laterally and vertically by dome fields and ergs ing
dynamic telling? l'his is a citaI qgestiom in andeevfandimg ooliam-banin urehifecttsre,
but st io mol eue easily answered, nome discuss for the Page Samdslene.
lists study rs pats of a larger progtam. Im bonjuncliom with mapping the enlcrop
(Koaghl, 1986), pmtmeability of the eotk was measured at the loreset, laminan, and
bosmdang-smrfnce scale. These data, their slalisfical ltealnnent, and implications foe
coSan reservoirs are preserled 'nl Chandler (1986), Goggina (1988) and Goggim and
others (1988). Using the peemeability data, flow has boten modeled through a
portion of the outreop (L W. Lahe, pers. commun.). Currenlly in progress is a
regtomal sfrady for mosI of the Page Sandslone aimed al undeestamding more fully
the genetic units of the Page 'in the conino! of the informal and esireral controls on
depositiomal palIeres.
St tidy Outcrop
A knob of Middle Janassie (Bajoeian-Bnthomian) Page Sandstone in the Glen
Canyon Nalionuj Rocreatiom Arma mear Page, Ariaona (Fag. 1), mas selected as the
study site beoaune of ils lhree-dianensional exposure and ito heterogemoity of
feaistres fypical el eelian sandstones, The oulerop has n maximum height of 45 m
and has a basal urea of appeeuimately 54.000 m2 buI tapers apward. The study
outcrop dors moe show the entire section of Pnge Samdstomo; abent 25 m of stenta
bayo bmen removed from the iop, jrrtlging by compaeinom to the adjacent lype
setlion staled on Manten Mesa (oteo Peterson and Pipieiugos, 1979).
Pro. l.Ltemmtimn ut tian study nrrm nnaar Pngn, Amizonna, und t,nkm Ftrwmll,
with mnlorgmanmnt showing flag otnady kasob nn a portion mt Usc topogrnphisi
map for dam rmgiataa (USGS. logs),
Avchiledbere of the Pago Sandsboee
Ufoh Page SaSsi roe
The Fugo Sandstone is described and imleeptef ed in Peteriom asid Fipieimgov
N (1979), Capufo (1980), Blaliey and othors (1983), Kocoseek aud Doll (1983), and
Blakey and others (1988). In brief, the Page Sandstanr entends from nOrth-cenlral
Aetzona neeth-morlheasl lo norfheaslern Utah. lt is flanked lo the west by marine-
sabhba deposito within the Carmel Formation, and probably lo the east by the
Lotie
lowerarsost part of the Upper Member of the Caemel und the oqtsienleml Dewey
Poate/I Budge Member of the Emlrada, both of which represent sabkha io shallow-marine
tnvitoumemls (too Blakey and othees, 1988, Fig. 25). las southern Utah, the Page
bas been divided hite a lower and an ripper rollan sandstone (Harris Wnth and
Thousand Pockets Members, respectively) separated by the marime-sabkha Jodd
Hollow Tongue of the Carmel (seo Blahoy and others, 1988, Fag. 26), The Judd
Hollow thimo eaolwurd, leaving the Page undivided several kilometern west of the
study outcrop. The Page rests uncoeformably upen the Navajo Sandslomo and is
ocerlaim by the Upper Member of the Carmel ard the Dewey Bridge Membee,
From ifs slrnligeaphic position, the Page Sandslone represents a ceased- lo
inland-erg system flaotied lo the west nud maori by sabkha and shallow-marine
eovieommemls. The study omlorop 'u locatrd in an cast-central petition in the
southern pan of the Page Sandstone body.
Mrtfrodo
LAKE
POWELL The slxdy outcrop was mapped uviug a Lieto SDM3E vfecltooic lacheometer,
mhich ion surveying instnsment that measures travel lime of un oriemf ed later beam
to calculate absolute und relative distauees in an X-Y-Z coordinate system. For the
scale of the eultrop, meavuremonl eetoe dors not enceod 10 to 20 em. Bounding
surfaces, sets of cress-strata, und other bed-scab feahtees wnre mapped. Slrndlltres
associated with the prominent bounding surfaces wrre described. Each set mas
described with respect to the style of stratificalion (grainflow, gruinfall, and wind-
ripple deposits. Hunter, 1977). Approximately 800 cromo-stenta und bonnding-
STUDY AR"°3goO surface oriemtafions mere measured with n Bemmlon compass around the outcrop.
From these data, generntizsd oulerep walls were oemnlrtscled (Fag. 2A-E), which
form thr term of the study. Each wall drawing reprmsonf s slat outcrep along its
MANSON MESA gemeral tregd, eocoasxlrttcting to onalm the toughly pemlagossal knob. It is impossible
io measure leclonic till tsr sash an outcrop where no feattee can be noommed lobe
hoeiaonfal. From regional indications, howevre, the ted orne dip is u degree or Iwo
allo
lownrd the uorfhweot.
Fagnare 3 shows the seady outcrop in u semi-regional controt along u 9.5-lan
Enveros extending westward from the study site. Steatigraphic toits sr complexes
and their bounding sttrfaees recognizod al the study knob were mapped by tracing
the unito ucd surfaces where passible, und correlating where outteep was covmerd
se remoeed,
Around the malls of the strady snttrnp, 77 sets of cross-strata secar. Sols mithin
each tompbes ure numbered consecutively by simple snperposition sr croso-cutting
o 0.5 ieri relationships. Where net sfeutigrnpfaic position wus impossible lit determine, sel
cumbees are followed by a fetter sttbscrtpt, designating ultmemate poouibililieo.
¿ d,s bref
A crer for the entire section was obtained feom uear the center of thm study
Coiffnar ivferonl o loo ft oulceop. ha the case of some bounding surfaces und complexes with large or
distinctive cross-strata, coreelatian from thc core to the suttrop walls was possible.
PAGE 7,5 MIN. QUADRANGLE
For rompIeses consistirg of smaller scIs, sd-b-rd correlation feom the walls lo the
(USGS, 985) tore wax sot possible, and 'miernally the ontceop obviously consisto of many more
C,,oiinited so poor 27
25
A. NORTHWEST WALL
(N 48 E)

EXPLANATION
SURFACE SET FEATURES
FEATURES
Wind-ripple ___-_First-ordet surface 5S7
o Siliceous conCrefiOnS -
larninae -<- C---c--C--- -Second-order surface
-e Calcite concretions
1h d- d SS 6--
Grainflow strata
Polygonal fractures SSS
Fractures Prom inert
SS surface
Red bed

Drape
rl
----.--*it__=i
Suruey poinf
Breccia
SS4

SS3
re5

JOin

SS2.-

SSS

TIÌ-Ij - A7-c
. - ----- - -
r r
u

NAVAJO SANDSTONE
T___________________
Frs. 2.Oe.tcrep weil drewiegs for the seedy kreole coeetrwsted as ea (A) also applies to (B) to (E). Fornoot dip orneareIs rapresrat opperrat
described irr the trat. (A) eorthwrst weil. (B) southwest weil. (C) soeth dip eagles le the treed of the gearceellood wail.
weil. (D) soethoest weil. (E) martheast welL Symbol rxpleeotiee. ered colr

Architecture of the Page Saodstone 26

Kococek, Koight, and Havhalm
 Sots than are represented on the surface.
aa.s.....a.s.
J-2 SURFACE
Deecriprsos
S55 The upper coniatI of the eolias, Lower Jurassic (Plieuubachiatt-Toarciau) Navajo
B. SOUTHWEST WALL
Sandstone is att unconformity, the 'J-2' surface of Pipiringos (1967, 1968),
(N 24W)
Pipiringos and O'Sullivan (1975, 1978), and Peterson and Pipiriugos (1979). The I-2
surface o marked locally by chers grannies and pebbles interpreted as a desert lag
SS4 (Peterson and Pipirissgos, 1979, p. E22), paleefopogeaphic relief ineladiag
dcprrsaaons and 'Navajo hills' capped by rrsisfaot chert layers (Pipieingos and
O'Sullivan, 1978, p. A20), and polygonal fractures (Pipiringos and O'Sullivan, 1975,
SS 1978; Peterson and Pipiringos, 1979, p- B21-B23; Kecarek and Hunter, 1986).
At she study outcrop, the J-2 surface diuplays relief of over 7 m, forming a
deprecasen that opens to the northwest (Fig. 4), Polygonal fractures are larger
scsthtn the lowest part of the depression (northwest and southwest walls, Fig. 2A,
B), andare less developed or replaced by thin fraceores across paleetopographically
fogher areas (senth, southeast and northeast walls, Fig. 2C, t), E), lu addition,
sthceons and calcareons nodules occise euclusively is the lowest part of the
D3o depresston (northwest and southwest wails, Fig. 2A, B). Mierorelief np to a few
tens of eenttmrters occurs along the surface, especially where polygonal fractures
occur. Mere detatled descriptions of the fractures and associated features as the
SS 2. study area ars given in Kocurek and Hanter (1986).
Interpretation
The J-2 surface is interpreted as a saper bounding surface representing a period
of drftaeos and formation of erosional relief across a large portier of the Western
s tnteetor (Kocurek, 1988). The partly defined depression at the study outcrop is a
'supersceop' ai the terminology cf Blahey (1988), and given the absence of any
uon-eohan stratO within the fill, the depression 'o probably of a deflatienaty origin.
As presented in Koenrek and Hanter (1986), dir polygonal fractions aro interpreted
as the result of thermal conteacsian of an evaporite-sucrustrd sarface, the nodales
being replacements of evaponte nodules. Concentration of fractures and nodules in
depressions may rellecs greater deflation and preuimity to the wuter table, but
polygonal fractures on the J-2 surface are estesmely common regionally. More
47-n
detailed coutrol of the occurrence of these and ether features along the J-2 surface
41-a is needed to understand their placement and significaste in regard to the formation
J2 of the saper sarface.
r NAVAJO SANDSTONE
'A' COMPLEX
Fig. 2,Continurd, Deacriptiest
Thn 'A' temples cosstitates the initial deposits en the J-2 surface. The unit is nel
present everywhere at the study outcrop, but ruther reaches a maoimum thickness
(123 m) over the lowest part of the J-2 depression along the northwest wall (Ftg.
2A), then thins across the southwest wall (Fig. 2B) to terminate on the south wall
(Fig. 2C). A thin sliver of the 'A' tomplen is also present at the base of the
northeast wall (Fig. 2E). Thinning of the 'A' comptes occars in part by onlap onto
the rising J-2 sarl ate along the northwest and southwest walls, bst primarily occurs
because of crouton asuoctateal with the overl''B' temples on the northwest,
Kocuesk, Knight, und Havkolm Architetture of the Page Sasdstone
southwest, and south walls. Where the 'A' temples is nos overlain by the 'B'
temples, tt o bounded upward by a prossinsnt bounding surface (surface 1,
discussed later), which laterally also is the upper contact of the 'B' temples.
The 'A' templen is disttugstished by its reddish-brown color, a grain size (up to I
mm) that ts coarser than the remainder of the Page Sandstone, and its internal
structures (with the rsceps.sen of A), A7.b and Ato) of low-angie (O-8') wind-
ripple strata, Those sets (At-a, Al-b, A2, A4, AS, Ab, A7'a, Ail, A9) can be
disssngsnshed by subtlr low-angle bounding surfaces, as weil as by differences in
ortentatten of laminas from sette set (Fsg. 5). Within a sot, laminar appear parallel.
Bounding surfaces are roughly planar, with the ocerlying strata ranging from
sabparailel te gently augstar te the lower surfaces. Sots AS and AtO also consist of
wsud-rtpple tamstae, bat display stcepee lorcsets (up io 21' and 10', respecticely).
Set A7-b tenosts of Inter grainsd, wind-ripple laminas and coarser grained
gruinflew crass-strata (2-3.5cm thick) (Fig. 6).
A reprouve pallern of cross-strata may be present in mont of the 'A' templen,
but is most distinct in the wind-tippte laminas of AS, Ab, A8 and AtO, and in
alternating ripple and geninflow strata of A7-b. ta AtO, red, finer graineil laminas
alternate with white, coarser praised laminas in paekagss measuring 20-38 cm in
the general migration direetton, gsvmg the unit a 'candy-striped' appearance (Fig.
7A, B). In A7-b, layers al grainflow are separated by layers of wind-ripple laminas
forming repetitive packages 88cm thick.
The relattonshtp of the sels of the 'A' comples to rack other and to the J-2
surface can be seen in a series of palsolopographic maps (Fig. 8A-G). As a whole,
sets of the 'A' temples form a series of laterally overlapping, vertically stacked
wedges that progressively fill the evolving shape of the depression and conform fo
the conteur lines, Sots At-a to AS ars progoessisely eastward-shifted wedges, filling
the ongtnal J-2 drprreaon sack that about 4 m of relief remained. Ab then
blanketed the ssrface. A7-a was deposited on ths then lowest part of the western
side of the urea; A7-b shows an saslwasl shift again to fill the eastern part of the
depression. AO (not shown on Fig. 8) is a blanket deposit that completed lulling of
the origtnat J-2 depreeaon, at least as the study esscrep. At-b tannes be correlated
directly with any other amt, but in terms of elseatirn it represents an erosional
rsmnast of AO.
Fereset dip dsreetians collectively for the 'A' complsn span the compass (Fig. 8).
With the sncepltan of A7-b, however, strata are ripple laminas and their Orientation
thaws rosgbly the drposisional slope, bss not necessarily ripple migration or
paleowind direction (Hunter, 1977). Only AS and A7-a show lamivae dipping
directly msa the depression, as might be espected for a surface conforming to the
palsotopogeaphy. A4, A8 to tO show foreset orientations that define broad troughs
with ases dipping to Uts southwest to seatheast. Grainflew strata in A7-b dip
toward the south-southwest (197'), Where formats eeuld be sees within dis wind-
rtpple lamtnas in thrse-dimennional esposnrss of tho 'A' temples, most wind ripples
migrated toward the south-southwest to southeast.
As Soon eu Figues 3, the 'A' templen is net laterally tontinnoas, bat similar
deposits have bren discovered elsewhere al the baso of the Page Sandstone. Some
of these taube demonsteafed to occupy depressions en the J-2 surface.
Inierprelalion
The overall nature of the 'A' temples suggests four possible interpretations; t.
eottan sand-shret deposits, 2. basal remnants of dunes with slipf aces and esteusice
phuths, 3. deposits of slipfacelsss bsdforms such us eibars, and 4. sind 'wedges'
associated with the filling of the J-2 depression.
27
 In spite of tite dottsinatsco of wsnd-ripplo laminar within the 'A' complee, the
existence of sets, parallelism 0f laminae within sots, and the presence of some
broad, teongb cross-strata make an interpretation of sand sheets lacking bedforms
C. SOUTH WALL anlikely (see Koctsreh, 1986; Koeurek and Nielson, 1986).
(E-W) Ss7 Set A7-b, showing grainflow oxtending to the base of the set, mast represent a
slipfaeed, transverse, probably barchan dtase (see Koeurek, 1986) that migrated into
the depression and was partly preserved. The aniqaeness of this set wslhin the 'A'
comptes, however, suggests that boeckan dones f ormed but one component of the
overall seeing. Its presence dons suggest, however, that the overall regime was snob
that transverse dunes without phaths could form, and thaI the sets of wind-ripple
laminav arenal plintb deposits.
The personen of sets, especially the better organized trosgh sets of A8 to 10, dons
demand a becfform origin. Zibars or similar low-relief bedforms that tack sliplaces
and consist of wind-tippte stenosners (Nielson and Kocueek, 1986) seem most likely
here, especially considering the coarser grain size. Conversely, Al-a ta A7-a do not
show any obvions bedform origins and probably represent 'wedges' farmed by sand
ted into and deposited within the depression. This initial filling of the depression
was sporadic, however, as evidenced by the presence of truncattonal bounding
surfaces, and may be the result of the arrival of discrete pulses of sand transported
across the surf nne.
Foreset dip and trough axes for A7-b and A8 In 10, and loresets within wind-
ripple laminan indicate that paleowiads toward the sonthwest In southeast were
13-b most important in orienting the bedtorms. Grainflow strata frnm A7-b are
considered most reliable, and these show a south-southwest-directed (ll92) wind.
The repetilies pattern of stratification is interpreted as resulting from a eyche-wsnd
variation, which most likely reflects an annual bimodal-wmd regsme. Stronger winds
SS2 to the south determined dune orientation for A7-b, and are also reflected by the
coarser geaiued grainflow deposits formed when the dune was transverse te these
winds. Periods of weaker winds striking the dune obliquely resulted m alongxlope
trnnsportJ as evidenced by l'mer geained wind-ripple laminar between sequences of
grainllow strata. Similarly, cycles in AS, Ab, A8 and AlO thaw porieds nf stronger

Ssà winds that deposited coarser grinned sediment, and pericufs of weaker winds when
only finer grained sediment was transported. Annnal cycles posenlaled here are
compatible with the paleorlimatic wedel et the Middle lurassie by Parrish and
Peterson (1988), in which a bimodal wind regime is ssggested. They mdicate that
81-s stronger sammer winds were Inward she sonth-snuthwest to south-southeast, and
weaker winter winds were towaed the southwest.
Oar overall scenario for the deposition of the 'A' comples is intimately related to
the J-2 surface. The J-2 event was one of widespread deflation with development of
relief. Within this net deflationary setting, deposstson was not tavoeed, although the
y r surface was probably marked in places by sand in transit as blowing sand, cand
sheets, zibars, und isolated barehan dunes. The coarser narice of the sediment of
NAVAJO SANDSTONE the 'A' comples in comparison to the rest of the overlying Page indicates that the
balk of the saud represents a lag associated with deflation of the Navajo.
Within this overall scenario, however, the 'A' complex can be vtewed w two
different ways. The 'A' cemples may herald the renewal of net depositional
conditions that inoardiately preceded the Page ergs and done fields per or.
Fig. 2,Continard. Deposition was first locally possible only io depressions where deceleration of the
wind occnrred, and depressions on the J-2 surface acted as 'sand traps'. Alternately,
the 'A' comples may be a sequence of deposits that are totally separate genetically
from the later Page deposits. In descase, she sequence represents a 'J-2' evrnt, and
consists of sporadic deposits in depressions on tho surface. Clearly, regional data are
Coosisaed os page 34

Archilocture of the Page Sandstoeo 28

Kocorek, Knight, and Havholm

__.._________
 D. SOUTHEAST WALL
(N41 E)

F2
" Z"_,

'Z

SS2

NAVAJO SANDSTONE

Fig. 2.CrnOinud.

Kocurek, Knight, and Havholm Architecture of the Page Sandstone 29

 E. NORTHEAST WALL
(N 32W)
-- ---

FE- o

- - _- - _-
- - -_- e-
D7
--' -_- - -- !'-
-
-- - - -
-
- P..- _- - - __- - '- __- '- ,.-
i-

J2\
Al-b

NAVAJO SANDSTONE

Fig. 2.Co.tirned.

..a a..s......
Kocurek, Knight. und Flavholm Architecture of the Page Sandstone 30
*U........*.*...*. aa
!IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlII,IpiJiiii

EXPLANATION
Exposed
Covered
Fo. 3.Somi-rcg,o,I tnnig of compIoon of oroo-stnt d promot
Inferred bodig nfco from tho tiody o,tcrop (oostio 1) wcttwrd for 93 km.
All .cctiom. moro morrorod .0mg th Lioto SDM3E olcctromc tchromotor.
Eopoocd choco (tolid lioco) moro wolked. Corrolotlo.. o tord foo covorod
totorvolo (dottol li..ro) m.d whcro th rook km bomt removod (.hsbod boot).

Kocurek, Knight, and Havholm Architecture of the Page Sandstone 31

 7

Pro. 5.Solo ill the 'A' eompleo showing internal parallel, low-angle,
wind.ripple laminan, and gentle truncating bounding snofacea (arrowe). J.2
surface with polygonal tractoreo also shows. Photo from erar southwestern
port of sorthwrat well. Total thickness of seetion shown is about 10m.

O SOns

S WALl. (cw) Contour interval Im

For. 4.Coutoor map showing the interpreted poleotopography on the J-2
surface (i.e., top of Navajo Sondtone). Control pomts (dolo) are shown
along walls. Cote toeation mdicated by istesior dol.
Pot. 6..High.nogIr cr055-strata of set A7-b inset into low-angle, red seta
of the 'A' complec. Navajo Sandstone (N) and J-2 surface and overlying
mita also indicated. Photo from oorthrasteru part of northwest wall. Total
thickness of section shown is obost 13m.
V'o. 7.Set ASO showing wind.rippte eyelet. (A) 'Candy-striped'
appearance resulte from alternations of red finer grained and white coarser
grained lamiste. Surface i (SS1) and base of C2 shown. (B) anp of
cycles with rotulien to horicoutaL Photos from central part of northwest
wall.

Kocurek, Knight. and flavholm Architecture of the Page Sandstone 32

 A

S WALL (E-w)

F1o. 8.Coetoete mepe of the evolving pnlootopogenphy of the mittel J-2

dcpreosioee end sebeoqeent 'A' comptes till. Eesh mep wee conetoncted by
projecting the thicknete of neck tot, ne mcesnrd on the ontcrop well, mto
the intceeor end onto the J-2 contont mop (Fig. 4) pItes n.y nloendy deponited
sentO of the 'A' compleo. Ao oil tien bonndieg eoeieces ere trnncetionel, eech
noetoteo mep thowe eot.nents of ceodod enits end pelcotopogesphy en if the
seofece repecoento en iostent in time thot wen followed by deponition of the
overlying nnit. Foeeect ttitndes for nnite ere eloo ehown. (A) Al onto J-2
Attof new. (B) A2 onto J-2 enrices end Al depositn. (C) A4 onto J-2 entices
end Al to A3 deponite. (D) AS onto J-2 eetefnce end Al to A4 deponite. (E)
A6 onto J-2 e.nefeeo end Al to AS depooitn. (F) Al-n onto J-2 corlees end
A-t to AA deposits. (G) Al-b onto J-2 terfene end Al to Al-o deposits. (Coetin-
eed on foilowief pege).

Architecture of the Page Sandstone 33

Kocurek, Knight, and Havholm
 .._......m.. increased amount of wind-ripple foresets, and finally by aunt or sets al lower angle
wmd-rtppte laminac. The count consists of seven such cycles (Bt.b to 82-d; 83 to
B7; BO sa 811; Bl2 sa B14; 815 to Bi8; 819 ta 2f; and 822 to 823, which iv
incomplete).
The thickness of individual grainflow layers ranges from 1 cm in smalt sots such
at B23 to 23 to 4cm in larger sots such as Bi-b. Foreurs dip directions range from
south so casL Most of the f oresets amatan angular relationship with respect lathe
lower bounding surface of the set, but some essentially parallel it (Fig. 9).
Two sots (BZ-a, B2-b) on the southwest wall show a scalloped style loading into
B2-c. These sets are inaccessible and small, and arc rot included is the overall
'interpretation. Sot Bl-e is n small wind-tippled set not obviously related to she
overlying ceses (Fig. 2E).
On a larger scale, the 'B' complex extends from the stady outcrop westward 43
km, where it ix progressively truncated with its upper bounding surface (surface 1)
dowucusting to tise J-2 level (Fig. 3).

litt erpretariois

needed on the age, oature of the deposits, and whether or not evidence exists that
shows a break rn sedimentation between the 'A' complex-type deposits and the
overlying amts of the Page,
ir COMPLEX
Deocriptiox
The 'B' complex ranges in thickness from Oto 9m around the seedy outcrop, and
occurs as teougho downcntting into the 'A' complex on the northwest and southwest
walls (Figs. 2A, B) to the level of she J-2 surface, upon which the 'B' complex rents
on the S, southeast and northeast wails (Figs. 2C, D, E), A toed of 29 sets can be
recognized (Bl-a to 824).
Sets of the 'B' complex consist of two distinct typest (1) forge, simple trough sets
(Bl-a, BZ-o, B24); and (2) scalloped sots foaming a count (Bi-b, 82-d, B3 lo B23).
The large, simple trough sets ase similar te each other in size, shape and internat
structure, A trough-shaped lower bonnding tael ace occurs where the sets dowucut
into underlying 'A' or 'B' complex (Bt-a on southwest and south walls; B2-c an
southwest and south walls, B24 on southeast wall). Where duwneutting reached Ike
Fig, 8,Continued,
J-2 snefaea, the lower set surface (J-Z) isptanar (Bl-a on south and southeast waits;
824 on sontheast wall). Plotting of the foreset orientations (Fig. 9) reveals segments
of ceesceattc shapes, wtth loeeset dip directions ranging from south-southwest to
southeast The foresets arr dominated by grainflow cross-strata, with 'asdividuat
strata being 5 ta 6,5 cm thick. Typically, grainflow layers extend to the baso of the
set or a thin boftomsat of wind-ripple laminac occurs (Fig. 10). A poorly defined
cychcsty occurs in whwh packages up toSi to 70cm thick of a few to as many as 15
grainflow foyers are separated by thin units of wind-ripple laminar (Ftg. 10). A few
surfaces show eshumeif lee-faca wind ripples, and these show alougxfope migration
toward the west, In set BZ-e, a lateral change from grainflaw strata to wind-ripple
strata occurs fram the southwest ta the south walls; this is accompanied by n
decrease in foresal dip amount from 24' to 19' (Fig. 9). Set B24 differs frein the
above description by having a maaunuin grainflow-fayer thickness of onty about 4
cm and by showing a more tightly curved shape as defined by foreset thp directions
(Fig. 9).
The count characterizing the 'B' complex on the northwest, northeast and
southeast walls forms one of the mast complicated deposito present on the seedy
knob (FW ZA, D, E). As best seen on the northeast wall, individuat sets are
systematically truncated ta the southeast.
Unfortunatety, the outcrop on the northeast wall iv beveled and it was not
possible to measuec bounding-surface orientations accuratnly. However, ocing paies
of apparent dip directions from the northwest to the northeast walls, and from the
northeast to the southeast walls, dip directions for the bounding surfaces could be
determined. These range tram 16' na 112' direction in the northwest, te 12' in a
144' direction in the southeast, a tlireetional variation of 52'. Figure 9 shows a plat
of dicte bounding surfaces with interpolations made in bath amount and direction
of dip foe the middle segment on the northeast wall.
Sets composing the coset vary in size from bring as thick ax the coset to being
only a fraction of the count thickness. Simitarty, ax measured in the general
migration direction, sets range from thin slivers io fees of meters t ong.
Sets composing the count show a type of cydicity with respect to stratification
type (Fig. 2A, D, E). Oct stytcs consist of 1. nearly ail gruinflaw strata dipping at
24' with a very small, if any, boftomset of wind-ripple laininae (Bt-b, B3, 88, B12,
BiS, B19, 822, B23), 2. grainflow strata passing into accumulations of tangential
svind-rispte faremO (84, 85, B13, Bl4, 816), and 3. all wind-ripple laminar dipping
at 8-20 (B2-d, which contains a siugte, unusually thick, apparent grainflow layer,
86, B7, ll9, BtO, 811,817, B18, 820, B21). Taken aso whote, a cycle consists of a
set or sets dominated by geamfiow strata, followed by n set or sets with un
Thr two dissimilar set styles composing the 'B' complex can reasonably be
produced by one type of dma (a dune with superimposed small dunes, see Havhotm
and Kocutek, 1988), This interpretation recognizes that only small segments of the
Ire-face strata tif very large dunes aro preserved in the 'B' cumplen, and that
changes in tee-face configuration are expected where crestline sinuosity occurs
(Havhotm and Kocurek, 1988).
Figure 11 shows a reconstruction al the 'B' complex 'type' dma foamed by
compiling all outcrop data. Platting the range of forecrt dip directians for the simple
trough seta accesa a line drawn perpendicsmtar to she trough axis (177') defines in
plan view o segment of a crescendo bedlorm with a canstanl radies of curvature. A
plot of strata types shows that this concave-downwind segment wax a slipfuce
marked by geainflow processes, andas the angle of repase (abonl 32' reduced here
ta 24' by compaction). This segment was transverso to the primary dnne-forsssing
winds and experienced no siguificanl alongulope transport (Kocurok, 1986). Sllpface
width was about 150 m. The change in strata type alaug the arc within set 82-e
teem grainflow to wind-ripple cross-strata with a corresponding decrease is foreset
dip amount shows the curvucire of the leo face from transverse to oblique with
respect to the primary winds, and the site of the onset of dgoificaat alougotope
secondary airflow, as evidenced by the wind-ripple strata (sae t(ocuerk, 1986).
The tendency foe trough-shaped tower bounding surfaces, where the bedfoem
was scouring into otder 'A' or 'B' complex deposits suggests that the drnas were
roughly out of phase with respect to crostline sinuosity (Robin, t957a, Fig. 34).
Trough scouring was largely prevented where dowucuttiag reached the J-2 surface
because this surface was cemented by cvapontes (seo previous J-2 discussion). The
relationship between grainflow-layer thickness and dipfacr bcighs (Hunier, 1981;
Koesirek and Daft, 1.981; Kocurek, Andcrsou and Nielson, unpublished data)
indicales a deaa slipfare height of 60 to 80 m without accounting for compaction,
and up la tilO m with compaction eernoved (24% compaction is based on presumed
angle of repose of grainftaw strata at 32', now measuring 24' in the ouserap). 824
represents a smaller dana (Si-m sliptace height with compaction removed),
suggesting a decrease in bedfoem size near the end of 'B' complex deposition.
Cycheity of the loresets indicates a wind seasonalisy siasilar to that of the 'A'
complex Stronger summer winds so the south determined dona oricetation and
resalled in grainflow przerssvs on the shpface. Ripple-laminao, rcflocimng alongslope

Kocurek, Knight, and Havhofm Avchileclore cf the Page Sandsloxe 34


el-b
tOO
Fie. 9.Data sheet for tise B' campleo showing os plan view loentions of
sets around the outcrop, cross-strat, strikes and dips, and bounding-sarfare
(dashed lines) dip amounts and direelioun (arrows). For sets Bl-a, B2-c and
Fin. iOSet BI-a on sonlisweut wnil showing eroso-stenta style typirol of
'B' and 'C' rompieres. Geainflow layers (G) entend to near base of set,
wind-ripple lusninac (W) form thin layers parallel to grainflow cross-strata.
Poorly drfinrd cyeies consist of sequences of coarser grained grainflow
strata separated by the thin, finer grsined wind-ripple layers. Noir pen
(arrow) toe sente.
secoedaty airflow ssflicient to teassport sand, occur without a moddicanos of
slipfaco slope and do not form siguificant brttoms5s. Winter pritoary oblique
winds, therefore, are believed sot to have ref ormrd the dma to any great extent.
The direction of the winter wisda cannot be deteresined with vortainty because any
wind striking tite drue obliquely results in alrogslope leo-f ace wieds (Havholm and
Kocurek, 1988; Sweet and others, 1988), bat the migration direction of the
exhumed ripples was to the west. The predicted sosthwest-directed winter winds of
Parrish and Prtrrsos (1988) ace again compafibfr with the held data. Given the
cycles, draa advance was episodic, with slipface advance of up io 60 to 70 coi during
the summer, with little advauco and some reworking doriog die winter. Those
udvaneo ratrs are comparable to others for ancleet dunes in the region described by
024 Hunter end Robin (1983).
Scalloped eroso-sleale shown by Bi-c to B23 can result from pronooneod
flucutatioss in flow, or by migrutios of superitnposrd dunes or scour pits os the
deals leo fave (Robin and Huntor, 1983; Ruble, f 987a, b). Because the foments
diverge in dip directios from that of the bounding surfaces for most of tho 'B'
eomplrx, the scalloped struetnee ix interpreted as the result of superimposed
bedforms. The bounding surfaces (second-order surfaces in the trrminology of
Breolifield, 1977) form as the migrating superimposed bedforms scom mIo the Ire
face of the drue; the formsrts result from los-face deposition oe the supenmpovrd
dunes (Brookfleld, 2977; Kocueek, 1981; RabIn and Hunter, 1983; Robin, 1987a, b).
Thr interactioss of the shape, orientation, raie of deposition, migeu000 direction
B24, foresee ,ttitudes measured ou the outcrop wail are projected bach to
define ares. Trough aais (177 ) shown for Bi-u. and speod of both the chao and the superimposed dunes determine the
configuration of the bounding snrfacos and the cross-strata. Where deposition by
the snpenmponnd dunes ocones, the boundmg sarfaurs move ap with respect fo the
depositional sasfaees; thus the drue Irr face does not parallel the second-order
bounding surfaces (see cuempfesin Rubis, t987a, Fig. 46).
lodi ores recousteactioe of the eoscto of the 'B' complrs can be accomplished by
assembling a model that satisfies all the field data, and matching this vchemr against
computcr models developed by Rubio (i987a). For dir 'B' complex, superimpoxod,
three-dimensional crescentic bcdforins migrating obliquely down dic draa lee face
best satisfy dic data (Fia, t2A, B).
From the gross eonfiguroüos of the sccocd-ordcr bounding surfaces, the doue Irr
face dipped toward the southeast to south quadrants. For the computrr model, a
mean dip direction of 245 with an overage slope of 14' was used for the drua leo
face. The change in sccosd-ordvr vurfaco dip direction from 112' to 244' probably
reflects curvature of the drue crestline, because so evidence occurs to suggest that
the change results from shifts in angle of climb of thr superimposed doers.
Systematic truncation of dic sets in the general migration directiou (Fig. 2E)
shows that thr superimposed dunes had a componvat of d,aa alosgslopv migration
sack that each successive trough cat into deposits of the previous bedform (seo
Ruble, t987a, Fig. 46). The scallops os the sortheasf wall ors replaced on the
southeast wali (close ton tight aorje) by segments of troughs with flat ar tow-angle
foresets dipping toward the aortheaxt wall (Figs. 2G, E). Compster modrling shows
that had superimposed dune migration been totally ulongslope, the southeast wall
would show foresets dipping away from dic northeast wall aufl sols would climb in
a southwest direction (sor simiar examples in Rubia, t987a, Fig. 46). Rather,
outcrop configtoation is matched by the suporimposcd dones having had a
component of doweslope migration such that portions of troughs are inlrrsrcted on
dir southeast wall.
Plotting of dir superimposed sets by foeeset alulxdr asd stratification type
reveals a portion of a crescontic bcdform (Fig. it). The northern half of the 'type'
dune is shown (dis sondiere half has bora systematically tonacaled by the
composexl of alosgslope dune migration(, in which lower regle wind-ripple strata
are erplaced toward the center of thrum by grainflow strata at the compacted angle
of reposo. This reflects the concave-downwind segment of the slipf ace that is
rvptaced laterally by wind ripples produsod by secondary ulongslope airflow. This
pattern could also reprsscnl segments of a sinuous-crested bedform instead cf
barchanoid shape. Some lower angle wind-ripple sets that plot al the couler of die
arc (Fig. li) probably roprvsont preservation of only botlomsots.
The foresris defmr a general dip direction toward 265' (Fig. it), but this is not
necessarily the migration direction al dic superimposed dunes because the dunes
moved across a sloping drue leo surface (Rubio, 1987e). Using the stern000t
construction detailed in Robin and Hunter (2983), the superimposed flancs
migrated toward 198', or obliquely down diedros Ire face (Figs, It, 12,4,, B).
The cycicity of the sets in terms of stratification type and dip amount au well as
changes in set thickness arr aleo predicted by modeling sinuous superimposed
dunes Because the dunes are thrre'dimeosional with lateral changes in strata type
along the lee taco, scI geomrtcy must change as different segments of the
superimposed dunes pass through dis ouicrop plaac (soc other examples in Rabin,
t987a, Figs. 72, 73). The covet cyclieity, therefore, originates as a conseqaenee of
bvdform migration and noI changes in flow conditions.
The calculated heights of the slipfacrs of the superïmposcd dunes based on
grainflow layer thicknesses ranges from about 1 to 60 m, allowing foe compaction.
This mago suggests that din smaller dunes are Ihr toste lee-face superimposed
dunes. The taller slipfacos represent either large scallops extending nearly the height
of the drue lee laco, or Ihr breakdown of a distinct drue brinkline with dic draa Ire

.....a.*...a..S...N
Kocurek, Keight, and 1-f avholm Architecture of the Page Sandstone 35
 face feaveng cotesiserd of a 'slairutep' of dones. The tolles scoeaeio may br relleeled
PRIMARY WIND
by those crOsn.strata and lower bomedieeg oeefaees thaI aearly paeallel each othor,
this conhiguralion resulls where dunes migrase down the draa lee face (sec Rubia,
1987a, Fig. 25).
The overall dma type interpeeled for Ihr 'B' complex reduces lo a relalivrly
coopte, common style (Fig. it). A viete-skapest cresthne satisfies all dala, with s
shpfaeo on the cancane postions (and probably also on the transverse convex
posItons). Avsnmeng shiv smr-vhaped boolform, the wavelength of plaoform
smuosety was abad 600 m. The dran slipfaee was replaced by a wind-rippled fee
face, and conliencul alongstope teassspoet gave sise Io sinaous, superimposed dunes,
The draas were, therefore, compound ceescenfie dunes (terminology of McKee,
l99). Preservation iv primarily of slipfaer segmeele, with the coset reflecling less
common preservation of laIeraI flanks, lithe above scenario is represenlative of the
'B' comptes, then the deaas were not per! ecdy ont of phaso (Rab'm, t9ll7a, Figs. 32.
37).
SURFACE t
Drocripeioer
Snefaee 1, teoncating the 'A' and 'B' complexes, isa prominext feature thaI forms
n 'scoop' opening lo the soatheast, with 93 se of relief betweon the south and
77' southeast walls (Ftg/ 2C, D). Over much ef the slndy Outcrop, the surface is
fcaloreless. A collapse breccia of 'B' complex serata occnrs along Ike surface on the
northern part of the northeast wall (Ftgi 2E). Miceetopography on the scale of lens
of centimetres is locally presenl. A red bed of l'mer geaieseal wavy Iamioae oecncs
across the soulheasl wall where il reaches a maximnm thickness of 70 cm, bese
pmchex oat laterally as the cnrfaco erses (Figs. 2D, 13). A similar red bref oecnrs on
N curvature of 35' foe 100 m of lateral distance occurs. For comparison, the trouglts
the comer of Ihr sonde and sonlbwest walls (Fig 2B, C). Regionally, the ssteface
25,,,
can be traced from the sensI y owerop westward abont 43 km, where il
a's/nt/on 55,5/o o,th progressively dips to Ike J-2 level,
Sd-ripple Iaesnoe
!flltrpreeatioo
One of the most difftcstlt interpretations Io make foe an cellan seqncnce,
especially on the outcrop scale, is whether a 'eonlianonu' surface represents a snper
cnr! eco cappmg a deposilional.grnetie srqnence, oran ordinary t'trst.order bonnding
Shape of Superimposed dunes sserface eesnitirsg from dnne/draa migration and representing the inlerdnatr floor.
defined by foresets Discstssion of the criteria foe distinguishing the Iwo types of surfaces, none of which
are preseettly considered entirely 'fool-proof', is presented al the end of dee papee,
S/ALE
SLIP FACE but clearly the alternate interpretations are fondamental.
With regard Io snrfaee t, featnees (i.e., wavy red beds, mieroeopogeaphy, collapse
breccia) are present that ase lacking in apparent ftrsl.order bounding surfaces inder
ieoderlymg'B' eomplen. The surface can also be traced mneh farthee than any
sodeelying surface, and deposits of the 'B' and ovrrlynig'C' complexes are distinct.
t' COMPLEX
teso. 11.Reeonetrnetio.e of the 'type' 'B' complex dom showing Iee.faee
eo.efignoatioe. need deposits Soc additional explanation need disceteedoen m the Deoodpliox
text.
The 'C' compleo sa relatively tabular unit (2 fo7 se thick) that enlends over the
entire outcrop, and is situated between surfaces land 2. The complex contains only
there sols (Fig. 2). Ci is a thin, laterally discontinaoas, largely inaccessible set on
E Kocarek, Knight, and Havholm Architecture of the Page Sandstone
the soath and southwest walls. (2 forms mosS of the comptes. C3 scenes into C2 on
the northwest and oortheasl walls.
C2 appears Io be a sogmenf of a very large trough sel. The trough shape of the
forests es det'ened on the southeast wall, but this segment of the sot is loo small to
determoer whether the lower bounding surface is also teosegh shaped Fsg. 2D).
Uung mean dep directions foe loresels on cock wall, a curvature of only 9 ix shown
for C2. As defined by this foresee-dip dispersion, the southeast wall is oriented
about 7' from peependicatar Ioder sot axis (taken as 130').
Sels C2 and C3 show tdrnucal styles of cross.strota and are similar Io these of
the large troughs of the 'B' comptes (Ftg 2). Grainllow cross-strata dominate and
eslend to the base of the sets or nearly so. Poorly defmed eydlieity occurs in which
then layers of wind.rspple lamnsae soparate grainflow loyers at intervals of several
tens of eenttmetrrs to a meter or more. (trainflow strata range ap to 63 to 8 cm
duck, In C2, on optimare exposures, small soperimposed sols can be seen that are
concordant seslb the overall foresees and that internally show foresets of wind-ripple
or grainflow eross.strata at an aagntar discordance with those of C2 (FW 2C, E). lt
was not pusseble to measure aeeseeatrly the orientation of those small forests, bnt
the general dip direction is to the southwest.
Tenmnateon of the 'C' eomplen kas not yet been wen in semi-regional sarfaee
tracing (Fig. 3).
Isfrrprslarirre
The 'C' comptes presents the case where interpretation iv lienited becouse the
scale of the ongenal beslform greatly exceeds thaI of the oneerop. A transverse,
ccrsoentse beilform is suggesteul by the trough-shaped foresots and grainflow serata
estendmg to near the base of the set. If the mean dip directions are used, a
of the 'B' complex thom a enrvavere of 30' for 100 m of lateral distance.
Otientatson of the trough axis indicales primary transport IO the southeast, bue this
es an ancertaru mterpretatson because the outcrop shows only n small sognerne of
the larger structure.
The same sore of soasonat winds that affeeled the anderlysng'A' and 'B'
complexes appears to have peoduerd the poorly defmed cycles of the 'C' complex.
Here, however, oblique winter winds from the northeast can be confidently
mferpreted because of the sonthwest (alongslope) migration direction of the
superimposed small dunes soon in C2. Reformation of Ihr dunes during the winter
winds agasn appears nne Io have been very signifiranl, bot was sufficient to cause
peeodee development of the small, seperienpesed dunes ondee draa leo face.
The thickness of the grainftow layers suggests original slipfacr heighls of 80 to
tb m, not eonsedeeing compaction, and itO Ir 135 m with compaction remeved.
Clearly, the deans of the 'C' complev were sabstantialty larger than those of the 'B,
comptes, bnl ir is oncertain if they differed in their morphology. Regional tracing
thus lar vnggests thaI the 'C' comptes represonls a large Page dane field, or more
probably an erg.
SURFACE 2
Deocriprios
Sieeface 2, which bounds the 'C' complex entirety around the study oulerop (Fig.
2), shows o general dip ro the northwest, but with saperimposod relief (Fig. 14).
Thes relief coceases of depressions ou the northwest wall and the northeastern
Coxuxaed on poco 39
36
 Fin. 12--Comprter-g000roted modol for the segmort of the 'typo' dro
of the 'B' compter cbrrctoriued by orpor.mp000d doreu elimbü.g obliqoely
dowo the doro loo free. Model hr boor rotote,j ooch thot the right writ
porrino the roetherot writ, rod the loft writ 000rly porrUdo the torthorot
writ. AU mto.t p000otot000 toke, from Figree 11 or ro diocrorod i the trot.
(A) Sorfoce oectior view. (B) Horiootri ootioo view.

Architecture of the Page Sandstone 37

Kocurek, Knight, and Havhotm

._N_...._____..__ s..... .___..*.._..


Pto. 13W.vy himiun ru rod bud or. rurfose 1, noutl.eorf mull,
Subr.quemrs (onrillotio.?) ripple gruir. (R) und fluid-ernupu tuben (E)
evident, but moni, of tIre trutificution nonage, of indistinct weep lumiune.
corner of the southeast walt; a retative 'high' ceours on the southeastern comer of
the northeast wall.
Thr surface s either featureless or shows a prominent red bed that is up to 13m
thick on the sortheast wall (Fig. 2E). The red bed is similar to that overlying
surface t io being a silty, liur-gruised, red sandstone consisting of wavy laminar.
The surface tuo be trucad ut east as fac as the area shown in Figure 3. Westward
from section 5 on F'tgure Sa wedge of crouu-stratilled units separated by prominent
surfaces recors betweon surface 2 and the overt''D' complex.
Isrerprerarion
Surface 2 appears to br au extensive surface that separater distinctly different
cross-strata styles of the 'C' comptes from the ovrrf''D' comptes (discussed
uest). As with surf aoo t, the red bed on surface 2 must represent accumulation in
shallow, standing waler or ono damp surface. Muck of the stratification of both red
beds, however, is problematic. Some subaqueous ripplo cross-strata, fluid-escape
structures, and contortion are evident (Fig. 13). Other strata arr similar to salt-ridge
slroctssres (Frybeeger and others, 1984), but most casuist of iodistinct wavy
laminar. These beds, however, do sot appear to have been well comeuled, judging
by the relative oase of scouring by subsequent migrating badI orms. The red bed is
clearly removed ou the outcrop where troughs of the 'D' cumples scoured betow
the tevel of surface 2 (depressions on Fig. 14). In contrast, bodfoemx are less readily
scoured into surfaces macbed by polygonal fractures (J-2 und surfaces io the Fags
discussed later), which aro believed to have been cemented by evaporitos and more
resistant to scour by wind.
The patchy occurrence of the red bed on surface 2 illusloales Ihr problems
associated with intorpretiog the origin of the bed. Besides whore the bed has boon
Kocurek, Knight, and Flavholns
clnaely removed by tatne scouring, its distribution over the study outcrop does not
dofme any obvions patterns, suck axa relationship between deposition and erlief os
the surface (Ftg 14). II in not known how long a peñad the surface represents, or
how muck or where remI was present al any given time. The red bed may hace
accumulated at different times over Ihr study aera, and may alus have been
selectively removed before deposition of the 'D' complex. loi all likelihood, the red
bed once spooned the study outcrop, but has been largely removed on thu western
hall. The less in the depression of the northwest wall may represent redeposited
redbod sediments in the scoured trough of u bedfoem (Dl-a, Fig. 2A), judging by its
much tower stratigraphie height in the suction in comparison to other outcrops of
the red bed.
Fur, 14.Contour mop of s,nrfnen 2 witln interpreted dintaibntion of red
bad (stippled) on bused on wall uueeropn and core (dot).
Architecture of the Poge Sandstone
D COMPLEX
Deocs'iptiort
The 'D' comptes, between surfaces 2 and 3, averages 8 to 9 m thick, with
threhness extremes of 6 m on tho northeast wall and tO re on the norlhwesl wall
(Fig. 2). The 'D' complex contains lt sels (Dl-a, Dl-b, D2, D3-a, D3-b, D3-c, 04
lo DO). Most sets occur on only our or two walls, but sets D2, 04, and D? span
much of the study outcrop. Alt sets below DO appear very similar in style, and
thslincl from Df. The 'D' complus extends at oasI as fur us current lateral tracing
(Ftg.3).
All sets in the 'D' complex are simplr. On appropriate esposares, the reoss-slrala
are tecugh shaped (see especially Fig. 20), and the lower bounding surfaces are
planar to broadly trough shaped. Foe larger sets (02, 04, D7), outcrop scale is tesi
than that of Ihr sets.
Sots Dt-a to 07 show either grainflow cross-strata parsing downward into wind-
rspplr strata, or just wiod.ripple strata, depending on tho resent of set truncation
(Fig. 15). Orainflow strata thicknesses runge from 2 to 4 cm. The degree of wind-
ripple development us foresets and bortomsets is much more estensivo than in the
'B' or 'C' complexos. Similarly, cycicity is much better developed. Packages of
grainflow strata are separaled by centimetres of windripple taminae (Fig. 16A) in
repetitions thaI range from 15 to 50 cm. Grainitow ayees are darker and coartar
than the sciodripple strata. Even in batlomsets at wind-ripple laminao ar in sets
consisting entirely of wind-ripple cross-strata, cycictiy is evident. Darker, coarser
grained, wind-tipple laminau alternate regularly with lighter, fame geained ripple
lamtnar (Fig. 16B), Commonly, cycles of gouinflow und wind-ripple laminae esidoul
os foresras can be traced as cycles into bottomsels of entirely wind-ripple lamioao
(Fig. 16C).
Figure 17 shows a plotting of foreset dip diroctionn for those sets al the 'D'
complex m which sufficient good data exist. Esco collectively, sets below 08 define
a narrow range of curvature (maximum for a single set is 48' for 04, 54'
collectively). Mean faresel dip direction is toward t60'. Exposures exist on the
south wall where exhumed ripples are present on f oreset faces; these arr migrating
alongslope lo the W.
Angle of climb for sets in the 'D' complus cao be oslimulud where sels overlie
other 'D' sols, and are continuous in the migrasion direction. Only sels 04 and D?
meet these criteria, and an angle of climb reward the southeast of 03' and 0.6'
occurs, respectively. A horizontal drpositioual surface is assumed.
Set DO (Fig. ZA, B, C) departs from the above description by its shape, style of
cross-strata, and nature of climb. A well-drfmed trough occurs in outero, and the
forests derme a crescentic shape with a spread of dip directions (72 ) dial is
greater than the erst of the endeo'D' complex (Fig. 17). Mean dip direction is
toward 186'. Grainff ow cross-strata dominate the setto r greater peoporlion than
for other 'D' sets. Ist thu migralion direction, overall the set downcuts into
anderlying'D' complex and shows a negative orgie of climb, assuming a horizontal
dvpositional surface (see Rubis, 1987a, Fig. 9).
interpretation
Extent, number of sots, and thickness indicase dial the 'D' complus represents a
persillent Page deposit. The simple sets with becad troughs and slight curvature
defmod by foresels show thaI the dunes were simple, open, crescontic features foe
Pm. 15.Onferop of»? on nonbeaut well rImming typir.ul style of renna-
grue, for nets ubove rueguen 2 (compinnen D, E, F, G, H), ir. whirl foreaatu
dominuted by gruinliow (G) ut top of ret puss downwued into tangentiel
wind-ripple luminue (W), Note rer.niivntion (thirdoeder) nurfuen (R) with
ont-building of subsequent grninflow ceouu-,grutr.. Pud of red bed mu nnrfuee
2 visible ut buse of rut,
sots Dt's 1007. Determination of dune heiojstt from grainflow strata indicate 20 to
45 m without considering compaction, and 25 to 60 rs with compaclion removed.
The near staching of troughs with lalerally inlervening feough edges soon an the
southeast wall suggests largely out-of-phase brdfoems (Fig. ZD, see also Rubis,
t987a, Fig. 34).
Although mean foresol dip direction is lo the southeasl, a change in wind regime
from the cedcetyiug B' and 'C' campleses is indicated b y cross-sta style and
degree of development of cycicity. Extensive displays of wind-tipple laminar as
foresess show much greater saud transport by secondary atongslope Ice-taco winds
and developmenr of plinth deposits than sean previously. Periods of avalanching
alternated with periods of utongstope transport when most of the tee face wax
probably covered by wind ripples. Lao-face accretion occurred even during the
latter periods by deposition of wind-ripple laminar. Given thu roughly northeast-
trending crestlinos, westward alongslope ripple migeatien is compatible with the
posedaled winter winds from the northeast (Parrish and Peterson, t988). Slipface
development occurred during the dominanl summer winds from the north-
northwest lo north-northeast. The increase in the apparenl inlentity of the winter
winds in comparison Io the underlying sets may rutted local configuration, or the
begiuniup of more variable wind patterns suggested to hace occurred by latee
Jurassic (Callosian) lime (Parrish and Peterson, 1900).
'D' comptes dunes can be classified st oblique dunes in the geologic sense.
Modern dimos are classified as transverse, oblique, or longitudinal with respect lo
coestlinc orientation and incidouce augf e of the tong-term wind dieoctional average
(Hunter and others, 1983), bnl this is not generally possible in the ancient record.
As we use the term here, 'oblique dune' refers lo those characterized by a
38

L-S-
Fm. 16.Cyclru m tho 'D' co.pleo thot oro typleol of complonon D, E, F,
G, H). (A) Groir.flow (G) oc.d wiod.npplo (W) escoto ltor.otioo.n high mccc
Dl o. nor.tho.ot well. Groioflo.. escoto oro cooenor groi.od 1lit. wi.d-ñpple
looni.00, Noto loor cop for netto. (B) Cycloa m not D5 o. notch woE
coouiotio.g of cootnor (Wi) tod floor (WZ) wiod-cipple Iood.oc, ceoe boor og
set. Noto 15-e.. color for netto. (C) Sot Dl o. notti. woE .howoog cycico of
groi..flow tod wmd-.ipplo escalo ou i. (A) p000ir.g 'dow..-nnt' mto wiod-
ripple cyclox t. m (B). Fimie groir.od wiod-ripple lomi.on or bottomuot co.
ho trocod 'op-.rc' on lomiour bot-toc. 0000rco geoiood groi.flo. ntroto.
Sio..il.ely, coornor grtinrd wiod.ippIo Ito.i.00 co. ho trocod 'op-tot' orto
groinflow escoto. OveroS, thin pottoo. i..dicotcn pooiodu nl .tro..gor windo
who. tho Inc foco tor choroctorizod by t. ovoloochi..g .ltpfocc tod o tied-
rippled plieth, tod periodo of wookor ,ñodn who, clic rohre loo foco woo
rippled tod onpceinocnd oloognlopo tirEnt. Note field eofnbook (netter) foe
nielo.
Kocurek, Knight, and Havholm
predominance of aloogslope transport of sand on die tee foce. Dunes of the 'D'
complex, therefore, contrast with thoxo of the 'B' und 'C' complexes, which showed
a predominance of avalanching und little alongslope transport, rod were classified
as transverso. Given the crestline sinuosity for some 'D' complex dunes, lateral
migralioc of the sinoosity may hove occurred becasen of the alongslope transport,
but lack of horizootal soctions precludes this detrrnsinaiioo (see Robin, 1987a, Figs.
4210 43).
Thr chaoge in'D' complex sot style in Dli suggests o chaoge m drpostttonat
conditionx. Foresctx defme a distinctly curved crestline, with a greater domicanco of
avatanchiog processes. Figure 18 shows the composite, rncottstrticeed crcscrotuc
duce of D8 based opon changes rn forexet orientation along the oorthwcst,
southwest and south walls. These changes are interpreted lo represent the
intersection of the ootcrop plane with different segtwents of the duce as it migrated
soothward with lateral shifting. The negative aogle of cltinb may br the result of
local scotoing or it muy indicate cannibalization of oudertying 'D' complex deposits
° because of a ditnioishiog-sand supply overall. Conceivably, Dli represents n chauge
fcom croxcentic ridges to barchan dores as the sand supply waned.
-"S
SURFACES s,7
Droo'iptiort
Surfaces 3 lo 7 are discussed as a group here brcause of their regional
stratigraphie relations aud because their primaty features, polygonal fractuees, hove
beco treated in detail elsewhere (Kocaeek and HunIer, 1986). Trrminology axed ox
Kocuerk and Hunter (1986) corresponds te present usage as follows: 'A' surface -
surface 3, 'B' surface = surface 4, 'C' surface = suefacc 5, 'D' surface - surface 6.
Surface 7 has since been discovered. As woo on Figure 3, these surfaces are DB
relatively closely spaced and define a zone of intricate surface merging und
splaying.
As shown on Figure 2, the extent of development of polygonal fractures and
presence of associated features varies on the outcrop. Surface 3 shows the best Fin. 17.Plot of foreset-dip diecetionol spread for some ncta of the 'D'
developed fractures within the Page, comparable to those en the J-2 surface. Calcite complon. Soo dincoxuinn in toot.
nodules, pronounced microtopography, und highly cemented zones arr parriculaety
apparent on the northwest wall. Smaller fraetueos with a cnrrugatrd red drope of
sillstone marks surface 4. Very small polygonal fractures or 'hair-line' fractures
charaetrriar surfaces 5 to 7. A red drape occurs along a portion at surface 5.
Although showing the least development of fractures, surface 7 on the southeast lairral and vertical overlapping of distinct genetic nuits,
and northeast walls shows pronounced microtopography. No apparent relationship
exists betwreu surface fratuees and relief on these surfaces. 'E' COMPLEX
Description
isterpretarion
As presented later, each of the dune complexes situated between surfaces 3 to 7 The 'E' complex, situated between surfaces 3 nod 4, ranges between lso3 min
('E', 'F, 'G', 'H' cowplrses) is distinct. Surfaces 3 to 7 show features such as thicknrss (Fig. 2). The unit consists of one prominent set (Et) anda small overlying
polygonal fractnrrs, surface corrugation, und fine-grained drapes that are absent on set (E2), which are composed almost entirely of tow- lo mederate-augfe (8.20'),
other surfaces rn thr Page Sandstone, and represcot evaponte-cemented damp to wind-ripple laminar with a mean dip direction of 187 . For strata with a dip greater
pvriedically wet surfaces. Interpretation of these surfaces as first-order bounding than 13', a rungr in dip direction over the cotise outcrop for Ei is only 14'. A
surfaces indicatrs that the entire zoco represents a marginal setting of dunes und small portion of the eastern side of the south wall shows 1 cm thick genioflow
damp-wet interdone areas. Inrerpevtation of these surfaces as super surfaces strata. Cycles al wiud-ripple strata occur ax in the 'D' complex. Several internat
indicates that the zone rvpresents a period of low-urt soduuenlabon, m which dune bounding surfaces are apparent on the northwest, southeast, and northeast walls
fields and/or ergs were cannibalized and their remuants show basin titling by the (Fig. 2A, D, E), but lede change in foreurs dip direction or amount occurs acroxo
Architecture of the Page Sandslosc 39
 these surfaces. The 'E' complex can be haced 3 km weslward from the study ltrtrrprrtatiort
-r -r r F r -y- y- oulerop. 'G' COMPLEX

-7, The 'F complex appears fo represeni dames similar to those of ilse 'D' complus, Deoeriptiox
Interpretation bnl wtth smaller and more complex dune shapes. Forerei dip-direction plots show
-r - -r -r -r The 'E' complex appears to consist largely ola single set cl cross-slrala. El maxi
straight-crested to broad crexeentie ix barchanoid shapes. The range in dip direction
reflects this campleoity of shapes. Grainflow stratton thicknesses suggest dunes
Four rets (G1-G4) are recognized as composing the thinG' compies betwoea
surfaces 5 and 6 (Fig. 2). The complex can be traced as a 1- to 3-m-thick interval
represonl the lower rippled lee lace (plinih) of a substanlial dune. In terms of slyle from li to 40 w high. Sliplaces were perched upen plinths of wind ripples, and for 33 km to the west of the study area (Fig. 3). Bounding surfaces between sets
und ssxe, the bedfoam repreaenled by El could hace been similar to the larger dunug some penods the entire lee face was cover od by ripples. Those cycles thaw are trough-shaped, but become planar when reaching th pelygonally leactured
dunes in the 'D' complex, bill with a more severe Iruncation such that only the probable dune advance rates of less than 1 m/year assrrmirg the cyclicity is annual, surface 5. Than gramfiow (03 to i cm) is evident near the lop of the seis, passing
wxnd-npple brumas and boalomsels ace preserved. aud, as before, probably correspond to southward, dominant summer wiods and downward mto estensivo windripple laminae. Cycles similar io those in the 'D' to
't'-30 weaker, obliqae winter winds. The superimposed small dunes on F5 probably 'F compleses are well defmcd and occur at intervahu of about 50 cm. Mean forerei
't' COMPLEX ortgsnated dariag winter, by aloogslope secondary flow Irom the west to sonthwest, dip direction is toward 192
thas addtog evidence of increasingly variable seindu. The cyclic change in lee-face
Lirscriptiotr
O5 dope from slipface to plinth deposits evident on F2 shows that seasoeal winds not Ioterprerariarx
4 only caused a change in dame migraban speed, but aise resulted in a change in dune
Eleven sels (Fi la F5, P6-n, F6-b, F7 to Pio) occur between surfaces 4 and 5 lo asymmetry (sor Rubia, 1987a, Figs. 22-23). The occurrence of plinth deposits thai The 'G' comples represents an interval marked by the smallest damos on the
form the 'F complex (Fig. 2). The unit ranges between 5 and 8 w in thickness. In pass upward into grainflow deposits shows thai some alongslope transport occurred study knob. Bared on gramnflow thicknesses, dames were commonly less than 1 w
terms of complex thickness and number and conunaily of sets, the 'F complex is eveo daring times when avalanching dominated the loo face. This indicates that tho high. Although outcrop size ix limited on the upward-tapering study knob, dane
comparable to the 'D' complex. From the study outcrop, however, the 'F complex dunes are best classified as oblique. style suggests simple ceescentiu doom thai euisted in a cyclic, variable-wind regimo
can be traced weslward loe only 43 km (Fsg. 3). similar lo that oldie 'F cumplen.
Sots are sample to locally compound. Cross-strata range from Irough shaped lo
relalsvely sabalar within the scale of the outcrop. Where the seta resi on surface 4,
the lower bounding surface is planar, but becomes troagis shaped upward where
sets scoured into underlying strata of the 'F complex
',01V .
_gF
For most seis in the 'F complex, grainliow strata at the top of the sel are
replaced downward by wind-ripple laminar. Only F2 shows portions where .
grainflaw estrndx so near the base of the set. Grainflow sleala Ihicknesses
throughout the 'F complex range trom 13 ta 3 cm, with 2 to 3 cm being typical. --
Cycles of dark-gray, coarser grained grainflow units alternating with one to several
cealimelers of lighter, fmer grainod, wind-ripple lamivar occur in repetitions
- -
rangiug from 281050 cm. A larger scale (-1m) el cydicity is exident in parts of
F2, su which sequeucea of lower angle, wind-ripple laminar are followed in the
migration direction by sleeper grainflow layers bedding oat over the ripple wedges -- .'- .-.
(Fig. 19A, B). - .--m
Foreseldap dtrectianu show a wide spread (senthwest to east-southeast, some ta
the west) with a mean of 189' (Ftg. 20). Where data wore sufficient, dune shape
--- -
and scale were determined by plotting of foceset dip direetion over the outcrop
.13
(Ftg. 20). These show shapes that range from tight erricentie dunes lo bread
feaenrex. F5 ix aniqne in showing n erescentic shape marked by grainflow sleuth thai
yield lalerally to small-scale coasts )Ftgs. 2A, 20, 21). Restoration of these subsets
on a stereonrt (Rabiar and Hunier, 1903) show thai the superimposed dunes
migrated exactly alongxlope lathe northeast (Fig. 22).

25
Ftc. 18.-Reconslenetnd shapn of duran reprnunntnd by D8 showing
interpreted migrution push litai would yield tite uhaugn in fornsnf-dip
dirnntios.n rnuordcd along ihn northwnut, sos,thwnnt und nnth walls. Arrow
eo murks ihn oppurrut nn.ttxr of Ihn crnsuent-shupcd dune. Thn change in dip
S WALL dienntion, Ihnenforn, in interpreted to result from different nngmnntu of the
migruling bndfnrm intnrnunting tito onturop wall, und not f rom any change in
wind direnlion,
Pto. 19.-Cycles in not PS on southeast wall. (A) View nearly parallel to
migration direction. Onientationu of ihn ceonu-strala and the bounding
surf ones nan similar, indinalaag that the nyulxn manu fron. flow flantuntinnu
und not the migration of suprnmponod bodformn, Noto development of
wedges of bnttnmnetn (W), indicating significant mndilinatinn of the feo fane
aasd bedform asymmetry. Surface 4 (SS4) and purs of noi El alan 'mdicntnd.
F2 is 43 n. think here, (B) View looking obliquely down the migration
direnliow, showing syrIen thaI consist of packages of gruinflow (G) separated
by thin luyere of wind-tipple famanue (W). Botiomactu conuiut entirely nf
wind-ripple laminae (WB),

Kocurek, Knight, and Havbolm Architecture of Ihe Page Sandstone 40


Fie, 20.Plot of forenet-dip dirnetionol npreadn for tomo onitn of the 'F'
oomptnn, and enoonstenotion of dune shopon boned on foreunt typo und dip
dinnetiot. niong thc ontorop. For tho e000nutnnetrd danno, geninflow hyors
shown on solid tonno, wind-ripple deposita shown on wovy linon, Noto
noponanpoxed donen migrotitng .tongxlopn to the noetheust m F5.
'it' COMPLEX
Droci'iption
A thin (ito 25 ix) soqneoce of three sots (Hl to W) near the top of the study
ootcrop forms the 'H' complex sittialed bxtweon surfaces 6 aud 7 (Fig. 2). Hi tod
H3 consist almost entirely of wiad-tspple taminae, with Hl defioiog a trough on the
sooth watt. 112 shows thin graieflow sIesta (1102 cm) at the top of the sot passing
downward to tangential wiod-ripple latoinae, On the southeast wall, H2 strata
define a troogh. Mean cross-strata dip direction is 168'. Cycles very xet,tse to those
in the 'G' complex occur, to westward tracing, the 'H' complex is essentially
coslined to the study oatcrop (Fig. 3).
Kocurok, Koight, cod Hovholm
Fso, 21,Photo of corinto i. F5 on northwent woO, Thenn noporitoponed
dnnnn ore shown dingrmnmntin.11y on Figuro 20. Within F5, Ihn canota pnsn
tnter.11y into Ihn teongh noix morkod by simplo neonn-nIonta ntmoiuliog of
geoiatllow deposito, F5 in 33m thick bore,
¡nl er pretation
Outcrop is very limited ovar the top of the study kook, but the 'H' complex
sovms very similar to the uoderlying'G' comptes, oxcept that the dones were
somewhat larger. Teoaghx indicalo ceetcoutic dunes, which probably were oblique
features loaned in a variable wind regime.
't' COMPLEX
Deoo'iptiox
The upper 3 1075 w of the study outcrop toca a point cousintiog of two tower
thin tots (Il, 12) and thick sel (13) that constitute the 'f' complex resting opou
surface 7 (Fig. 2). Sot ti has breo truncated such that only wind.tipple Iamivae
remain, but in tots 12 and ¡3. grainflow strata pass downward into wind-apple
croxx'slrata. Orainflow strata range from 2 cm in 12 to 25 to 4 cm duck m ¡3.
Cyclicity is very similar to the xnderlying complexos, with repettlions spaced 30 to
50cm. Formel dip dirrctions across the small outcrop range only aboot 10' aboof a
osean of 150'.
Archilecluro of Ike Pago Saodslcxe
¡xtrrprrlatiox
Cycles and slyly of eroso-stenta rd the 't' compleu appear similar to the
underlying complexos above saeface 2 in that oblique dunes are suggested.
Grainflow steatom thickness, however, indicates original date heights of 251060m.
which 'o larger than most interpreted dunes above surface 2. The 'f' complex may
represent chnnging conditions to larger dunes that arr represented on the adjacent
Manean Mesa by up 1025 w of large-scale, commonly componnd sets, To the west
of section 5 on Figure 3, the last surface has been truncated by set scosasag and Is
impossible to follow,
CONCLIJSIONS MID QUESTiONS
Eolian'teqsencr otratigraphy
Figure 22 suosma,izes in a vertical section the Page Saudxtonr at the study knob
in tecas of the nature of the cross-strata, complexes of sots, prominent bounding
surfaces, and some aspects of the interpreted original bedloems, Although a number
of interpretations casi be made with confidence, dual interpretations of the sequence
have been given throughout this papee at the dune.flrld or erg scale. Are the
complexes of sets and concIs separoted by prowtnenl bounding surfaces
representative of the accumslation of a single erg through tone, or are they
representative of a namber of ergs and dune fields separated by sopor bounding
surfaces? This question is fundamental to the understanding rd how echan systems
operate, especially in a dynamic setting through Sine. The question cao be smsply
repheased How arr vertical und lateral eoliao sequences generated? Clearly
beariog on the interpretation oldie sequence al the dune-field and erg scale are the
nature of the set complexes, the prominent bounding surfaces, and the features
associated with the ssrfaces.
Set Comyiexeo
We believe ills significant that the sets and coxnts can be grouped mIa complexes
that arr intcrually consisleot in style und interpretation, tad are dssttnct Irom each
other. Moor broadly, a pronounced change in sedimentation style also occurs across
surface 2. Below the surface, completen 'B' and 'C' are characterized by deposits of
large, transverse, compound crencentic dunes fonnrd in a wind regtme dommated
by summer winds to the south and only vlighdy modified by winter oblique wtnds
to the southwest, Complexes above surface 2 are interprendas deposits of small-to
moderate-size, oblique, simple to compound ceescentic dunes formed m a wind
regime still dominated by summer winds to the south, bat mock more strongly
modified by winter oblique winds thaI were more variable.
Given these broad changes and other differences from compleu to complex
upward in the section, changes in the overall condtttont must br occurring with
time. linlerpreling the sequence as the deposits of a stogie erg means that the dunes
tad draas chauged throsgb time, oe possibly different parts of the same erg (with
different bedfornt types) migrated over the area, Both are reasonable
interpretations. Alternately, if the complexes repensent genetically distinct ergs and
dune fields, then one might etprct them to be different. However, this need riot
xeoossaeity happen, and indeed wosld only be expected to ocote 'il dissimilar
conditions existed before and alter the depositionat hiatus represented by the super
sarface,
Thickness rd the complexes in itxeil means little, WIth migrating bedfonns, no
deposits may be tel t (i.e., cero angle al climb), ce a varying thickness proportional
to the height of the bedform may be deponiled (i.e., subcritical, critical, and
saperceitic.tt aooJes of climb). Similarly, ergs or done fields may leave no deposits,
and there 'a no mason to believe that a wide range rd variability dons not catit for
the lhickuesnns of dune-field and erg deposits. Moreover, done fields and regs come
in a variety of sizes, Hence, even a thin deposit consisting rd one to a few sets of
cross'steata may reprexonl an erg deposit.
First-order anal rnper b000aliog surfacer
Conceptually, fest-order and super surfaces are distinct, First-order sxefaces
fortan within a dono field or eng, represent the Boce al the inteedone or interdraa
area, and occur in eolian sequences ax surfaces between genetically related sets 0e
cosots, Super surfaces separate drposits of different done fields or regs moon eohan
sequence. lo leans of recognition, however, the sarfacet can share common
attribnlea,
Ideally, super surfaces are more continuons and truncate firsl.order surfaces, Ihn
prominent bounding surfaces between complexes of the Pago are mdeed far morn
continuous thaa the mont abundant surfaces interpreted as fest-order surfaces.
However, large dunes and inleedune arcan cao potentially migrate and leave
deposits that are several le many wavelengths long in the migration direction; a
first-order surface might extend several Io many kilometers. Whde potentially
regional in entent, a sopee surface need not be so. A done field may not be
extensive, the deposits of odono field or erg need not be extensive any deposit or
surface can be truncated by latee events, and din entice eng need net be affected by
super-surface formation.
With migrating dunen/deaas and inlerdones/inleedoaas that are leaving a doposit,
first-order surfaces are necessarily diackeonous and climb. Some super surfaces are
potentially syncheonous, sachas those formed in a relatively small area with a rapid
climatic change. Most saper surfaces, however, ase necessarily diachronoux,
including those formed by climatic change over a broad repon. Super surfaces
formed by changes in eunlatic, tectonic or sand-supply conditions shoeld usually be
progressive ucross the area or region, as are those formed by done-field or erg
migration. la terms of our enero01 resolution in absolute-age dating, both liest-order
and super surfaces are isoehaonous. Also, where distinct done fields or regs are
separated but occur aligned in the overaB transport direction and their dopoxits
come Io be stacked, then the super surface must climb, tad the erg deposits
separated by super sarfaces are contemporaneous featuren. Clearly, the mechanics
of deposition apply to both migraling dones/datas anillo done fields and ergs.
Sur/ocr features
The peomixent bounding surfaces between complexes of the Page Sandstone are
distinctive becaase they are marked by frataoes such as silty red beds, polygonal
Iractuees, corrugation, breccias, and concretions thaI are absent leom surfaces
interpreted as first'ordee sarfaces. Some features on the Page surfaces such at
corrugations, beeccias, and red beds (os well as features on prominent surfaces
elsewhere sachas rooted horizons) cao form in inteedane er interdraa areas ocena
sopee surface. For other features such as polygonal fractures m sand or soil rones, it
is not yet known how long a period of time is required for their formation end
whether their presence is wore indicative of a saper ssrfaco. Features on the
41
 s.0
surface retteet conditions on the surface and, commooIy, the control of the extent of
deltation on the surface, bat do not necrsxarily reflect anything about the cause of
SURFACE
PARALLEL DESCRIPTIVE
RELATIVE ACOSE SIZE
FO R E 5 E T the surface. Moreover, development of different features at different times and
5 cC e IO N C OC L ICIT T
places ovrr au irregotar surface, coupled with eruncatiou of the surfoco and its
fratures during tarer, unrelated erosional events, eau make interpretation of the
occoerences of the features along the surface very difficult.
Irsipliratiossr
Interpretation of dir prominent bounding surfaces as fast-orderer super surfaces
makes a radical difference in the conceptual model of the basin lilt of the Pagr
SS? Sandstone. If hiatuses at the done-field or erg level (i.e., super surfaces) are not
R O,,.. recogniaed, thrn the vertical and lateral Page Sandstone sequence should be
SSO coeecived ol as the uninterenpeed accumulation of a basinwide erg, albeit under
changing conditions with rvolving dune types. If the prominrnt bounding surfaces at
SSS
the study knob (Fig. 2A-E) and along the send-regional cross section aie indeed
super soef aces (Fig 3), then the Page basin fill must be eonstened as a comptes
SOTen atomI
amalgamation of overlapping segments of ergs and dune fields, with varying limes,
F sites, and degrees of depesition and erosion. Although it is not certain as so what
C5OiOIPR OsTO. esieet the tateral discontinuity of deposits between the super surfaces represents
SS4 original drpositienal eseeut, a greal deal of cannibalizatien of older deposits to form
5S3
new dune lirlds or ergs is snggeslrd by Figure 3. Given that the entire Page
Sandstone is thought te represent only about 6 m.y. (soc Chan and Kocneek, t8),
a dyearnic setting must be envisioned with a rapidity of events leading to the
formation of ergs and dane fields seid saper surfaces.
Presently, we believe st 5 difficult to distinguod first-order and super bounding
surfaces confidently at the outcrop scale. Grealrr anderstanding of the controls and
rapodity of the foematoon of different types of bedfoemus, the origin and time
SSO
D required to form the specs-sm of features on surfaces, and espeoially erg, dune-
fietd, and boon dynamics in response to internat and external factors may
eventually allow this distinction. For the Page outcrop that we studied, the
accumulated evidence o most compatible with the interpretation of the prominent
CA,,,poasi surfaces as super soees. Hewever, we held this as a tentative interpretation
pendmg comptetcon of the regional Page study, because the scale of the
interpretation must be at the regional or basin level, fasi as bedf errs interpretation
SSS C OR P Oo d et po is largely at the outcrop level.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
der,nipce,, i,be,r.
sORSO bO,oflaT aa,s Numerous individuals and agencies hase been supportive of thr program on the
Page Sandstone. We thank the Glen Canyon National Recreation Aera for allowing
as to conduct thos study, especially with regard to taking the cere. Jim Holland is
especially responsible toe encouraging the use of the Rrcreation Area as a natural
laboratory. Sandy Lmndquisl initially inteeduced us ta the outcrop and provided her
insights throughout this project. Field discussiens on the study outceep with Ron
NAVAJO SANOSTONE
Btahey, Mark Chandler, David Doggie, Nick Lancasler, and Larry Lake stimulated
many ideas. Maggie Townsley preved an intrepid field assistant. We have also
benefited from comments by individuals ou several field 1mips te the outcrop from
Fin. 22.Saratenry d gente of tIse Page Sandutoen at the ntody onterop. Amoco and the University of Tosas. We appreciate the time and commrntS of Ron
Hcbneed moita above prominent boomdia.g onrfneeu t and 2 represent red Blakey, David Rabin, and Mike Sweet rn reviewing this paper.
buda; pot ygoroal froCtioPra (wedges), eo.oerniio.on (ope. dota), nod red silty The project has been partly landed by Department al Energy contract DEAC
dropes (wavy tiers) on othnr osrfncno. 19-85BC1O849 MODAOO5. Amoco Production Company, Denver, entirety funded
Kocorek, Koight, and Havholm Architectore cf the Page Sandstone
the drilling, coring and legging of the interior bote within the study knob. Funding
f or the regional study of the Page genetic sequences and sopee bounding surfaces is
by National Science Foundation Grant EAR-8719972. Additional funding from
Amencan Association al Petroleum Geologists, Geological Society of America, and
Sigma Xi leone of na (Khi) bas bren important fer field support.
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architecture: Geology, y. 16, p. 483-487.
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modern dran, Algodones, southeastern California, U.S.A.: Sedimontology, v.35,
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Sedimentology, v-24, p. 36t-387.
1981, Stratification styles in eoliaa sandsienre seme Prnnyslvarnan to
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Flores, R. M., eds.. Recent and Ancient Nonmarine Deposilional
Environments: Models for Exploration: Society of Economic Paleontologists
and Mineralogists Special Publication 31, p. 315-329.
Rovonose, B. M., ese Ai.nsa, T. R., 1983, Storm-controlled oblique dunes
of the Oregon coast: Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, e. 94, p.
1430-t 465.
42
 ave Ruso, D. M., 1983, interpreting cyclic crosobeddtng, wsth ae 198Th, Formation of scalloped crosubedding coithont unsteady flow:
example from the Navajo Sandstone, is Brookf ield, M. E., and Ahlbroedt, T. Journal af Sedimentary Petrology, v.57, p. 39-45.
S., ode., Rollan Sediments and Processes: Amsterdam, Eiuovsrr, p. 429-454. eau Heeren, R. E, 1982, Bedfomm climbing m theory and nature:
Roars, J. B., 1986, Rollan bedform reconstruetton: a ease study from the Fagr Sedimretotogy, v.29, p. 121-138.
Sandstone, northern Arizona unpubl. master's thesis) Austin, University of 1983, Recousrructit.g bedform assemblages from
Tenas, 100 p. compound cross-le-aldieg1 is Brookfield, M. E., and Altlbraasdt, T. S., uds.,
Recosan, G., 1981, Signilicasnce of interdone deposito and boondittg sn,faect m Eolias Sediments and Processes: Amsterdam, Elsovier, p. 487-427.
eolian dtme sande Sedimentology, v.28, p.iSS-780. Serme, M. L., Nmaos, J., Havncsaa, K. G., aran Faunnos, J., 1988, Algodones dune
5986, Origins of low-attuje stratification in aralias deposita, is Nivkhnfl fIeld of SE California: case history of a migrating modern dune field:
W. G., ed., Arolian Geomorphology: Allee cud Unwia, Boston, p. 177-193. Sedimrntology, v.35, p. 939-952.
, 1988, F'sest-order and super bounding surfaces in tollen sequences-- U. S. Gr,oas-eaa lunera, 1985, Fags quadrangle, Ariaona-Coeouino Couasty, 73'
bounding surfaces revisited: Sedimentary Geology, v.55, p. 193-206. series topographic map, I skeet.
ase Doer, R. H., Jr., 1981, Distinctions and ases of steuttltcettort types m
the interpretation of rollan sand. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, y. 51, p.
579-595.
ace 1983, Jurassic palrogrograpky and puleoclimate of the
central and southern Rocky Mountains region, is Reynolds, M. W., and Dolly,
E. D., otis., Mesozoic Puteogeegraphy of West-Central United Staten Rocky
Mountain Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, p.
101-116.
nao Heeren, R. E., 1986, Origin of polygonal tractores in sand,
uppermost Navajo and Page Sandtones, Fogs, Arszona: Journal of Sedcmeusoey
Petrology, v.56, p.89S-905.
aun Ntrasos, J., 1986, Conditions favorable for the fonnation of warm-
climate aeolian sand sheets: Sedimentology, v.33, p. 795-816.
MeKen, E. D., 1979, Introduction, is McKee, E D., ed., A Study of Global Sand
Seas: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1052, p. 1-19.
Nueras, J., ose Kccvrun, G., 1986, Climbing zibars of the Algodones: Sedimentary
Geology, v.00, p. 1-15.
Paaamt, J. T., sss Pesemos, P., 1988, Wmd directions predicted from glaisai
circulation models and wind directions determined from eohan sandstones of
the western United States--a comparison: Sedimentary Geology, y. 56, p. 261-
282.
Pronouns, F., arm Parsrsoon, G. N., 1979, Stratigraphie relations of the Navajo
Sandstone to Middle Jurassic formations, southern Utah and northern Arsoona:
U.S. Geolagleal Survey Professional Paper t835B, p. Bi-863.
Puennoon, G. N., 1967, Jurassic and Triasssc of Wyommg und southern Roches
[abs.: Americaa Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, y. 51, p. 1954-
1905.
1968, Correlation and eomrnclature of some T,susssc and Jurassic rocks
in south-central Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 594-D, p.
Di-D26.
__,acn O'Susesvao, R. B., 1975, ChriS pebble unconformity at the topai the
Navajo Sandstone in southeastern Utah, in Fasscett, J. E., ed., Cauyoutands
Country: Fette Corners Geological Society Guidebook, 8th Fteld Conference, p.
149-156.
ace 1978, Pcincipol oaeonfor,nitics m Trsasssc and Jurassic
rocks, western United States--a prolimary survey: U.S. Geologteal Survey
Professional Paper 1035-A, p. At-,°s29.
Benn, D. M., 19870, Cross-beddiu& bedforms, and puleoenrrrntn: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Concepts in Sedimrntology and
Paleontology, y. 5, 187 p.

Architecture of Ilse Page Sandstone 43

Kocurek, Knight, cud Havholm
SSNasSNas SNSS*a s_aS_U a.Saassa
INSIDE AUKTHE ANATOMY OF AN EOLIAN OIL
RESERVOIR
ALAN?. }IEWARD
Shell U.K. Eaploeurirn und Pducrirrrr
Shell-Moo busC
Landen WC2R ODX, Errgiuord
Ass 0cv Auk finid is locsred irr rho corrosi North Seo sod oodocnr oil from Pnoroisv
Zechsrnisr csrbnnorea und thnoodeolyiog Rorliegnnd ssndsrooea. Thn Rorlingend is 150 ro 500
thksordcnnbodinidediofrdiscoore opiaodoa ofdeaer odimnusrr'on. Deposirn of the
oppnn thorn episodro son oil bnooiofi with oolisn slipfoco sondo forming rho mom peoducing
insoovslr. Thoesolierrdeporiro(orris5)000locslizrdwarorloinconglorrrornrns,nrhichposoibly
infili ropogoaphy ro th rnconfoomiry roith rho Drnooiso. Thny sos onorloin by o longo rnndgn.
shopndm0000fooliorrolipfocerorrdn)onir4)rtroronlopotheOeooniarr. Unir3oepen000rs o
chsrrgn in nolion dopooirioo with o mmkod inoneme in wiod-ripple Isminorod onoto. Their
oboodooce poobobly iodicorna moon vorioble winds, ond rhirr ronulomororea of iorendunol
dolomiln narro ougaerrpnoiodiusllyrnnrcondirinna. This dcpooiri000l soir nonios in rhiokonss
byaboor 100%, wirh rhick sonso c00005pondiorg ro thesrockeddnpoaira ofalipionolosadrasand
thin sorso ro atuckod inmeodoorr. Dono stipfaca sondo within the door nccowolorions sor
erionrorod rowsad tho oser sod csrmor frs noorolsred moo hrmdoods of momos bnrwonn mollo in
ac0000-w'mddimnrion. Unir2conruimnarillganarnrpropoorionnfwind-rippinlamirrsredrsudo
rndwarorlsindnpnsiro. lrogoomnnyiadominoredbyalaogodnpoairi005lmourrd..7lorrocroas
wind.S7mrlriok,nndthinningro tomininadjocnnriarrnodonna. Themoundislocorrdnhonn
se inlnrdonsl thin nf nnir3. Snnooal intnonola ni dono sod probably dnao slipfocn sondo occor
whore rho mound io thicknor, sodo diolincrino body of fion-gooinnd oolisrr sondo munrlos irs
noothon, Book, Tho oppon000r noir )l Woioalingnnd) comprima roarnolsio msos.flow sarda
thar psorislly iofill iornrdonol lows und appose ro aepraonrrr reworking of o loogoty sboedoond
nrg byosinworor. tor000alorrdorgroic-oichshal005nddolomiroscnnmniniardicanionsof
ovopooiriccondilioars,doaiccorioo, anddoflarion md yieldno rnidoncn ofmmino bonos. Thn
succroding monino Zoclrorrio goorly iouodarnd osms'oriog ropogosphy.
Tho dincovery in Ihn 1960m oflargovolomen (mony tonnof trillion oubic fort) of gon
lrapped in Rotlingond sandnt000 reservoirs in the Nnrhootands ond the southorn North
Snaprovided a major impnron lo rlody dosoelnodimeoru (Glonnin, 1972,1986). Beood
helm of flrroial, eoliarr, nabkha, and locuntrine doporirr worn noon rrcogoined in tho
Sourhern Poomian Bann and hayo remainnd on important aspect of thai gos play
(Fig. t). Smultor q005litins of oit )honrlrrdn of millions of bnnrntn) worn also
e500ant000d in similar Rotliegend onnorvoirn of the Noorhoro Premian Borin in finido
Sachar Ank and Angyll.
Many of thorn fields wrrr dincovorod mrd developed prior to Ilse reoert surge is
interest in nolion sndimontology, ond publishnd desrriptions boor gone no fuelhnr than
Ihn identification of h000d facirs ossociations (e.g., dune top, dare base. wadi. etc.).
Nevnrshnlesn, on abundance of seismic, corn, wireline log, and renorvoir-moniloeing
dota hove boon acquirnd for those subsuefaco accumulations 1h01 offer addirionat
pornpeclivnnon Ihr archilectaro of eolias deposits lo Ihr typon ofnhservariosn that cao
be modn form outcrops. For onamplr, the goons geometry of the Rollingend ro
increasingly mappable from seismic surveys: corns give cantinuoun sequences of
stralification typos ovne hundreds of mntnrs; many writ logs traverse the whole rlrnorl
accumulation and allow ils constitunnl parts lobo disringuinhed; dipmelren provide
Poeaenrsdthran: Prrrolorror D000lopmnnr Omar. P.O. Bon 81. Morcar, Solrnrsrr of Omar.
Heward
dry measuroments over voetical thicknennos not normally uccnnnible io outcrops; and Auk field n located rs rho ceniral North Sea. United Kingdom Sector, in part of a stescrueul dip wilhin Ihr Roltiogend of AIds, and nrdimrntuey dips have boos
rho continuity nf reservoir facies und permeability baeriees muy be prooen by p005mm large horst that lien adjaceot ro the western murgis of the Central Gruben (Pigs. I aod compacted by nomo 151030% (000oadaile 1973. from, for esawple, rho '-32° original
response. Thun. whereas wo rely on recently developed concepts of notion stratifico- 2). The field won dincovroed in 1971 aud bronghl nnso prof action in 1975. Dosel- dip of saudflow cross-strata Io Ihr 2410200 dips typical of these deposits in cocon and
tion,bedforsnr, and hounding snrfacrs to model the subsuofaco (e.g.. Lindqoint, 1983, npmentnfthefseldwas based on the prolific Zechstein carbonate reservoir, and as thin from dtpmeleos). Tho typos of stralificalion are also most distinct where three isa
1988), subsurface dura of a generally larger scale also ran contribute to ideas of how hun peogeesnively watered ouI, arrenliun has turned to the considerable volumes of oil wide rouge of grain sine available and the various moala are composed of diffeernl
desert sedionentn accumulate in space and timo. I hopo lo demonstrate the potential
conlaisod in the noderlying Rodiegend sandstones (Brennand and van Vorn, 1975; grain sizes (are almo Kocurek and Dolt, 1981).
of the ose of these subsurface datais thin reservoir geological study of the Rotliegesd Buchanan and Hoogteyliog, 1979). Today's modest production of 1,600 mr/d Ar Auk, saudflow rruss-500la are cenlimeree thick, generally medium grained and
of Auk field, which mot usdeelaknn to rs, to understand the controls of reservoir («10,000 b/d) is derived utmost equally from Iwo Zeobstein wellr in the sortheast, well sorted, and bane sedimeulaeydipn of 2410280 (Pig. 3a, Table t). Orainfall nands
qoulity and thus assist in Ihr locution of drvnlopmoot wells. flowing al 80% watercut, and five Rutliegend wells in the southeast, flowing are millimeter lu decimoter thick, fine geaised, and marsive no family lumssated
relutmvely dey ail. The Rotliegend is oil beaeing elsewhere in the field, but commercial (Pig. 3a and e). Three types of wind-ripple laminaled strata occur. The fieslcomprinen
rules nf prodnotion hose petto br achieved. The purpose of this papee is Io shaw how milkmrtee-lhïck, horiranral or low-angle dipping ultonsatioss of fine and coarse sand
the Rottiegend ensmevoir cao be dissected to understand the arigint of orean of good
I- i und poor well productivity.
(Swrl, Pig. 3d). Course laminar range from stni000er of isolated geains Io lenses afew
grains thick, which pinch oat within the width of a core (11.5 rm, or 4.5 in). The
boundaries between rearmo and fine laminar aro abrupt, with lilIle evidence of size
grading; they ore characleristicully bimodal. Wide increasiug sedimentary dips,
cra.eaea'ozj /o\
/
Itrsckentog of laminan. and au iscreour in Ihr peoporlion of the coarse mode, Ibis
The Ask structure in covered by a twa-dimessiunul seismic grid, which is portly
Islhofacienpanses mb sho second type of wisd-eipplr laminaard sand (Swe3, Fig. 3h).
In Ihm and portly 8.5 nO.5km. Recnotlent lines fora there-dimensional survey show Coarse lamsnae are uuw tabular over srveeal decimeters, Ihn masiwuw OstonI visible
,
a nnmbnr nf events within the 150-te 500-or-thick Rolliegend succession, the Itholy in core from u hifhly deviomod well. AI srdimentuey dips v20°, Ibnse millimeter-to
erigios of which mill be discussed toree. Thirty wells have bnen drilled al spocings of cesrimeter-Ihick c0000e laminuo can be difficalr ru distinguish from thin sandflnw
70m 103.6km, Ihn Rollirgrnd oil prnducersbeing400 10600m apart. There ma min strata, parlicularly when color bleaohrd or oil stained. SoIh of these coarse types uf
NORTHERN PERMIAN BASA of vertical appraisal wells and deviuteddevelopmenl wells at angles of np 1061° (from
veetiral) through she reservoir. All wells huyo modem suites nf wiertise logs (wheen
mechanically feasible) and eight have 0IDT dipmelees. A setal of 823 mob core has
4H born cutis 13 wella (Fig. 2), the roen beiog geoerally of Ihe upper, nil.beaeing part
AUKVa Ç'i°N '1(NGKØBING\
of Ihr Rorlingond succession. Fourteen years of field perfuemuace und pressure dota
am available.
MID NORTH sea rrisri
'i,.
The norms were deseribod, depth matched to wierline logs, and eelian and wateoluin
litbnfaeies distinguished on the bonis of lithology, grain sire, Sorting, lamination
thickness, sedimentary nteuctuees, und sedimentary dips (TIbIe t). Many of the
lithofacies ore only o few derimeters Ihick and at a scale too fine for the ultimare aim
nf correlating over hundrods of melero between wells. A more uypeupeialn reurrsuir
-.--.. .5i-6.1 breakdown man achieved by grouping rotated lithofacies into genetic types of
rS Oque rua
vedimens body (Table 2). Pollewiag calibration to wirelino logs ard with likely
Ar
dimensions nf sediment bodirn asd hounding surfaces from the liberatore, some nf
those features could be cornolated and the rosoevoir subdivided. These subdivisions
0 0, conform with production und pressure data asd thus repeenenl meaniogfsl fluid-flow
LONDO5
B R4B8NT
ETMERLANßS
,roro units, Reservoir thickness aod quality were them mapped for these usiss.
Lirhofucizo
runs suso nemeo Loor _____ oL/rnosrvvoL
Whereas the malertain lithofacien ace descriptive and readily recognizable,
rar. cr0555 crotone orLrreLos idenlificalion of the rolian lithofarien wamranrs discussion. The lilhofucies arr based
on the occurrence of distinctive forms nf enlian stratification produced by mond
kovmvI ornavo _.L__. [5:50:55 Mouve rsucyn Major orn rrrcmn I) avalanching down adune slipfuco (sandflow vr grainflow), 2) overshooting a dune
cress and accumulariog from motion in the lee of the bmah of slope (graisfall), or
Flu. 1.Mop Isuating the Ank nil Bold goographirolly and rrlatioe to the major 3) migratingeveorhe sedimonlsaefaceaswindripptes (Hunter. 1977,1981; Frybrrgee Fis. 2.Top Rotlirgend depth map of Ank field boxed osi nziomir and molt
gas fields atIbe Southern Premian Basin; based nno rsmhinaltnn of f'rgorrn trsm and Schenk, 1981; Kocurek ondDolt, 1981). FigureS showa representative examples control, The nilwalrr esntart (limit otgrren shading) ranges from un denp as
Glroaaie (1906). Regional puleowinds arr tenso Ihn northwest in the Nartborn of these types of tteatification from Auh field. Theireecognition in cere is not always 2r362 m nuhsea ja. BlorIs 3, In 2r347 m n000 moch nf Block 2, to an shallow an
Fermion Ballo and tenso the northeast in the Srmnthern Permian Basin (Glennin, eaSy; they ore most clear in cores from vertical wells, stabbed p000llel to manimom 2r316 min the northern purl of Bloch 2 and Bleak 1. Tbr pssmibte reasons for Ibis
1983). dip, whom sedimentary dips ran be gouged wide seme corlainly. There in negligible sariatino are disoasned in Ihr tent,
Anatomy of au eolian rcverveir 44
 TABLE 1.Lit bufones classjfscuiion of Auk Rotltegend TABLE 2.Genetic types of oediment bodies present within Aufl Rostiegend Ftc. 3.Clnnenp photographs nl rollan lithafacies, cores from deviated wells
being orienlrsl in thrir apprasimale in'sita ponitinn. Plug boles are 3 em in
Characteristics Typen Main Lithofacien Codes Wirelinn Log Characteristics diameter, and the lop of the seule is graduated in millimeters. All sleplbs
Codo Lilbofacies referring tozare samples are in feet along hale. (a) Medinm.grained sandflow
eross.strata impregnated with bitnminnus oil and separated fly finer red
fOLlAN sandflow and white and red grainfall laminae. Small round patches are
fOLlAN cemented by dolomite. Well 30/18-2, 7,751 rl, lamer plug 0 (porosity) 24.6%,
2428 sedimentary dips, cm Sliyface Saodflow cross-stratified Ssf, Sgf High porosity, 24-28' k (horizontal air permeability at atmnsphrrir conditions) 52 md. lb) mm-cm
Ssf Sandflow cross-stratified sand, coat-ac wind.ripplr laminated sands (Swr31. Well 30/16-11, 9,077 11, 0 17,3%,
lamination, goad sorting sedimentary dips, low
fino ta medium k 2.7 md, (o) mm-orn fine wind.ripple laminated sands, each lamina being
gamma ray
inversely graded (Swr2). Well AS1B, 12,369.5 f1,0 -'20%, k -'2 md. Id) mm coat-ne
Swr3 Wind-ripple laminated sued, mm-cm laminatiao, bimodal,
5-25' sedimoolury dipn Dass apron mm-cm course wind- Swr3, Upward-steepening sequences wind.ripple laminated sands )Swrl, the nnmbering in the lithofacies cade
fino to coarse reflects their decreasing roservotr properties). Well 30/16.11, 9,096 15, 013.0%,
ripple laotioatcd sands Swel, of sedimentary dips, upward
mm-cm laminatian, inverse Sgf, increase ir porosity lt 0.3 md. (r) Faintly laminated fine.graiaed grainfall sands. Well AllA,
Swr2 Wind-ripple laminated suEd,
grading, goad sorting, Swr2 10,010,5 ft 0 -'20%, k -'1 md. (f) Parallel and wary stratified fine sands of
very fino to medium nncertain genette, possibly wind.ripple and grainfall. More permeable strata
swinging dips
Low-angle mm courue wind-ripple Swrl, Law porosity, low consistent are bleached nf their colar and show a weak oil alum. Well AIIB, 11,957.5 ft,
mm luoiioalion, bimodal, O-lS' stratified laminated sands SwrS sedimentary dips, moderate lo O "18%, k-8 md.
Swrl Wind-ripple laminated rood,
sedimentary dips high gamma ray
fine so canoso
The diffarent characteristics of wind.ripple strata pronomI in llar Anis field imply
Sgf Grainfall stratified saada. Massive, goad sorting, mm-dm Pine- mrs-cm fine wind-tipple Swr2, Moderase gamma ray sud that grain size and ihr proportions of she different grain suhpopalati005 are
lumination. 0-28' sedimentary geained laminated sands, Sgf, porosity, silly density- important influences on she style of relian stralificatios, as might he expected from
very fino to fine
dips association grainfall sands, Sp.w, neutron separation 1hz descriptions of Bagoold (1941) and Wilson (1972, 1973). Certainly they banzos
parallel-ta-wavy 5sf tmparsanl influence on reservoir quality, as will be shawn later.
Sp-w Parallel-to-wavy stratified cm lamination, goad sorting, stratified sands, sasdflow
sand, very fine ta fino g._l5' sedimentary dips cross-stratified fine sands

WATERLAIN WATERLAIN Seven genetic types uf sediment bodies cao be recognized: eolias, I) slipface,
2) dune apean, 3) nm-angle stratified, and 4) s fine-grained moociation; and
Sm Massive sand, very fine to Homogeneity, upward fining Ftsviatile Estraformational X Law porosisy, high gamma ray waserl ais, 5) fluvialile esseaformational cooglamerates, 6) mass-flow sands and
estrafor- cnnglamrrutrs intrafoesnatianal canglamerutes, und 7) lacaoteiae abaleo and dolomites. All are
distinctive in core and, importaot is the subsurface where the majority ofdevelapment
Faintly stratified sand, mm-dm horizonlal canglomer- melts arr not cured, have recognizablr winelinc-log signatures reflecting their
Sfs
stratification differing mineralogies, purenilies. und stratification (Table 2, Pig. 4).
very fino to fine

Deformed sand, very fine
Sd
to fine, silty
Current-ripple cross-laminated
Sr
sand, very fine to fino, silty
Intraformutional conglomoraten
C decimeters to saverio tens of melees thick, and they predominate droper within she
Lamioalod shale, clay sa five
FI
D Dolomite
X Enlraformational conglomerates
em-dm disturbances, loads,
flames, overfalds
Clirsbieg ripples, gray sill
deapea
Gray, angnlar dolomite clastn
Gray, mm-em horizontal
Gray, laminated, vnggy,
nofosniliferous
Pebbles of basalt, sein quarta,
Moan-flow Massive sonda, Sm, Sfs Scattered dips and nzimaths, folios-Sediment Bodies
intercalated abates and
sands and stratified sands, Sd, Se,
intrafor- inteaformationat C intraformalional conglamer- Stipface drposils c000ist uf fisc- so medium-graised, well-sorted, sasdflow eroso-
mational cooglamcrales aten wish high gamma ray and atralified sands (Pig. 5u and b). Individual sandflows are cIta 6cm thick and are
shaly density-nestron separated by millimeter- Io decimeter-thick gruiofall depasits. Slipface sands are
conglamor-
separation, spward.fining relatively rare within the cored wells, and because of their high porosities they are
poorly recovered or heavily oit stained. Inseevals of these sands vary from a few
Lacnslrine Laminated shales, FI, D High gomma ray, lamar Roltiegend succession. At least same uf the thicker irtervals appear tobe composite
abaten and dolomites extremely lam porosity alackaofslipface deposits. Sequrscrsof these sandson a scaleof Sto 10m cammanly
dolomites decrease upward ir porasity and permeability. Sedimeosary dips commonly thaw
Rapidly swinging dips, sameroas low-angle truncation surfaces, atsd an association surprising vertical consistrecy in azimuth uver sens of motzen but show significant
mind-ripple deposit are subcrisically climbing translatent strata and rarely show wish graisfall deposita are charuclerissic. The grain tizo 5f this litttafacios in variability far the same stratigraphie interval between melts (Pigs. 4 and 6).
ripple.foreset crass-lamination (seems of Hanter, 1977). The third variety of wsnd- comparable with that of the coastal-dune sands from which Huster (1977) first Dune-apron nandsarecamposed largely of millimeter- to censimeter-thick, courue
ripple laminated sand isfine grained und consists of millimeter. to centimeter-lhtck comprehensively described basic types of ratian stratification ard with that of the wind.ripple strata and are characterined by npwaed.atrrpening sequences of
sedimentary dips (Figs. 4 and 5h). Thicker sand laminan are oil stained se calor
laminar, which are distinctively inversely graded (Ssrr2, Fig. 3e). Bath sah- and sands used by Prybergre and Schenk (1981) in wind-tunnel esperimenta on
supercritically climbing translatent strata occur, the latter insets apte 30cm thick. stralificatian. bleached when they occur above the field ail-mater contact. Gane-apean deposits

._.N...........__. *ea s.uu.N.

Heward Anatomy of un echan reservoir 45
 commonly occur between tighter Iow.angle stratified and mace porous slipface saods.
cm fI
Law.angle strut))ïed sands form noits a few decimctero to 40 m thick and are
paeticulaely commos in the cored (upper) portion of thc Rotliegeod. They consist
0-0
30/16-2
CAUSA RAY 50 + 95 05SITY 255
dominantly of mitlimetee.thick, courre wiod.eipple steals wilh low c005istool dips
(Pigs. 4 and 5b). Such dips muy he ufew degrees, Aod io isolation might he considered
structural. However, their magnitude and dinection vary withio And between wells.
Low-angle stratified oueds are dark reddish brown und are osly ott stained er bleached
along more continuous oasd laminar and adjacent to eure sectooic fractures. Io-
Thefirte.graivedanoociation represents an amalgam ofsandscharacterired by fine
geais size and thin vets of cross-strata. These deposils one movi common lowmd the
lop of the Rotlirgend io the oorthero poet nf Ihn field. Inversely graded wiod.eipple
latninutnd sands abound, aloog with massive grainfall sands, fine.geained sasdilew
sands, and ether strata of uncersaio genesis (Fig. 3e, e. and f, Table 2). 20-
Diorannior uod likely dimeooienn of eolias redissent bodiesTwo maleo of larger
bedfoem have breo described in medero deneels: dunes and deau. Dunes have plan
dimensions of tens to hundreds 0f meters und ore meters to teso of meters high. OrnA
Core (or cempeuod and comples dunes) born estents of bandando of melees lo kilometres
und are reos to huodeeds of meteco high (Wilsos. 1972; Breed and Grow, 1979; 30
Lancaster, 1988; ore Huvholm and Kocurek, 1988. foe a somewhat modified
terminology). Draa generally have dunes superimposed upon them and mayor may
noI have large slipfaces of their own. As dunes er deoa migrate, only u small perimo
of the bane nf the bedform isnomoallypreservedas u selorc050l of eolian erons-otrala.
Whole bedforms may, te varying evtents, be preserved al the tops of eolios 40
deporitional episodes (TaIbvI, 1980; Steele. 1953; Hunt000 ovd Chan, 1987; Encheer
and Kocurek, 1988). The churacteristicn of the eoliao stratification present, the
Ihiclunesses nf sets of crons.strala, the presence nf u hierarchy of surfaces hounding
the ocIo, and the spread of azimoths of olipface dips allow ienlalioe toterpeelattons of
the size osti shape of the depositing bedform (e.g.. Hunter, 1981; Kovarek. l98la, b, 50
1986; Rubio und Hunter, 1982). There islam cao beusedlopredtclhkclydtmeostoes
of deposits and the polrntial for comelulioo between melts.

Ftc. 5.Core phntographs of notion-sediment budies, Both seqoences arr from 60 2

Generic Sod mort Bodies
EOLIA N
WAT ER LA IN
turrAre
1.:
FIA. 4.Wireliste-log choructeeistics of the eoliuss genetic types of sedis000t
bodies. Porosity is reflected by the density sod sooic togs and increases from
right to left, i.e., slipface deposits have the highest porosities. Sedimeotory dips
ore shown by the positions of "tadpoles" on the dipmetee log and their aaimolhs
from the orientation of the tails of the tadpoles, north being npward. Unfilled
tadpoles ore from microresislivity correlations nf lower qnality.
vrelieal appraisal wells, and the dips are sedimentary. The apparent reversals
of dip within and between trayn indurlo careless ence laynut prior to slabhiog:
they represent diffeerot halves nf Ihr vorn. All depths refereiog Incoen samples
0er in fret along hole. (a) Duneslipface sands frem close lo the oil-wateruontact',
broce, Ihnir only partial imprrgnatioo by bitnmi000s oil along Ihr morn
peemeable saodflnw eross-steala, Esomioutino andre the microscope shows the 70
thicker red intervals tobe probable stacks of liner groioed saodflow cross-strata
and the white laminar lobe graisfall deposits. Locution of core section is shown
se Fignre 4. Well 38/16-2, 7,743107,756,5 f1,0 (porosity), and k (hnrirontal air
permeability at atmospheric conditinos) at plags 121:21.6%, 5.5 md; and
130:26.1%, 230 md. (b) Srqnrnce from bottom right to Isp left of dnne slipfaee, 80
low-angle stratified, done apron, and again tom-angle stratified sands. Regional
bounding surface inst above plug 03 and annther widespread surface of
uncertain nrder at73, Localion of core section shown in FigureS. Well 30/16-
IOA,7,944.7to7,961.1 ft,øand bat pingso3:26.2%, I7Omd;81tI4.3%,0.S5md;
7dtDl.8%, 20 mdl and 71:14.2%, 0.92 md.
90
-3
a b

fleward Analomy of an eolian reservoir 46

 Eoliaa deposita within the cored (upper) poet of the Rotliogond of Ask tress to
represent thn deposits of dunes migrating over generally slipfaceless thou und nf day
interdsnes and sandnhrots. The interpretation that deputitien was primarily related
to dunes is based on the common intersteatification nf graisfall and nondflow sands
in slipfuce deposits, the thinness nf individual saudftown, the peominendy developed
dose aprons, the relatively small scale nf nets of cross-strata between bounding
surfaces (11015m), and the general lack of coreelatabitity nf stipface intervals nvee
distances nf a few hundreds of melees in a cross-wind direction (discussed luter). The
sequences nf upward-decreasing porosity and permeability zen probably also related
to small nlipfaces, where the degree of sorting due to avalanching chungos upstope und
inlersteatifted grainfalt deposito become more abondant. The limited spread of
nlipface orientations per stratigraphie interval (,.90) is interpreted lo reflect dunes nf
essentially tranuvrrsr type (Pig. 6). The variation in orientation between wells
possibly representa nome crescentic form to the drau ceestlinev. The uniformity is
onimath through intervals of probably stacked slipface deposits is surprising, as
presumably they represent the basal portions of a whole series nf slipfaeeless draa
(Figs. 4aadb). Possibly they indicate that Ihr migrating drau wren essentially in phase
und maintained similar morphology over considerable periods of time (lors te
185s yearn?).
The common occurrence of dune aprons composed of wind-ripple strata implies
leeward winds that blew along or up the lower slopes of dunes, and the upward
thickening of wind-tipple laminan seems likely to result from higher angles 0f climb
of wind ripples on sleeper slopes (Hunter, 1977, 1981: Fryberger and Schenk, 1981:
Kocarek. 1986: l-lavholm and Kocarek, 1988).
Where tow-angle stratified sands are thicker thon a meter or so and widely
correlotuble, they are interpreted an sandsheet deposits, and where thinner and lets
retentive, at dry inlerduse deposits (Ahlbeandt and Fryberger, 1981: Kocurek.
1981b). Corerlation also reveals Ihick localized areas nf (stacked?) dry interdunr
deposits, in keeping with indications nf is-phase deaa (i.e., an incomplete bedform
coser, dan lo limited sand supply?). These it no evidence in the AsIc cores of the
irregularly laminated silty sands widely present in Ike Rottiegend of the Southern
Permian Basin and interpreted atmet iaterdune and sabkho deposits (Glennie, 1972:
Martin and Evans, 1988). Their absence indicates accumulation ut Aok above the
ground-water table.
The interpretation nf the finc-gtained association is ant entirely clear, its major
chozacterislivs being fine grain size and predominant occareraer toward the lop of the
Rotliegend in the narthern part of the field. Possibly this represents o localized area
of fiar-grained sand nf the sort illustrated by Wdnon (1972, 1973).
From the data compiled in Toble 3, it teems lImaI sets nf trough cross-strata
representing date deposits hove widths of tens ta hundreds of meters and lengths
(downflow) of hundreds of melera. Dean occomulalinna wilt probably be a tilde
thicker und have widths of hundreds of melcas to kilometers and even geratet lengths,
slipfaceless droobeingeeprcsenlcdbyacosetofdune scts.Within such trough-shaped
accumulations, slipface sands form aleas, elongate downflow, occopying nome or
much of the trough fill, undoer underlain by wind-ripple sIrota (Fig. 7). Inleeduse
(inlerdroa) deposits are likely to have across-mind widths of huntheda of meters und
calend for kilometers downwind, whereat nundtheets commonly hase dimensions of
many kilometers (Ahlbsandt and Frybeeger. 1981: Kacueck, lOSlb, 1986: Kocurek
und Nielson, 1986).
Bounding surfaces between sets and concIs of cress-strata arr prominent in many
large outcrops nf eolias sandstones and hase became important features in their
interpretation (e.g., Brookfirld. 1977: Kocurek. l98tb, 1988; Loope, 1984b: Tatbot,
1985). There are probably regional (or super) sarfaccs, reflecting major changea in
l-lswafd
Fits. 6.Rann diagrams thawing thr azimuths nl stipfaur dips (gram
Schlumberger HDT dipmetern rau in water'basrd mud). Dipmeter peacrssing
varien nnmrwhat, bat alt basr short cnrrrlalinn intervals and strp distaucrs
(1.3 n 0.6 rn In 1m). Thr retaIls have bren filtered aniuf a 22 ta 29v windaw In
salent nlipfavn dips. Stipface arirulalionn are generally Inward Ihr east in amt
3(a) and Ihr nanthrast in null 4(b). The variability brtwarn tame wettn in nuit 3
is unnsidrrabtn; cf. Figarrs 4 and 8.
Ihn conditions for sand accumulation within an erg, first- und second-order surfacrs at Ank. No conventional core han beet taken of these intervals. and their
resulting feem the migration of dana and dunes, respectively, and third-order surfaces characteristics are known only faam slices cut from the borehole wall (MCTa),
recording local chosges is the morphology of dran or done Ice slopes. Bounding sidewall samples, und log response (Tobte 2). Cores of equivalent canglomeraten in
surfaces are commonly observed in cores and aro evident on dipmrter logs (Fifa. 4, weIt 29/25-1, neme IS kw soulhwent, consist of decimeter. to meter-thick beds nf
Sand 8), although in isolation their sifnificanco in difficult to interpret. The degree stratified cauglomeraten ueparoled by thinner inteebeds uf horizontally stratified
of change is lithafacies, grain size, dclritat composition, style of cross-stratification, pebbly sands.
and pzle000m direction across auch frutares in probably an indication nf order and
likely dimensions (cf. Miall, 1988). Giver sufficient well density, regional and many Mano-flow sands und introformnasional conglosnerotez vary from 0.3 ta 47 m io
first-order aurfaces should be corcelutable. thickness and occur most commonly at the top of Ore Ratliegrsd immethatety
underlying the marine Zochatein (Figs. 4 and 8-10). Massive and defurmed tanda
Wuterlain Sediment Bodies occur widely at this horizon and are commonly referred to an the Weinsliegend
(Glennir and Baller, 1983; Glennie. 1986). Where the base of this interval has been
Fluviutile eatraformatiasal congloeteruteo contais nubangutar to nubrounded cored in Ank, the boandasy in sharp and the waarnlain deposita rest conformably on,
pebbles nf basalt, vein quanto, metasediments, and sedimentary lithologics in amarais nr onlap, notion strata (Fig. 9a). Massive sands Occur in units apto 6m thick andare
of fine ta medium noed. These conglomerates, -15m thick, have be en encountered na homogeneous that coses fram deviated welts hnnak perpendicular la the core avis
atlhe base of the Rotliegend is two of the four complete penetrations of the saccensian rather thon following any incipient stratification (Fig. 9b.d. und f). Matasse sands are
Anatomy of on eolian reservoir
normally oil stained above the field oil-water contact. They commonly fian upward
into faintly ntooliñcd and current-ripple croas-laminated sands, Orten mare abraplly
inlerbedded with deformed vlrolified sands and laminated shalen (Figs. 9 and 10).
Thinner inlorcataliana of massive and deformed waterlain sands occur elsewhere in
the cored pant nf the Ank Rottiegend.
Intraformalional conglomerates consist nf angular dusts of anfonsiliferoas,
laminated, and suggy dolomilo floating ita matis of sandy dolomite (Fsgs. 9e and
lOb). In thin nection, laminaliOn within the ciaste can be seen lobe dac lo organic
malter and the nags probably to rasall from Ihn dinsalution of esaponite minerals (see
Fig. 121). These conglomerolen occur as beds up ta 1.2 m thick mtthin both the
Wnisvlicf end and the underlying enlian-dominated succession. One occurrence
within the Woissliegend overlies a dolomite bed and basa aharp, pesnibty doflated top
(Fig. 10).
The gray colon of these conglomerates prompted sampling for palynolngicat
insetligalian. Samples from a number of horizons within the Rotliegend of Ask
yielded abundant steactuncless organic matter and "Late" Permian flora of varyIng
richness. These include three conventional marker species: Lnectiisporiteo oirkktae
("Norm" A, mesa Visncher. 1971), Vitlatina (= V. sensu Wilnon, 1962), and
Peris accus grunuluiuo, as well an u number of other genero (Taeniuesporires spp.,
Striataabielires typ.. Pramohuploxypinuo spp., and Strolrroportteo npp.). The
tentative "Late" Fermion annotation in based on Ihr arbitrary distinction In the Norlh
Sea Basins between Ihe florivtically pendadlive "Late" Fermnian Zechnldam and the
-
normally barren "Early" Fermion Rotliegend (Thee Schnsodcr, pens. commun.).
oc acrid: mid
.1
asnass
Fin. 7.luterprrtnd geamrtry nf the depanils ata Iran sverse sl'tpfaceless dma
migrating 1mm left ta right, The relative scales at dann drpnsitm lathe draa are
enaggeratrd fer clarity, dane dnpnnitn having widths nf Inns In hundreds nf
metern and draa dnpasits widths nf hnndrnds of metres In kilameters. Dann
(scanr pit) nier and the proprrtian nf slipface depnniln within the tmnagh trIs teem
likely ta increase from Ihn margins la Ihn center nf Ihn dma, Twa caseta nf tu.
phann draa deposits arr ilinsleated, separated by a first-andre boanding narfacn,
47
 Where thickly developed, these watertain mass-flow deposits are distinguished by
Tante 3 øtrne,tstons of eolias de OOisS their scattered dips asid azimuths and by the intercalated high gamma-ray shales and
intzaformational conglomerates (Figs. Sand to). Massive sands are normally coarser 30/16-104
Cross-
Set
Thick- Sandflow
and oflowergnmma-rayresponseandhigherporosity than stratified sands. This heds
of waterlain sand (cl m) are not recognizable from wireline logs, whereas similar
beds of inteaformationnl conglomerate aoe readily identified by their high gnmma-ray
o uutt:u Str
: -s- : :::
Steals- Bedform sens Width Length Thickness responnr (high U from Spectral Gomma Ray) and shaly density-neutron sepaonlinn
Author Fnzmation Age ficasion Type (m) (m) (m) (cm) (Tublo 2)
Thin taruosrine ohulee and dotonsites (5 to 120 cm) occur inrerbedded with the
RECENT
massive and stratified sands ofthe Weissliegend, and the presence of petrographicalty
similar dolomite in intraformational conglomerates elsewhere in the inceession titel
Breed and Trnnsveene 111-1664F indicates that dolomite formation was ata more general occaerrnce. The shams are
Grow crescestic gray, contain millimeter-thick sand laminar, and are characterized by a high gomma-
(1979) dunes ray log response (high U and Tb; Fig. 9f). They are organic rich and, important for
Transverse 770_4t04F the origin of the Weissliegend, contain no evidence of marine palynomorphs
crescesoc (particularly oceitarchn; Theo Schroeder, pers. commun.). Some shale drupes of
than current-rippled strata show mud cracks, andin well 30/16-1 l.a lungecruck filled wich
fioe-grained intrafontiutionul conglomerate penetrates foral leant 95 cm beneath a
ANCIENT prominent shale horizon (Pig. 9f).
Only one in.situ dolomite has hens encountered to date in Auk and man recovered
Steidlmann Casper Penn./ Trough 3 0.3-15 1.5-305 7.5-o305 . un rabble in the core of well AIIB (Fig. 10). Porosity logs show this bed io be
(1974) Perm, extremely dense. lt consists of gray, unfosniliferous, laminated dolomite, midis thin T
section contains pmsdomorphs after gypsum. The stable isotopic composition of
Kocurek Entrada Jur. Trough Dunes on 1-7 <80 300-1700 >9 dolomite from this bed is similar to that of dusts and multis room intraformutional
(1981a,b) dran conglomeraten elsewhere in the sequence. The osygen isotope values of .1.51 to
Kocaeek and *1.09 are compatible with dolomite forming daring early diagenznin from evaporated
Dolt (1901) meteoric matee (Jim Marshall, peen, common.).

t,
Clrmmensen Comic Perm. Trough Dunes os g_1-1g >20 >50 <7 Discussion und likely dintensiono ofwatzrtais oedimens bodies.Waierlain soute
and Abraham- ntipfaceless arr commonly associated with and cap eolias fermationn (see Eschner nod Kocurek,
ses (1983) than 1988, for enamplen). The interval of waterlain strata at the top of the Rolliegend of
Steele Yellow Peas Troogh Denen 05 4-6 40_60 Auk has aImons all of the features of the Weissliegend described from Poland and the
>80 >8
(1983) longìludinal Southern North Sea. Notable differences are the dominandy red color of the Ank
drus deposits, escept where stained or bleached by hydrocarbons, and the presence of beds
of dolomite and intraformstionat conglomerate. The massive and stratified sands
Loops Cedar Perm Trosgh Dunes? >1-17 3-100 have been considered reworked by waves during the Zechstein transgression
2-3
(1984a) Mesa . (Glennie, 1972;Jeraykiewicaandothers. 1976; Blaszcayk. 1981; Nemec andPorebski,
1981) or deformed and homogenized by escaping trapped sir (Gleusie and Baller,
Carrathers Gallymore 1983). Similar deposits intercalated with eolias strata deepens the succession bene
Dey. Trough Dunes on 03-15 10-cOO 10_>l50 >8
(1907) xli faceless been interpreted an fluvial, or the resalta of earlier incursions of the Zechntein seo
(Gtennie, 1972; Nemec and Poeebski, 1981).
drau
The occurrence of current-ripple crosn-laminated sands and beds of shale,
dolomite, and inteaferteational conglomerate in critical to the interpretation of the Orvalle Sedinenr Bodies
Weber De Chelty Perm Trough 3-11 9_oSSO
(1987) - .
Ank deposils as waterlain. These features and the sharp und locally onlapping base
of the Weissliegend preclude an origin by the homogenizalion of dune sand in the f SL la N waTERLAIN
Lindquist Nugget Jar manner envisaged by Glennie and Baller (1983). Similarly, the absence of marine Matelas MatS-FLOW
Trough 9 >20
(1988) _ . _
1
-2 patynomorphs, nhelly fasnu, bioturbation (escept immediately beneath the
cute senne - sTrATIFIeD Mann - etna

Ftc. 8.Wirrlinr log characteristics si wateelain srdimrnl bodies. Note the Lors - sesto snWaTlrlEn
'Range of mean widths. scattered dips and azimuths nf the waterlaie Wrisslirgend intreval nnmpared
with the srdrerd patteras nf the aetdrrlyie.g reliait sands.

Cosuinaed on page 50

Ilewarul Anatomy of an relias reseevoif 48

 ft ft
cro
0-0 0-0cnr

117496
-IO
117505

20- -20

117413
117425
30 - B 30

40- -40

50- -50

60- -2 2 60
nj
nj 117666
117675
70- -70

60 -80

BASE

90- -90
-3 a BAS d e BASE 3-

....a.___s...._ ._a..u_._. ...s. ...a...a

Howard Anatomy of an eoliarc reservoir 49
.__N._......m_.
Feu. 9.(Previons page.) Core photographs of waterlain-sedimenl bodies;
cores are feom wells deviated 23 from vertical for sequences a, d, e, and f, and
61 from vertical far b and n. Att depthv referring to core samples are in feet
along bole. (a) Bave of the Weivsliegend interval. Dune-apron sands with a
sedimentary dip of -25' are clearly ontapped at the base of the center tray by
otratified waterlain sands. Well 30/16-11,9,066.8109,074.2 ft. (b) Oil-stained
O nanan nos
mavvive maso-80w sands (dark brown) overlain by deformed stratilied sands.
Location of core section shown in Fignre 10. Well AIIB, 11,741 to 11,753 f1,0
(porosity),and k (horieontat air persucabilityat atmospheric conditions) at plugs
280i26.9%, 41.9 md; and 27419.8%, 3.96 md. (o) Stratified sands showing a
variety of small-scale deformation and possibly ripple cross-lamination (below
plug 292; cf. illustrations in Jeeeykiewicz and others, 1976). Mure permeable
beds are picked Out by color bleaching and slight nil stain. Locution of core
section shown in Figure 10. Well AIIB, 11,759 to 11,768 Pt, 0, und k at pings
29216.4%,0.28 md; and291t8%, 1.53 md. )d) Right-hand tray shows stratified
sands with steeply climbing enreent-ripple cross-lamination (cf. Jeeaykiewicz
and others, 1976; Kucnrek, 1981k). Center and left-hand trays consistofmassive
saods that fine upward into faint horiaontally stratified sands (plugs 06 and 85)
and current-rippled sands with gray silty drapes. Well 30/16-11, 9.054 tu
9,061.6 f1,0, und hut plugs 8910.2%, 0.13 md; und 8725.3%, 60 md. (e) Gray
inteafvrmational conglomerate capped by mm wind-ripple laminated sands.
This is one of the occurrences of waterlain strata mithin the rollan dominated
part of the Rotliegend. The steatification and vertical rIant fabric within the
upper poet of the conglomeeate arr probably the result of dewatering. Ctastsaee
of laminated aud vuggy dolomite. Well 30/16-11,9,094.4 to 9,100.7 ft. (f) Gray
laminated shale within a sequence of massive and faintly stratified mass-flow
sands. Note 1h recae k with while bleached margins (eigbt.hand teay), filled with
fine inteaforwotioval conglomerate. Likely vertical orientation of craok
indicated by bleached margin adjacent In plug 30, the piece of core above being
reversed. Possibly, this isa large desiccation feature of the sort described by
Kocurek and Hunter (1986). Well 30/16-11,8,973.9108,982.5 ft.
EOLIAs
rive-usai sen nssou inciso
Zrchstrin), and wave-, storm-, Or tide-produced srdimeotary features does not favor
LOS- costi scontrino
as oeigin through reworkiog by the Zechsteiv sou.
lostead, these sediments aro interpreted to have formcd as a result of raiostormv or
wetter climatic episodes, whey desert sand ucd silt were washed from upstanding
doses into ivtredunat depressions (McClure. 1978; Talbot and Williams, 1979;
Talbol, 1980; Ahlbrandt ucd Fryberger, 1981). Massive sands meer probably
dcpnsitod from highly nndiment-charged flows, and the stratified sands from less
intervals are normally at the bare, where the tondu are coarsesl and best sarted. Duoc-
apron sands buon Iwo types of porc system: the coarse laminoc bave an isleegranalar
porn network 1h01 iS, to varying degerex, occladcd by kaolinite and dolomite cements;
and thc fine laminar are microporous (Fig. 12h). The coarse laminar of low-angle
AIIB
iso a -ns nessirr a or
stratified sands aro only a few grajos thick, commonly lenticular ovas-ale of a few
cenlimelers, and have ivtergraoutar pore spaces that are largely filled with dolomite
orkanlinile (Fig. 12e). Measuremenin of permeability andcapiilary prexsusv made on
core plugs 2.5 cm (I in) il diameter aro dominaled by the properties of the coarSe
leones andare likely tobe optimistic enlimates of the effective behavior of such wisd-
rippin strata. Low-angle stratified sands without any evidooce of oil staio occur as
much as 45 w above the oil-water contact, suggesting much higher capillary rniry
prexsxrex than th'oxo measured in the laboratory. Vertical permeabilities from 2.5-cm
(l-in) cubes of core seenteuth ton halfofberi005iat values. Sands of the fixe-grained
association aro dominantly micropo000u with high porosities bui low permeabililien
(Figs. 11 and 1W). The materlais ntruta have, in general, lower poroxities und
penneabililies owing lo their finer grain size and gwater degree 0f cemeotation by
dotomile (Figs. 11 and 12e). Of the walerlain dopositu, the boul properties are shown
Cora
by the coarsest, cleanent. massive muss-flow sands.
Thus, enlian xlipfacr sands and waterlain massive sands form the boxt reservoirs,
and low-angle xtracified sands and lacustrine deposits represent potential barriers to
fluid flow.
WATER LAIN
Flu. 10.Additional characteristics of watrelaiss.srdiment bodies.
(a) Prominent wiecline.log response of au in-situ dolomite bed; other possible
esamples of dolomites are indicated in Figure 15. Associated waterlain strata
showing a number of crude upward-fining sequences (reflected by increasing
Gnnntiv Sadimunt Oudius gamma ray and density), (h) Closeup photograph of the top nf the inteaforma-
WAIERLAIN tinnal conglomeralr that oveelieu the dolomitet tabular vnggy elusi at center
a asume usos -clon
right is 2.5 cm wide. Clasts at Ihr lop of the bed arr truncated sharply, by
deflation?, prior lo deposition of the overlying red wateelain sands. Welt AS1B,
11,845.3 f1, well deviated 61' from vertical; logs displayed at lene vertical
stnuerrien nous.ew
lhieknrss,
/_,f Luvusroine eOLvnrrr

concentrated flowsthe scveral-metcr-thick upward-fining soq000ers ropreseotiog
events of some magnitude. The laminated skates 0x4 dolomites are likcly to be Ihr
deposits of temporary inserduval lakcs, and the intraformarional conglomeratrs the
outcome of reworkisg of such carbonate-rich sediments (McClure. 1978; Talbot.
1980; Lancaster and Toller, 1988). The occurrcsco of probable deflation surfaces,
desiccation features. und indications of rvaporioic conditions cuy be explained by
suck a subaerial interpretation.
Individual mass flown seem likely to have 0x10015 of only a few tens te hundreds
of meters, although there are few data lo support this covclusion. Slacks of these
deposits flanking and partially isfitting inlerdunal troughs will ho more widespread
(Grudeinoki and Jeezykiewica. 1974; Bigarella, 1975; Talbot und Williams. 1979;
Blanzcayk, 1981). Euckser und Kocurok (1986) could follow amalgamated aoitu of
subaqueous, ulbeil marine, mass flows for several kilometers in outcrops of the boxai
Corhs Fermauen (Upper Jurauxic) is northeastern Utah. Probably greater centisoity
can be assumed for totoedunal shalos and carbonaten thax for iodividual mars-flow
sands. McClure (1978) dexceibed Quaternary lake deposits that entend along
interdunat corridors ever many kilometers is tke Rub al Khuti of Saudi Arabia, and
Kocurok (198th) traced a thin interdunal shale drope over noveraI kilometers in the
Entrada Sandstone of Ulab. Dimensions of a few hectares have hers recorded for
recent and ancient interdunat carbonates (Haoley and Steidtmano, 1973; Feyberger,
1979; Lancaster and Teller. 1988).
Figure 11 crony plots core porosity and permeability meanurementn and clearly
shown that reservoir quality varies wish she genetic typex of sediment bodies and
hence in related te the dominant types of stratification (Table 2). Diagenexiu
generally scemo to hase emphasized the inherent differexcox in porosity and
permeability that rexull from deponitinoal testeo (grain sire, sorting, packing, and
thickness of lamination). Similar findings have been reported for other desert
sandstones (Nagtegaal. 1979; Lindquisl, 1983, 1988; Goggin and others, 1986;
Chandler and others, 1989).
The best reservoir properties occur ix dune stipface saods, where the combination
of medium graix tiro and good sorting resalta in high perme abilities (Fig. 125). A
largo tufty form of authigenic kaolisite is the majorreducer ofpermeability in slipface
dryoxitx in Auk. An observed by Liudquist (1988). the bell properties nf slipface
Flu. 11,Cross plots nf ail Ihr core porosity and premeakility measurements
from the Rottiegrnd of Ask grouped per genetic type of sediment body. Ellipses
rrpeesent one standard deviation from Ihr means (indicated by dots). Stalistics
arr arithmetic for porosity and geometric for permeability. In (h) the enlias data
arr shown dotted for comparison with the watertain dala. The porosity caloffs
of 16 and 21%, which approsimately divide the geonps of data, were nsed asan
aid in identifying the types of srdimrnl bodies from nicotine logs fnr wells and
intervals where there is no core. The cutoff values in.sitn are 0.98 times the
atmospheric ones (Philip Lafeher, pers. enmmun.(.

Heward Avalomy of av folien reservoir


Fic. I2.Photomicrographs of textures and pore systems representative of the
different sediment bodies. Allure atthe same magnification und the find of view
is approximately 2.2 mm. Blur epoxy inSIlo pores, and the yrtlow-stained grains
arr potash frldspars. All depths referring to core samples are in feel along hole.
(a) Good sorting and open inlergrannlar porosity typical nf olipface deposits.
Well 30/16-9, 7,973.8 fI, Ssf, 0 (porosity) 29.8%, k (horizontal aie permeability at
atmospheric onnditiorts) 690 md. (b) View of part of a coarse and part of a fine
lamina of the mm-cm eoaroe wind-ripple strata, which predominate in dune-
apron deposits. Tafty kanlinite (geay-btack) visible io inteegeanalar porro of the
coarse lamina. Well 30/16-ISA, Swe3, 7,949.4 f1,0 17.8%, k 20 md. )c) mm coarse
wind-ripple strata typical of tow.angle stratified sands. Here the coarse lamina
is there grains thick and cemented by dolomite. Note the himodatity of these
sands and the lack nf size grading within theeoaesesteatnm. Well 30/16.9, Swel,
7,958.1 fI, 015.1%, k 1.2 md. (d) Sands of the fine-grained association showing
their clay mineral-rich character and obvious secondaey porosity from the
dissolution of framework grains. Welt AllA, 9,956 ft. Swr2, 024%, k 1.04 md.
(e) Massive wateelain sand with open inteegranular pores. Grayish matrix is of
aothigenic kaotinite and nsiceoebomhie dolomite. Well 30/16-tI, 8,958.1 f1, Sm,
023%, k 13 md. (f) Thin section of a dolomite clatI from an intraformational
conglomerate. The laminations are organic and are peobably algal. The blue
epoxy-filled vngn are possibly after evaporile minerals. Well A06, 9.243.5 ft.
Photomiorographs by Dorothy Payne of Badley, Ashtsn and Associates.
Thc Rollicgesd at Auk comprises o large wedge.ohaped accumulation tIsaI thins
from 500m io Ilse west ro 150 mio the east (Fig. 13). The genetic sediment bodies
eecogoired i n cores were interpreted from wieelioe logo for the wells and intervals
where there in no core. Thin was accomplished nnisg the porosity cutoffs of
Fignre Il and the ether chaencteeiolicn tinted in Table 2. Above the locally developed
basal estraf000alional conglomerate, wireline logs show a stepped, npwnrd incwane
in gamma ray and a decrease in porosity through the remainder of the Rotliegeod
segneoce, rellecting marked changes in the proportions of the different generic types
of sediment body. The steps are prominent is most welts and are interpreted te
represent regional honoding sarfaces nod overlying snsdsheotn that separate distinct
episodes of desert sedimentation (cf. Kecorek, 1988; Lisdquisi, 1908). The change
le predamiorotlp waterlaio deposits at the top nf the Rotliegeod io a further
subdivision, obvious is cores but sot always so readily identifiable from logs. That,
five reservoir units can be established whose correlativo in illautealed by panels
orientated approximately dowowivd (went to east) and across wind (noelh.northmest
lo south.00alheast) for Ihr oil.beaeivg intervals (Pigs. 14 and 15; the norohering of
asilo from top downward is cooveotiooat for reservoir studies).
The choice of a datum for thsplaying the correlation mss by no menes easy because
neither Ute overlying Kupferuchirfer (Baue Zechsteio, Fig. 2; known elsewhere to
drape ropography; Blaszczyk, 1981; Steele, 1983) vor the Oase Chalk oecooforroily
are likely lo represent horizontal planes. Working panels were prepared axing Ihr
promineel base of unit 3 aso datom, bot, as this iront penetrated by alt wells, some
interpolation was necessary. In describing cores from wells A06, AO6A, nod
30/16-2, which are only 220 la 240 m apart, it become apparent Ibas rhe regional
msa............. ......S. ....m.........a.
L Anatemy of on eel jan reservoir
o (Pig. 17h), Paleotopographic relief of nimilor dimensions iv described by Hantoon
Figs. 15017
o
o Cunboniferous deposits aro absent over large arnas of the central North Sea, und Ike
/
r)
ql
041' '0/
o conglomerates encountered by some wells (30/16-1 and -S) and absent from olhers
o (30/16-5 und -9; Pigs. 14 and 15). Their patchy distribution is posoibly the result nf
elI_IS
o mach of the unlay of the Devosiun being accomplished daring this period (Pig. 14).
Fra. 13.Simplified lotal Rotlirgrnd tbieknrns map based on well control and
seismic data. Mach of Ihr eastward thinning is due lo ontap onto a tilled
Devonian substrate, and some results from leancation peine tu the deposition of
the Upper Crrtacrous chalk. Locations of eroso sections (Figs. 14-17) are shown.
bounding surfaces at the boses of units 2 and 3 probably have a topography of their
own rather than being hocizoolal (Fig. 16; cf. illustrations is MeClare, 1978; Tathol,
1985). Interpolation wan therefore likely to he gnessivg, and a consistent sahsra
datum for coeretalivn seemed preferable (Pigs. 14 sod 15). Remnuot lapography os
these surfaces may acc000l for some of the variability in dip and azimuth shows by
different intervalo of low-angle stratified sands, In such cases, these seenot the sIcura
from which ta estimate structural dip, an would oormolly be the approach of a
geologisl corking with eolias rcsvreairu.
Inonderas reconstruct the likely depositiosal architecture at evd.Rolliegnod time,
summary sections were prepared using the midpoint of unit 3 osadatum IO smooth any
effecls oftepographyon Ike usit'sbasrortop (c.g.,Fig. 17a). Anumberofistereatiog
features are highlighted: I) Ihe several.hilomrter-wide mound of unit 2.2, around
which are despoIl the fine.grainrd saoUl of unit 2.1 and she walerlaio deposits of
uniI 1; 2) three areprobably same 60m of relief on Ihr Kupferscbiefer, and 3)uv much
as 75 m of erosion locally at the Buse Chalk avconfonoity. The end-Rotliegend
topography nod the divrnibetion cf watrrlaio strata are remarkably similar, although
on a larger reale, to that illustrated by Blasrczyk (1981) from southwestern Potuad
and Chan (1987) from the Ponsios White Rim Sandstone of Utah.
As dro reluIt uf Lato Carbaniferous la Early Premian oplifl and erosion.
Rotliegeod reals os Drvonioo or older strato (Glennie. 1986). At Aals Ihr Devosian
was tilled -4' Iv the oouthwert, probably away from the newly formed Ceonal
Gruben. The earlinul Rotliegend deposito (reservoir unit 5/me this entraformutionul
Ihn infilI of small.scale lopogruphy. These matecluin sediments indicate weller
climatic canditi005 during Ose Early Rotliegend, no is also commonly observed in
deposits of Ihr Southern Feemian Banjo.
Sands uf rvverset'r unit 4 overlie either Ihese basal conglamrrates or Ihr Devonian,
Tb ore is sa care nf Ihone sediments, au they generally occur below the nil-waler
contad of the field. Prow the core-to-log calibration established higher in Ihr
nocceuvion, Ihey appear Io consist of stacked coItan slipfuce lands oriented toward Ike
100lbeaut (Fig. Ob).
The deposits of reservoir uniI 3 sepreneol a significant change in depositional
conditions, with a considerably increased proportion of wind-ripple laminaled strato
and a shift in the average orientation of slipfucov loward the east (Table 4, Pig, ka).
The sandshret at Ihr base of the unit is the SmI prominent tight internat above Ihn
porous sands of unit 4 and is readily iderlifind in musI wells that penetente thaI deeply
isla the formation (Figs. 14 and 15). Unit 3 varies io thickness between 55 and
104 m over the arno nf the field und sermo Io c005iot of kilometer-wide "Ihieko"
containing nlipface strata separated by "dries" hundreds of meters wide dominated by
law-angle stratified sands. These appear Io correspond to stacked dean und inlerd000
(interdrau) drpasits, with some remount lupogrophy preserved brnealh the overlying
regional bounding surface. Slipfaee intervals arenal correlulable over dislancen of
a few hundred meters isa cross-wind dicectieo und ore interpreted sodann deposits
on stipfuceless doua (Pig. 16). Withoal better roce coverage of uniI 3. it is hazardous
so interpret furlher Ike thick, stocked slipfuce intervals represented in Pigures 4 and
8. The increaund abundance of wind-ripple laminated 0usd ujO unit 3 probably relledla
more variable winds. Thin dulowilic iotruformoli000l covglomcrutes are preseel in
cree and evident os wieclise logs, particularly toward Ihn lop of ihn interval. They
require periodic welter conditions Io form the i010rduoul carbovules and suboequrotly
torrado, transport, and depoail them.
Is corn, Ihr boundary between units 2 usd3 io marked by soveml connu of bleaching
of the red sandstones, prenumubly related to luter IhrOaghflOw of reducing waters.
The boundary io readily picked from lags where the basal sandnheel of noiI 2 overlirn
stipface atrulu, bat is mere difficult lo locate when it rests on wind-ripple laminated
strata. II is these cosleusln in rutian deposits bolwron nlipfacr ounds with porosilies
of-25% and low-angle stratified sands (oandsheets) with purosilirs of-I3% thaI urn
probably the origins of reflections wilhin the Rotliegend seesen roceol seismic lines.
These should be essentially continuous for the units 3/4 boundary and correspondas
concentrations ef dune slipfnce deposits (cestero of doua') for Ihn units 2/3 boundary.
If Ihm proves to be the cour, under favorable circamnlancen regional bounding
surfaces and areas of goad-quality evoervoir muy be mopped from seismic data.
51
 AIm 30/16-3
.
AS7A

.
AOl 30/16.9 30/16.5 E

Ftc. 14West-east correlation panel, perpendicular to slrncture and

approximately downwind for unito 2 and 3. Logs are displayed ut lene vertical
thickness und annotated in feet (TVD = true vertical depth). Note the sery clear
thinning of the Rottiegend, particularly unit 4, from west to east. Facies
identification from logs is weakest in nnit4 hecause there areno cores toculibrate
the logs. There it u paucity of strato with low porositirs typical of 10w-ongle
stratified sands, and nome dipmetees show a rather scattered response in thin
unit, whereas others record abundant slipface dips. ODT (or oil-down-to) is the
deepest occnrrence of oil aboco light (low porosity) reservoir. Line of section
shown in Figure 13.

Fsc. 1S.(Follossing page.) North.northwestsouth.sonlheast correlation

GENETIC SEDIMENT BODIES panel, approximately parallel to stroctoec and orientated across-wind for units
2 and 3. Logs are displayed ut troc vertical thickness and annotated in feet
)TVD = true vertical depth). The northward shallowiog of the Oilwater contact
sums is clearly displayed, as is 1ko correlatable draa? slipface sand of unit 2.2
(wells AO2B-AO4A). This sand can be traced throsgh four weIb in Block 3. The
tight beds in snit 3 of well AÙ4A arc also present io other wells in this area. They
em.ms,muumumm bave the density-log oharucteristics of interdunal dolomites hot lack the
accompaoyiog high gamma-ray response. Line of section shown in Figore 13.
u

Heward Anatomy of an cohen reservoir 52

 .
AA 30/16-3 AOOA AO? AO2B AO4A 30/16-B 30/16-lOA SSE
30/16-4

* *
NNW

* * * s s

GENETIC SEDIMENT BODIES

E*fiAFOMAL

L
.._s.a .._s,
Anatomy of an eolian reservoir 53
 NW SE
AO6 30/16-2

3000-0 aceA o n cuco

Foc. 16.Correlation of three closely spaced cored wells that are orientated
approximately across wind. Logs are displayed at true vertical thickness and
annotated in reel (TVD = troenertical depth). The variation is thickness ofunits
2.2 and 3 over short distances soggests that their basal bounding surfaces were
not planar horizontally hot possessed a remnant depositional topography. The
lack of correlatabilily of slipface sands implieo slipfaces ofdooe rather than draa
origin. Wells A06 and AO6A were drilled in t9g4 and 1985 after considerable
production from the overlying Zeehstein. RFT (Repeat Formation Tester)
pressures in the Rotliegend of these two wells lag behind those of the depleted
Zechstein, ando pressure differential sf414 kPa (60 psi) was present across the
low-angle stratified sands atibe base of nuit 2.2, indicating that these form an
extensive partial-pressure barrier. Line of section shown in Figure 13.

PP = zallan largo seal o croxo-stratitiod sondo

PB structurel cxv mass-1100 sonds
FL = laminated vary tuno atairad mass-ticovando
PZ duvorvoly slratifued 'vubhtoral sands'
- -. calor chango between ted boleo and white ataco
GENETIC SEDIMENT BODIES
F05. t7.(a) Reconstenction. using the well data of Figure tO, of the possibl
WannRLAlS depaxitionat urchitzctare ut eud-Rotliegeud time (cf. illustrations in McClure
Mn000n .000,.etorz Sallos t978; Talbal, 1985). Datum is the midpoint of unit 3. (b) Cross section showing

I the topography of the uppermost Rolliegend and its influence ou facies, frano the
Luhin copper mining area of southwest Poland (from Btaneceyk, t981). The
eolian highs are elongate, 0.510 1km wide, and have an approximute northwest-
southeast orientation. The iuterdunat lowo are xmoothed by an infitt ofwaterlain
strata und then draped hy the Kupfernchizfer (black) and thicker Zrehstein
(carbonate symhal). Line of section shown in Figure t3.

fleward Anatomy of ae eoliao reservoir M

J
 Unit 2 contains a still greater proportion el wind-ripple laminated sands, and there
are intercalations of wuteetain strata in a nambrr of writs (Table 4, Figs. 14-16). The
direction of dominant sand flaw probably remained toward the east, although there arr nues 1
few slipfacr intervats in the wetts with dipmelers from which to obtain such
orientations. The Unit is dominated by the presence of a depositional mound 7km
wide and 87 m thick, which appetit ta he located abavr an interdusal "thin" in Ihr
undeetying Unit 3 (Fig. 17a). The mound consists of a namber of stacked draa
sequences. Slipfaer sands occur toward the center of the mound, and the thickest of
these (-15 re) is correlatable oserai least 750m inn north-scads direction (across-
flow?; Fig. 10). Thin is probably of deaa oria is, but there inno core material from
wells in this area la confirm the interpretation. Wind-tippte strata predominate
toward Ihr northern and southern margins of the mound, and the main occUrrence of 4
deposits of the fine-grained association (sub-unit 2.1) mandes its noethern gank,
possibly in response to seasonal winds.

b,
The walerlain strata of uniti (Weisstiegend) are also draped around the underlying
mound (Pigs. 15 and 17). These deposits seem sa repensent an episode of mach melter
climate Inward ihr end of the Ratliegond, when sand slumped and was resabed from
highs saply infili isterdanal laws. Eutian activity nay rol have ceased rntirnly.
as indicated by Ihn probably deflated top of the intrafoemational conglomerate
illustrated in Figare 10h. These geseratty welter conditiann, possibly of lO'tS' years
duraliun by analogy with climatic fluctuations of Ihn similarly glacially driven
Quutcmary (McClure, 1978; Talbot, 1900), probably heralded the Zechstein
transgression.

TABt.n 4.Prrperlies of the Aak idalliegond reoereotr salto

(i-3 rare ail bearing)
i
Coarse
Wind. 55to. 18.Maps for Ihr oil'beanittg retervoir units I to 3 showing thur connectedneso. The northern part of Block 2 contains a large proportion of fine trained asanciation, willI its high pnrnoitirvhnt low permrahilities, occupies
Thickness Dominant Slipface Ripptr PorotilyPormoabitily' thickness (above the finid onntact) and their proportion nf gond'qnality sand, fine'grained stratified sands, which may be dueto the reworking of sands of the mn h of thin sOit in the northern part of Block 2. (r) UniI 3 oceors significant y
UniI (m) Geometry Deposits (%) (%) (%) (md) (OWC y nilwaler mIstad; ODI = Oil'down'to). (a) Wates'lajn deposits. Enen rtne'grained association, (h) The moss significant reservoir unit, The ulipface Only ahoye the oilwater contact in the center of Black 3, where il is of poor
Ihr host nones uf massivr mass'finm sands seem nnahlr to snstain commercial sands in the eraser of Block 3 have peodaeed moss of the Ratliegend nil to date, qua ily io the sooth and good quality farther north.
I l-47 Planking Walortain 0 0 19.9 3.6 rates of praductinn, possibly brcanse of their limited lateral rvtent and and three seems to he considerable potential for farther development. The
drape (13_27)' (0.2_80)'
Is entinen then, after the basal watertuin conglomerate and the onset of Raltingend oilwater contad shallows timm 2.362m sabscu in the south, te 2.316m subsea is the intervals of stipface sands coo br evcounlrred above the oilwaler cootuct (south of
2 10-87 Mounded Eoliva 10 80 16.7' 1.9' eolias actieity, the succession at Auh seems lo have become wolter upward in a series north. Possibly, it rcflecis capillary effects Onu reservoir scale andin reluied lathe Block 27). In Blocks 2 and t the Zechstein wollt have produced moro oil than the
sheet (t t-22) (0.2-20) of dcpanilionat episodes (see also Olennic, 1906). Winds probably becaren store charging of the Rotliogend via the Zechntnin. the sands in the north of the field being Zachntein reserves, and the recess has traditionally burn considered lo bave bees
srasooallp variable with time. How regional lhrse episadns aro romainn te be of much lower quality (Pig. 15). drained from ihr Rotliegrad. Even though the sands of Block 2 arr in prestnrn
3 55-104 Undulaling Eotian 40 09 20.8 10.7 established, bat Ihero are similar fcatarcn in the deposita of the Southern Prrmian The majority ufRotliegrsdoilprodactioo in Auk has come from dune und probably cootmunication with Ihr overlying Zrchsteio. their marginal quality suggests that the
sheet (15-27) (1-125) Basis. Microflora from organic.zich iotrafarmatinoal conglomerates indicate thai drau stipface sands of reservoir unit 2 in the noulhervpart of Block 3 (Pig. 18h). Wells scurce of oscrss Zcchstein oil should be sought elsewhere (i.e., rnlnssiOns of the
units I taS (al lotit) are possibly "Late" Peonias, rather Ibas the "Early" Premias ta flow al strudp rates of 8010270 m'/d (300 te 1700 bId) and bane lam matreculs. There Zechssein reservoir).
4 282 Ontapping Ealian 70 30 Na eure No core which thr Roltiegrod has traditionally been assigned. The Zechstein traongrennioo seems lobe coosiderahlr potential for further devnlopmeot lo the east (downwind?) The majority of uoit 3 and the highly porous sunds of unii 4 forro u considerable
mW wedge seems ta have been the rapid, low-energy submergence of a seasonally? wet, und sOulh of esisliog producers. The uncorenlatable dune slipfaco sands of the aquifer, which, via circuitous plumbing, provides pressure napport to Ihe Zechstnin
69 io E abandoned erg (cf. Steele, 1983). Dampness of sand or same farm of surface ernst underlying unit 3 hase also produced oil in Block 3 al rates of op to 795 m'Id and Rodiegend producing intervals (Buchanan and 000gteyling, 1979).
(Talbol, 1900) muy have contributed to the final preservation of Rolliegeud (5,000 bId). These saodv see clone to the aquifer and quickly develop high waleecutn.
topography. Sands of only marginal quality arene above the nilwater contact ocre much of
5 0-15 Patches? Walorlais O O No caro No corn Blocks 2 and I (wateelain, fine-fraioed associutios, dane apron, and 10w-auf le
M»Pptvn aeservam QUALifY stratified; Pigs. 14 through 16 and 18). Wollscampleted on the most porous intervals
have managed to sustain rates of only a few tens of cubic meters per day far short
'Horizontal aie pormrabililies al atmospheric conditions avneugod gromnlrically. Figure 18 presenta thickness and nand-qautity maps for the three reservoir units that periods. There seems 14111e potcnlial for greAter productivity unless stgnsftcant
'One standard deviation. occur abono Ihn oitmaton contact. For erasoos that arc not laity anderniood, Ihr
'No caro of the main producing sands in Black 3.

Heward Analomy of un eolian reservoir 55


Recent concepts of eolian stratification, brdforms, and bounding snrfaces offer
powerful toots for cbaraelrrizing echan hydrocarbon reservoirs. Subsurface
studies can often draw onu vanirty of data that entend to scales greater than those
normally possible in outcrops. Snch studies hove considerable potential In
contribule ideas on how desert sediments accumulate in space and time.
Seven genetic types of sediment bodies can be distinguished in the Rotliegond of
Ask: rutian, t) slipfacr, 2) dusse apron, 3) low-angle stratified, and 4) a fine-
graired association; and water/am, 5) hiuviatite entraformational conglnmrrates,
6) mass-flow sands and inteoformationat conglomerates, and 7) lacastrinr shales
and dolomites. Rrsrrvo quality is related to the occurrence of these sediment
bedim and their varying proportions throaf h the Rollirgend sequence. Dane and
dran stipfuce sands hove the best reservoir proprrtieu and form the main oil-
producing intervals, whereas low-angte stratified sands and lacastrire deposits
erpemsrnt potential huniers to fluid flow. Unless strongty overprinted by
diagrnrsiv or fracturing, slipface sands witt form the major producing intervals of
ertian sundstosr reservoirs.
The Rodiegend at Aak can be subdivided into five reservoir units using featarrs
likely tobe eotrrlatahte between welts (regional bounding surfaces, sandvheels.
and chongrs between rolian and watmrlsin deposition). The reservoir units vary
considerably is geomrtry. and such variability muy br typical of certain rulias/
desert sandstones. Significant contrastais porosity betwrrn porous slipface sands
and tight wind-ripple laminated strata may allow majar bounding surfaces and
unos of goed-quatity reservoir to br mapped from seismic data.
Following deposition uf Ihr basal watertain cosgtomerales und thr nnsrl of multan
activity, the Rotlirgend at Aals trams ta reflectan incrrasingly wetter climate and
more variable, possibly seasonal, winds. The Weinshiegend appears to be the
product of u much wrtlrr period, with reworking of a largely obaudoned erg by rain
law grateful to the managements of Shell U.K. Evploratios and Production, Shelt
Intemationat Petonteum Mii., and Esso Esplorahion and Production U.K. for
permivvion to publish this paper, which in based on a study carried out for Shell
Evpmo's Central North Sea Business Unit. Yvonne Jensen, Phitip Lafrbrr, Jutrs van
Limborgh, Dorothy Payne, and Theo Schroeder contributed significuntly lo this work.
The nsuvuscript hcnmfittcd from criticat appraisals by Ken Gtmsnir, Gary Kocarek,
John Marshall, Wojtek Ncnsmc, Richard Steele, und Noel Tyler.
Atn.nnasnr, T. S., aso Pnyovrovn, S.D., 1981, Srdiwmnlary feotarrs and signiticancr
of interdunc drpcnits, is Ethridgc, F. G., and Flores, R. M., eds.. Recent and
Ancient Novmaoinr Depositional Environments: Modets for Enptnmution:
Socirty of Economic Patmontologists and Mineralogists Syrcmat Publication 31,
p.293-314.
BacvvLn, R. A., 1941, The Physics of Blown Sand und Desert Dunrs: London,
Methuen, p. 144-166.
Heward
NNNRNNNN-*N*S5S
Btcanvt.c..s, J. J., 1975, Structures developed by dissipation of dune and brach
drposiln: Catena, y. 2, p. 107-152.
Bs.snzczyx, J. K.. 1981, Palaromorphology of Weisslirgendmn typ as Ihm control on
facies variabihily in ore-bearing series of the Lubin Copper-field, southwestern
Poland: Geologia Ssdmtica. y. 16. p. 195-217.
Boer,vntar, G.. 1973, Cames for Ihr delermisahion of compaction using deformed
crass-bedding: Journal of Sedimentary Pelrology. v.43, p. 1166.
Boceo, C. S., ave Grow, T., 1979. Morphology and distribution of dunes in sand sant
observed by remete sensing, in McKee, E. D., md., A Study nf Global Sand Seos:
U.S. Geological Survey Profennionol Poper 1052. p. 253-302.
Brcsvavn, T. P., aso Vav Veuv, P.R., 1975, The Aals oil-field, in Woodland, A. W.,
ed.,Petrvteam und theCostinental ShclfofNorthWmstEurope: Applied Science,
Barking, y. h.p. 275-283.
Bcvvnrtmzn, M. E., 1977. The nrigmn of bounding surfaces in ancient amoliao
sandstones: Sedimenlulogy, v.24, p- 303-332.
Bucn.sasas, B., sso IlovorcyLeco. L., 1979, Aals field development: a cate bislor)'
illustrating the need for a fimsiblr plan: Journal of Petroleum Technology, v.31,
p. 1305-1312.
Cannsrmimas, R. A., 1987, Arahian sedimentation from thm Galtymorm Formation
(Devonian), Ireland, is Frostick, L. E., and Reid, 1., edn., Desert Sediments:
Ancient and Modern: Geological Society of Londas Special Publication No.35.
p. 251-268.
Cn.vsnt.ets. M. A., Knrutsma, G., Ganoss, D. J., aso Lane, L. W., 1989. Effects of
stratigraphie heterogeneity on pmrmeability in rutian sandstone sequence, Page
Sandstone, northern Arizona: American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Bulletin, v.73. p. 658-668.
CLEMMENSeN, L. B., aras Anu.snaMtnv. K., 1983, Amotine stratification and facies
association in desrrt nediments, Arman Bovin (Permion), Scotland:
Sodimmntotogy, v.30. p. 311-339.
Encrassas, T. B., asso Knrunvu, G., 1986, Marine dmnlraction of malian sand seas; origin
of mass flown: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, y. 56. p. 401-411.
aso 1988, Origins of relief along contacts belmrmn euhian
sandstones and overlying marine strata: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, r. 72, p. 932-943.
Foynvoamo, S.D.. 1979, Eohiuo-fluviatile (continental) origin of ancient stratigraphie
trap for petroleum in Weber Sandstone, Rangety oil field. Colorado: The
Mountain Geologist. y. 16, p. 1-36.
aso Scorvu, C., 1981, Wind sedimEntation ruser! experiments on the
origins of amolian strata: Sedimestotogy, v.28, p. 805-821.
Gt.evvtv, K. W., 1972, Permian Rotlirgendes of Northwest Europe interpmted in tight
of modern desert sedimentation studies: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists BaIlete, v.36. p. 1048-1071.
1983. Early Permian (Roltiegendes) patuvowiuds of the North Seo:
Sedimentary Geology, y. 34, p. 243-265.
1986, Early Permian-Rogiegeod, in Glesnim, K. W., md.. Introduction Io
the Petroleum Geology of the North Sea: Oxford, Btackwetl, p. 63-85.
aso Bucu.ro, A. T., 1983, The Fermion Weissliegend of N.W. Earope: the
partial defoemuhius uf aralias dune saxds caused by the Zechstemn transgression:
Sedimentary Geology, y. 33, P.43-81.
Goomx. Dl., Cttasast,eo, M. A., Kecvuctc, O. A., axis Latee, L. W., 1986, Patterns of
permeobility in eolias deposits: SPE/DOE Paper, Proceedings SIh Symposium on
Enhunced Oil Recovery, p. 181-188.
Anatomy of un vol/ax reservoir
Goaaznssus, R., aso Jeuzyuiewicz, T., 1974, Disosuar- and mammal-bearing amohine
und axxociatmd deposits of the Upper Crrtacmous in the Gobi deserl (Mongolia):
Sedimentary Geology, y. 12, p.249-278.
Hasvrr, J. H., aso Srmtoexsavv, J. R., 1973, Petrology of limestone lenses in the
Casper Formation, soElhemmOII Laramir Basin, Wyornssg and Colorado:
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology. v.43. p. 428-434.
H.xvnos.sr, K. G, asso Kvcunctc, G., 1988, A preliminary study nf the dynamics of a
modern drau, Algodones, southeastern California, U.S.A.: Srdimmvlology, v.35,
p. 649-669.
Hcyvrs, R. E., 1977, Basic types of stratification in small eolios dares:
Sedimentology, y, 24, p. 361-387.
198!. Stratificatiox styles/n eohiun sandstones: sorne Pennsylvanian IO
Jurassic examples from the Weslern Interior U.S.A., is Ethridge, F. G., and
Flores, R. M., mds., Recent und Ancient Nonmarmne Deponitional Environments:
Models for Exploration: Sanely of Economic Paloontologists and Mineralogists
Special Publication 31. p. 3 15-329,
Sluoorons, J. E., aso Cxxx, M. A., 1987. Marine origin of paleotepogruphic erlief ox
eolias White Rim Sandstone (Permiax), Etaterite Basis, Utah: American
Axuociahion of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, y. 71. p. 1035-1045.
Jnozytaewscz, T., Karwstsa, F., Moxczssnwnnr, J., aso Tesssevar, A. K., 1976, Grigio
of Weisshiegerdex depouila is Ilse Poer-Sudelic Menoclinr: Geologia Sudrhica,
y. Il, p.56-97.
Kocconti, O., l98la, Erg reconstruction: Ihr Entrada Sandxtoee (Jurassic) of northern
Utah and Colorado: Palaeogeogmphy, Fuluroclimatology, Fatamacology. v.36,
p. 125-153.
t981b, Significance of interdune deposits and honnthng surfaces io
aroliun done sands: Sedimentology, y. 28, p. 753-78g.
1986, Origins of tow-angle stratification in arolian deposits, in Nickhing.
W. G.. ed., Amoliax Gromoephotogy: Proceedings of the 17th Binghumplon
Symposium on Geomorphotogy. London. Allen und Unwin, p. 177-193.
1966, First-ems/er und super bounding surfaces in eel/an sequences-
bounding xarfuccx revisited: Sedimentary Geology, y. 56, p. 193-266.
aso Dose, R. H., Jo., 1981, Dishinclioss und uses of stratification types in
Ihm interpretation of molino sand: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, y. 51,
p. 579-593.
aso Hs,rovx,R. E., l986,Originofpolygonal fradares in sand, uppermost
Navajo and Page Sandstones, Page, Arizona: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
y. 56, p. 895-904.
aso Nienoy, J., 1966, Conditions favourable foe Ihr formanon of worm
climate aeolian sand sheets: Sedirnenlology, y. 33, p. 795-916.
Laveasawo, N., 1988, Controls of oulian dune size and spacing: Geology, y. 16,
p. 972.-975.
aso Teu.vo, J. T., 1988, Interdune deposits of Ihm Namib sand seo:
Sedimentary Geology, y. 55,p. 9l-1g7.
Ltsogvmnr, S. J., 1983, Nugget Formation rmnervoie charadtmrixhicn affecting
production in overthrusl bell of southwestern Wyoming: Journal of Petroleum
Technology. y. 35, p. 1355-1365.
1988, Practical characterization of enlian reservoirs fue development:
Nsgges Sandstone, Utah-Wyoming thrust belt: Sedimrntary Geology, s. 56,
p. 315-339.
* 55 a N N N 5 5 *
Loore, D. B., l984a, Eolian origin of Upper Puleozoic sandstones, sontheuxtem Utah:
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, e. 54. p. 563-580.
1984b, Origin of rstrnniyo bedding planen in aeolian sandstones: a
defense of Stoken' hypothesis: Sedimmntolagy, v.31. p. 123-132.
Mantes. J. H., asso Evavs, F. F., 1988, Reservoir modelling nf marginal ueoliasV
nabklta mqamncnn, Southern North Sea (U.K. Sector): Society nf Petroleum
Engineers, Proceedings, 63rd Annual Technical Conference. p.475-486.
McCt.vxe. H. A., 1978. Ar Rub' Al Khali. in Al.Sayars, S. S., and Zoll, Z. G., edn.,
Quulmrnaey Period in Saudi Arabia: Vienna, Sprisgem-Verlag, p. 232-263.
Misti,, A. D., 1988, Rexersomr heterogEneities in fluvial sandslones: lessons from
oulcrnp studien: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v.72.
p. 682-697.
Naaanwaaa.. P. J. C., 1979. Relationship 0f facies and reservoir quality io
Roüirgrndesdesrnnnandntonms. Southern North Sra region: Journal of Petroleum
Geology, v.2. p. 145-158.
NeMeo, W., ovo Pnmnnssm, S. J., 1981. Sedimentary environment of the
Weisshiegendes sandstones in Fore-Sudelic Moxocline, in Proceedings of the
International Symposium on the Central European Premian 1978: Warsaw,
Geological Institute, p.281-293.
Rvneu. D. M., aso Huszeen, R. E., 1982, Bedform climbing in theory and nature:
Sedimentology, y. 29. p. 121-138.
Srves.v. R. P., 1983, Longiladinal dran in the Premian Yellow Sonda of north-mast
England, in Brookheld. M. E., und Ahlbrandl, T. S., edn., Eoliun Sediments and
Fracasen: DvvelopmrnlsixSmdimostology 38: Amxlrrdam.Elsovior,p. 543-550.
SroioTns.svs, J. R., 1974. Evidence for oulian origin of CrOsn-nlrahificution in
sandxtose nf the Casper Formation, southernmost Laramie Basin, Wyoming:
Geological Society nf America Bulletin. y. 85. p. 1835-1842.
TaLnor. M. R., 1980, Environmental renposxen to climatic change in the West African
Sahel over lIme past 26,000 yearn, in Williamn, M. A.J., and Faure, H., edn.. Sattam
and Ihe Nile: Rotterdam, BaSirma, p. 37-62.
1985. Major bounding surfaces in aeolian sandstones-a climatic model:
Seditnentology, v.32. p. 257-265.
aso Wiu.ians, M. A. J., 1979. Cyclic alluyial fan sedimentation on the
flunks of fixed dunes, Janjuri. Central Niger: Catena, v.6. p. 43-62.
Vssnrann, H., 1971. The Permiso and Teiasxic of Ilmo Kingscourt oullier. Ireland:
Geological Survey of Ireland Special Paper No. t. p. 1-114.
Wrorn, K. J., 1987. Computation of initial well peodudlivilies in amainan sandstone
on the basis of a geological model, Laman gas field. U.K.. in Tillman, R. E.,
und Weber, K. J., edn.. Reservoir Smdimentology: Socimly of Ecnnmmic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 46, p. 333-354.
Wtm.xxsu,I. G., 1972, Aeolian bedformn-their drvetopmenl and origins:
Srdinsentology. y. 19. p. 173-210.
1973, Ergs: Sedimentary Geology. s. 10, p. 77-106.
Wu.sox, L. R., 1962. Fermion microfossils from the Flowerpol Formatior, Greer
Counly. Oklahoma: Oklahoma Geological Sarvey Circulas No.49. p. l-51).
56
.....______ t_...._.___ _._.s. ........
SUBSURFACE CHARACTERIZATION OF MESAVERDE These strata are underlain by the macine Maocos Shale aod ate oveclair by remnants Wyensing
RESERVOIRS IN COLORADO: GEOPHYSICAL AND of tito Lewis tranogressioe, an unconformity, and tito Tortiury Wasatch Formation
Utah Cutnradu ness Nnnh
(Loreoz and Rutledge, 1987). Ooly the noemarine stenta of the Mesaseede Group are

/
RESERVOIR-ENGINEERING CHECKS ON addressed in this paper, as few trots wore performed on the marine sandstones. no kss Wasatch Formation

N
PREDICTIVE SEDIMENTOLOGY Daring tho course of field eopeeimeotation, individual sandbodien penetrated by (Tertiary)
JOHN C. LORENZ
NORMAN R. WARPINSKI
Dioinion 6253
the wellbores were isolated, stimulated with various types of hydraulic fradares,
tested for production both before and after ntimalation, and heavily instrumented
during stimulations and prodaetioo tensing (Northrop aod Feohne, 1990). Six zoom
were tested. Inlorferonce sesso, injection tests, and wrllboee-to-wrllboee moniloeing
4. Grand Hngbzek

(Unconformity)
Sandia National Laboratorien tests also were performed, aod au estensivo coring and geophysical togging program Ritt, Gap
Albaqarrqur, Nere Meoico 87185 complemented the subsurface lost data. MWX.3
fINTA Gartietd C
A set of went-northwent-seending natural fracturen greally complicates direct BASIN Fluvial s
application of the subsurface test resalto to interpretations of reservoir geometry.
mene fradares create a significant permeability anisotropy within the rnservoirn Rslixoe Fteld nu
G-
PAUL T. BRANAGAN (Beanagaoaodothrrn, 1985; Warpinskiandothees, 1987; Branagan, 1989; Lomna and E
CER Corporation others, 1989) and had lo be accounted for in assessing reservoir acial trends and nu
Lar Vegar, Nevada 89119 boandarirs from wrIt tests. The fruttare distribution, howrcoe, is itself directly
o
controlled bp different sedimentary heterogeneities created in the different ne
Arenasen The gromeeirn of nomvarine- odntooeeesreooes of the scbocntacr Meaaseade dopositienal environments (Loreoz aod Piolep, 1988, 1989). o
Geoup orthwr em Colorado teere estimatod on the bnais of ardimentologic stadien. The (Upper)
accuracy of the eatimatea wan aabarqaently macsand by geophyaical testa sod reservoir-
o
sa
engistaarmg ntodian, noch na neeticul aoinmiv profiles. hydoualic-fnuctuae diagooatica. C, Delta Plain 'ne
tente (deawdowrc5ruitdup, pnodoction, ned iotesferencr teats), nod Oaoen trata. After the rffecaa lt
MWX'2 w
ofuatalfsacseeaootheeesubaurfacoseatsarraccouxtodfor, theaestapnovideindicationsof (Lower) aa
nanersoir bouvdaoies. iuteooal hrtrengooeity. nod cooaiauity that are compatible with For purposos of stimulation-fractare design and calculations of releen oir volumes, sane
aodisoeotologic poedictiooe. il is useful to know the sizes and acial trends of lenticular reservoirs. At the time of 30n, ne

Three-dimensional sandbody size, shape, and orientation are not easy to define
using dala from swo.dimensional outcrops and ace ever mote difficult to define nning
ono-dimensional data (coro and geophyoicat logo) deeised feom weliboros. Thin papee
presents dala feom a cacefully cootoolted and documented tes of sabsarface
enpeeimontn, whore olonolp spoced wells and abundant downhole dala allowed a
measure of eoreoboratioo of pee.dictioos of reservoir eometry made from surface
and subsurface aedimentalogic studies.
The dala diocussed bete ate from the Msttiwett Experiment (M'tVX). a project
landed by tho U.S. Dopoelmest of Energy foe the parposo of asseosing and
developing lechoologies foe the extraction of natural gas from tow-poenseabilily
rosrevoics (Northoop and Frohne, 1990). This project, with field activities from 1981
through 1988. involved three closely spaced wells that penetrated reservoirs in the
Upper Ceetaceoun Mesaverde Group io the Piceance Basin of northwestern Colorada
(Pig. I). The threo wells. dosignated MWX-1, MWX-2. and MWX-3, mugo in depth
feom 2,545 102,277 ne and ace areauged in a triangle with leg lengths of betwreo
33.5 and 65.5 mat depth.
At the MWX site, the Mesaveede Group (Fig. 2) tien between depths of 1,310 and
2,500 m. lt is composed of the Williams Fork and lles Formations, which intern ave
composed of the deposits of the seseeal different depositiooat eosieonments that
constituted a prograding elastic wedge (MeGookey avd others, 1972; Fig. 3). lo
otratigraphic order, the sandstone-reservoir deposits include shallow-marine to wave.
dominated.shoeeline blanket sandstones, dotta-plain dinteibutary-channol sandstones
(designated "patadal" deposits where they aro interbedded with coals is the lower-
delta plain, and "coastal" deposita in the overlying noncouly apper-dolta-plain
interval), and mere comptes saodstonrn of fluvial meander belts (Lorena, 1989).
depouitioo of the distributary channels of the delta plain (oasstal and paludal zones),
the shoreline of the pmgeading elastic wedge of Mesaveede strata had u norlb-
northeast trend (Warner, 1964). Howrser, disteibutary channels commonly radiate
from the point of flosiul bifurcation, and knowledge of the paleogeegraphy dean not
allow defioition of she local trend of individast channels. Outcrop studien of these
strata along the noarbp Geand Hogbach (19 ken from the MWX site) suggest a variety
of chansol orientationa and liars, but these upturned, vertical strata to sut form
optimal oatcrnps for nedimenlologic studp. Additional surface studien serte therefore
cooducted in lenn disturbed Mesaverde strata near Grand Junction (Fig. 1), 51 kan
soatbwost of the Mtta'X site, where sandstone frnmetrirs could be moer readily
measured.
A manimam-thiekoess to corrected-width relationship was constructed from
outcrops by saing ceosn.beddtng ta indtcatr probable lens orientalion of these
shoestring sandstones and by correcting the outcrop width foe probable lens
orientation (Lorenz, 1983). This produced the relationship sandxtrne width = 8.6v
sandstone thickness'-' (in feel). The application of this relalionship lo the lhickncsses
of 11 individual sandstones observed io distributary channetu in the paludat and
coastal-aone facies in the MWX wellbores predicts minimum widths of 25 to 165 m
(minianam bvcause the maximum sandstone thickness may sot have been penetrated
by the well).
Thin range of widths is supported by sandstone widths calculated from well-ut-welt
coerrlatioo percentages, a technique based on she concept that wide lenses will entend
between two wells with a fixed spacing more commonly than wilt narrow tensen (sor
Lorenz and ethers, 198d). Correlation peecontages between the shrec possible
pairings of the wells predict lens widths of 3010 150 an fee channel sandstones of the
patudal and coastal facies.
Outcrop studien also indicate that althongh lateral accretion bedding can he
observed locally, the channel sandutoorn of this facies are narrow lenses that do nos
E
u-
Pta. 1.Lamalina map nf tise Pieranee Basis atad the Maallisnetl Experiment Marine a
st
(MWX) site in the Rulisss gas field, northwestern Cnlsrado.
Mancos Shale
coulais maltinlzeird units and that arr peobably of relatively low sinuosity (Figs. 4
and 5). Howrver, inlernut holerogeneities, such as clay dmpes, superimposed
sandstone beds of different grain size, carbonaceous zoner, tip-up clasts, and various
combinations of these components, ame common (Fig. 6). Other sandstones enpoxed
is outcrop are ripple-bedded splay deposits that thin rapidly across lateral distances
of a few hundreds of feel. Finally, outceopu demonstrate that the sandstone channels
moss commonly form discrete lenses, isolated within sbe inteebedded mndstonen and
couts (Fig. 7).
With these dota and 1he conceptoal sedimeotary modrl of a distribasary-chansel
system onu della plais, isteepeetations of thr subsurface reservoirs were andretalsre.
The data for these interpretations consist primarily of core material (commonly
oriented) in the reservoirs of inlerest, nupplewented by duwnhote geophysical logs.
Reservoir heterogeneity mon in cero is similae so the frequency and type of
lithologic discoetissitirs seen is outcrop. but sandbody asid trends are difficult to Fsu. 2.(A) Simplified stratigraphie entama attise MWX site, (B) (Fellewing
determivr. If dore and geophysical logs indicate the lutemt Ihinning ola sandstone page.) Gamma.ray atad porosity logs from Ihr MWX.1 melI shnwing the
in one welt, especially if a cbannol-fringe facies of ripple bedding and alternating stratigraphie and rnvirunmrntal suhdivininnn of the Mexaverde Grunp al Ihr
sandntonrs and mudstoees is present in she core from that wrIl, the channel anis is MWX site. Some nf the sedimentnlogie characterinties of the different facies arr
inferred tu trend subparallet to Ihe line between the other two wells, where thicker, apparent. Reservnir antans dexerihed in the text arr highlighted.
main-channel cross-bedded sandstones arcar. Additionally, arienled cam and SHDT
(Schlumbregre's Inpee High-Resolution Dipmrtee TenI) data were used tu
erconvtrods cross-bed azimuths, an approximate indicator of paleoftow and therefore
Covtisazd on paar 6m

Lorenz, Warpinxki, and Beunugan Charucterizalictn nf Mesaverde eexervnirs 57

 r'
o

6000 -
B. r)
o
or

o'
z
I
MWX-1 55

GAMMA- a
RAY POROSITY
DEPTH LOG LOGS O

BELOW API Units percent

SURFACE 0 200 30 0
(feet) L__j L..................1
r 4100 -
YELLOW
...,_Density ZONE
Porosity
Neutron 6500 -
Porosity RED
ZONE

55

C
o
55

4500 -
Anomalous
crossovers of the
I
55
porosity logs
indicate gas- - Hydrogen-rich/low-
bearing rather S - density coals show as
thao water- "high-porosity' aunes
saturated istorvals

7000-

ZONE4[
ZONE3 L

L
Sandstones have
low gamma-ray
;;
mudstoeos and ZONE2[ High gamma-ray Count
shams have high
5000 - gamma-ray Counts is probably duo 50
munazito (thorium-
boarieg) placer deposit
io beach facies

r
7500 -
Rollins Sandstone
Memhur : typical
coarsening-upward
progradational
I saedstone
f55
for -
ft Tongue of she
Mancos Shale

5500 -
Fining-upward
ZONE E sas doto ens

meaeder bolts Cozzette Sandstone

Mombor (2 hoschos)

8000-
ZONE C Tosgue of the
Mancos Shale

S
ZONE B
f Corcoras Saedstnee
:- Membnr 2 beeches)

Mancos Shale

6000 - a Total -
(logs continue in depth:
column to right) - 8350 -

I
 Position of Youngest Channel
9
I 4
3 9
2
9
(fractures not shown on this half) Position of Oldest Channel

Eroded
Away

25 ft
mudstone partings and discontinuities
8m in sedimentary structures
(no vertical exaggeration)
minor bedding planes

principal fractures

secondary fractures

Fis. 3Schematic reconstruction of Mesaverde pateogeography showing the

different tateratty eqoisatent depositiooat facies that prograded into the
Cretaceono tuterior Seaway daring hasin subsidence to produce the 1,220-m-
thick vertical succession of different types of sandstone reservoirs. Marine
environments (not discussed here) produced homogeneous, widespread
reservoirs; detta-ptain environmeots gave rise lo naerow, tentieutae,
distrihutary-channet sandstones; Iluviat envieonments produced more tabutar
but more internatty comptes measderbett saudbodies. Heterogeueoussandstone
composition and nomeroas stages of diagenesis produced average reservoir.
matrie permeabitities of 0.t to 2.0 microdarcies.
Fso. 4.Tracing from photomosaic, corroborated hy fietd inspection, of
distributary channel with tutorat accretion beddiog in the detta-ptaiu facies.
Note the absence of muttistory accumutations. Note atso the distribution of
fractsres, depicted in right half of drawing, which is coutrolted in targe port by
the sedimeototogic heterogeneities within Ibe sandstone unit. Photograph shows
the eight half of the sasdstoue onu.

Lorcoz, Warpinski, and Branagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 59

 \
150

í::
0145
30 o-

- .125

5150

Major bedding planes

Minor bedding planns
I60 Prrnoipal tructarns, wdh strike
120 SecOndary tractores, with strike
Ftc. 5.Photomosaic and tracing from mosaic of a more homogenenos
diotribatary-chaisnet sandstone from the tame stratigraphic interval as in 250
Fignre 4. Note bow Ihn absence of sedimeetotogic beterogeneitieo allowed the
propagation of many fractures through the futl thickness of the sandstone. This
sandstone io inferred to have been produced by a distributary channel of lower (no vertical eoaggeration)
si000sity than that which produced the tatrrat accretion deposits shown in
Figore 4. Note 1.5-m staff ¡n center of photo for scale.

smsmssss ..u.... ..a.......

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Branagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 60
 MWX-r SaWn-a MWX.3 of sandstone orientations io low-sinuosity channels (Fig. 0). Uufortunatcly, not all
core was oriented, and the best devctopment of ceoso-heddiog occurs io the cleanest
sandot000s, whore the SHDT, a resistivity loot. prooidcd so readings hocausc of the
c/n tack of resistivity contrasts. Nonetheless, "moot probable" estimates of chuonet axial
teendn (ranging from oortheant to soatheant) cod the direction of thinning of oplay
drposits can he made (Lorenz, 1985). The following sedimentotogic estimates of
nandstene-tens sien and Deed were mode for she specific reservoirs trotad in tIse
paladal und coastat intervain:

reservoir sandstones:
0 t) Fatudat 000e 2 is inferred to be a channel of t70 m minimum width, ternding
northeast. The mais poet of the channel probabty rano through MWX-t, and ils
width entends to the noatheast, as only channet-fringe, levee splay-channel, cod
4-Dreh (10-cnr) overbank deposita were penetrated by MWX-2 cod MWX.3. The data are showo

A: mudslnne partings
B: zones nl siderite stasis
5 in Figore 9.
Patudal Zonen Sand 4 wren isotated by pockrrs is the weltborn ubove zone 4 and
hetow zooe 3 and then stimutaled ana single reservoir unit. They are therefore
C: zones of mudsinnentasts Core through nonreservoir described together here. They arc interpreted an a channel with a minimam width
D: carbonaceous zones (n rock not Shown of 110m treoding east-northeast (zoneS) and a splay of onkoown dimensions
E: eones Of oery flne-grained
sandstone sr stllstone - lo (eonr4) originating from achaoort trondingrast-soathoasland tocated somewhere
to thn north of the MWX site (Fig. IO).
batmeen sandstone > The coastal red cone (the different paladat reservoirs were identified hy oumbers,
canotai reservoirs by cotors, sad facial mormons by totters) consista of two
- IS superimposed ch005ets, the upper with a minimam width of 150 m wending
northeast, and the lower with a minimum width of 80m bending east-wont. The
upper channel has scoared dowo und is in erosional contact with the lower
ssndstonr in MWX-2 (Fig. 11).
SUMMARY The c000tal yellow none also in composed ef nuperimpesed channels, with
minimum widths of 60m (apper) and 90m (lower) cod with probable scendo of
g
TYPE OF DISCONTINUITY northwesl-southeasl und easl.noulhnanl. mspeclieety (Fig. 12).
A B C D E
loo
0
8
O.
>W
o o o o
Engineering trstdata is the patudat and coastal eones consist of deawdowsirhuildap
und interference testa, a bucee test, hydraatic-feacture diagnostics, poromechanical
O
WAS
W')
75

8
g

0
88 o
§
0
continuity, a vcriicat seismic profile, and initial eeseevoir.pmnssrc comparisons
(Table I). Well test data on islerwell conlinuïty were strongly influenced by the
horizontal penneability anisotropy (ranging feom 8:1 loas high us 100:1) previded by
thenalurutfraclares,andbythrllowcompartoventalizationrrsuttingfromhetemgrneitien
E 50 o O within the sandstone reservoirs.
E/O
O
0 9 Pressare Testing
s/c o
0 8 As interference test was conducted io paludol zones 3 and 4 (Pig. 10) by preducisg
25 o
o gas feom the combined eones is well MWX.l and monitoring pressures io Ihr
O o combined rones in wells MWX-2 and MWX-3. No clear sign of intreference wan
observed (Branagan and others, 1905). lolerfernncr tests were also conducted in Ihr
o o canned red and yellow zones (Figs. Il and 12), bat again no inlerforence was observed
o
(Branagan. 1989). Thin lock of interference can be attributed te facies heterogeooity
Frs. 6.Typen and distributions of heterogeneities as sees is core within the orto dir narrow, elliptical deoinage eones (canoed by the natural fractures) that entend
red and yellow sandstone reservoirs (see Fig. 2B for location) nf the coastal from MWX-1 wenl-northwnst und east.southcasl between the observation wells
(npper.drtta.ptain) facies. Such heterogeneities provide discontinsities in the without escompassing them. The possibility that the weilbores rncouoterrd separato
flow of gas through the sandstone as well as in the flow of gas through natural channels despite very close spacing is discounted, as nimilar 000interference patterns
fracturen. were seen io the much more esteonise sandstones of the underlying marine and
overlyiog fluvial zones and bccaase of cootinuity shown by Ihr tents described below.

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Branagon Characterization of Mesavcrde reservoirs 61

 Sedimentologic chaeacteeistics could be infrerrd from a drawdownfbuilday toni to zonen, she coastal red and yellow rrservoirn had vorne ssinmic enpression. Energy
MWX.I in paladal asse 2. This Zone has beso reconutracted as a channel-and-uplay troughs and peaks are associated wïlh the hase and top of the red sandstone and with
comptes (Fig. 9), with the channel trending northeast and having a width of at least the toy of the yellow sandstone (Fig. 15). Profiles were run at different angles radially
170 w. However, the observed complex prensuee-baildup behavior (Fig. 13) could sot from the wrllbore, and the luna of the signature of these contactn at different
only be matched dating reaervoir simulation hy placing two inteeuectiog no.0mw distancen front the weilbore wan lakes lo indicate the location of the margin of the
TunLo l.Sunnnary of reservoir characteristics inferred from subou,face test techniques boundaries within 15m of the MWX-I wellbore. Thin evidence suppnrtsthepressnce sandstone (Searlu, 1985; 1,0e, 1985, 1989). The marginn are located al positions
of a faultneur thin interval (Branagun, 1980), which was originally inferred from 3m compatiblewith the sedimentologicinterpretationsof sandstonewidths (200m forlhc
SUBSURFACE TESTS of missing section in well-log correlations. The fault apparently providen one of the red oese; 250 rn far the yellow oone) and orienrationn (Lee. 1985, 1989). Hawover,
boundaries. A reservoir margin, predicted by nedimeetologic inferences, is the the individual channels that compone both the red and the yellow coastal composite
uecsnd boundary (Fig. 13). zones could not he distinguished seismically.
PRESSURE TESTS In the above cone, a narrow, lrnticolar reservoir was inferred geologically, bat the
fault was positively identified and positioned on the baum of engineering models. The Welt.Stimulation Experimento
Initial Hydraulic Poro. Vertical salas of reservoir simulation, or modelieg, by engtneors in often overlooked by
Inter-
Reservoir Tmcee Fracture mechanical Seismic geologists. The procedure consists of acquiring rrav000blr valuen (preferably from A series of atimulation esperimenta was conducted in paludal 000es 3 aod 4 to
Sedimenlologic ference Drawdowtil
Buildup Tents Presnurm Tents Diagnosticn Continuity Profaling a geologist) for an mauy resressir parameters as possible (width, thicknrss, characterize hydraulic-fracture behavior tn thin environment (Warpieski and others,
Reservoir Predictions Tests permeability, pomsity, etc.). A mathematical model in developed of how these 1987). Diagnostics included bottom-hole pressure, tempemlare tags, and borehole
Flava!
Zone E
Meanderbelt width
0550 rn, trend NW
Good
commani-
No hnandaeies. modeled
nniog sedimentary!
lntrrwrll
contiunity
- Possible
houndary
Interwell
conttnuity
parameters are mont likely to br related. and then salues 0f unknowns are adjsstrd in
sedee to have the model reprodace as closely au possible knows quantities such as
geophones. The geophonet were placed ht the two offset wells to monitor for
microneisms generated by the hydraulic fmcturr vreated in well M1.VX-t.
production or pressure historien. Given limits on ove net of variables, a model can The results (Fig, 16) suggest thul the fracture estrudrd nut of the top and bottom
cation, all fracture'pertneability 75m from
often provide the geologist with limits on other variablen for which them arreo direct of the sandstone tensen. The wing length (the half length of the fracture, or length on
3 wells wellbore
data. see side of the wrltbore) was found tobe 090 menthe basin of grsphone data (one
The reservoirs being discussed here are highly svrrpeessared, with significantly observable wing) and prevaurs analysis. This inconsiderably greater than the inferred
Fluvial Meanderbelt width Na boundaries - - No
boandaries
lnlerwell
continuity
different pressaren between channel reservoirt that are only 30m apart vertically.
Thus, measurement nf similar ioitial.perssure lesetu in the sante zone in different
lens width and nuggentu thol the fracture propagated beyond the edge of the lens. The
geophone data support tian suggestion, as the fracture aztmath appeats to changeas
Zone C 0440 rn, trend SE wells provides support for inferred channel continuity between wells. In the coastal distances esceediog 50m from the fractured welt (MWX.l). A reorientation iv not
red aune, long-term pressarr buildups in the interference wells yielded preuvaren of unlikely because bydrautic-fraclare azimuth is controlled by in-situ sueno, and
fluvial Moanderholl width No No hoandaries lnlerwdll
29.4 MPa (4,265 psï) and 29.6 MPa (4,290 psi) in the two offset wells. tu the constat whereus the sandstones hove a preferred wrsl-norlhwest vtress orientation, the
Zone B 300 rn, Uend N cornmuntCO500 continuity
yellow zone, prensares of 29.8 MPa (4,315 psi) and 30.1 MPa (4.360 psi) were mudstones surrounding the tensen are inotropically stressed (Waryinnki and Tenfel.
Channel
observed. Pressures in these tents were ntill haildiug up slowly at the end of the tests 1989). Moreover. povl-fracture welt testo indicated that there was only a 70-m
Coastal Two Channels; No Interwell
width
but w err expected te reach common pressure levels. Although the uitnilaeily of condoctive fradare length, shorter than thn designed or measured fracture lengt h.
Yellow wtdth p60 m, communication continuity psessurrn indicates ieterwell renervoir continuity, the slight differences across the suggentieg that the oseras length was not in contact with reservoir rock. This supports
Zone trend NW; hut hetero- -'200m, small interwell distauce daring buildup highhghls the low-renervoir persneabiltty and the premiso that the hydraulic fracture broke oat of the Iena (Warpinski, 1988).
width ±90 m, leond NW
high degree of heterogeneity.
trend ESE Poromechaui cat Response
Tracer Teotiog
Coastal Two Channels; No lntceseell Channel Finally. evidenen for interwell continuity of sandatonen in ranrn 3 and 4 mar
Red width ±150 rn comnsnnicnlion conttnatty width provided by the measurement of a puromechonicat response is well MWX-2 dunnll
A tracer injection test was conducted in the coastal red and yellow rones by
Zone trend NE; but hetero- -250m. pumping nitrogen «'f5) iota well MWX-2 (at pressants below disclosure stress), white an injection teralmenl in M1.VX-t. A porumechanical effect is one in which sterns
width ±90 rn, trend NE emoted in the formation by a hydraulic fracture at one welt in transmitted through the
prodociog gas from welt MWX-t nod tosliog for Nu using gas chromatography. As
trend ESE shown in Figare 14, palms of N2 were observed is MWX-1 scored heart alter the rock and converted tu pressure by an associated seduction io pore volume. Injection
iojsctiso eyelet, botina comptes, irregular pattern. This clearly demonstrates that of KCI water strrnsed the rock indie thrre.well vicinity and resulted in a small bat
Faladal Channel width No Nateow Inlerwell although all three wells penetrated the tome reservoir, the comptes internal featsees significoot pressare increase (a few tens of EPa, or several psi) meanured in thin
Zonen Pl 10m, trend ENE; communication channel conitnatty havealarge effect on flow behavior. The ability to detect tracers daring injectton tests reservoir in tsP,VX-2. This mechanical continuity would not have bren expected if the
3 and 4 splay (±70w?) bal not pressure interference dating drawdowtilhuddup tests is probably dar to the sandutone lens was not coslin000s between wells. Any significant discontinuity

Paludal
Zone2
Channel width
±170 rn, trend NE
- Two ncaehy
houndarien
elevated pore pressare created during the N5 injections: increased pore pmsnsres
decrease the net stress on the fraclorvs and result io greater fracturo permeability
(Warpnsski, 1989).
composed of tow-modulus mudstone (differencen in rock properties confumed by
numerous tests) would have absorbed the additional stresses rather than teannrnïtting
them.

Seismic Profiles

Vertical seismic profilen (VSP; Fig. IS) also meen run at the MWX site. Althoagh
the small tens sizes of mont renervoirs and the small impedance contrasts between At a depth of-1,830 m, the reservoirs change from lenticular, disteibntaoy channels
reservoir sandstenes and nonrsserooie lithslogies inhibited interpretation in most of the delta plaie upward into wider and moro cornples fluvial.meandorbelt

Lorenz, Wacpinski, avd Branagun Chavocterizatiou of Mesaveede reservoirs 62

a.u.0 as.s .sss .*saaa..........a .aa._.s.

 sussas
Upsection
FtC. 7.Photograph and field drawiog showing the common isolation of
individnal channel sandstones within mndstonrs of the delta-plain facies. The
sandstone marked "X" in both figures gives a point of correlation between the
two. Diagonal tines across photo ace power tines.
Lorrnz. Wurpinski, and Braeugun
**u..m.. ..... ...........
Uphill
Citarucierizalion of Mesaverde reservoirs
sandstones. Sandstones secolo outcrop are more laterally esteosive than those of the
nndorlymg facies (Fig. 17) and locally display wnll.developrd lateral accretion
surfaces. Many of the sandstones also display the multistory characteristics of
mullsple depostlional events isa writ-developed meander belt (Fig. Il).
An nolcrop nandsrone.width/sunsjslono.thickness ratio, sachas that derived for Ilse
patudal and coastal facies, was not constructed for the fluvial facies. The complexity
of channel dieecsions makes cross.bedding an noreliable indicator of sandstone axial
trend for high.ninuosity fluvial synremn, and than three Wanne reliable way lo assess
the relationship between actual aed apparent sandstone width io outcrop. Moreover,
the multistory nature of the gavial sandstones suggested that a mece nubIle bot
Sandstone perhaps more reliable relationship might exist between eeserooir (measderbell) width
and the dimensions of the peint.bae building blocks that compose the meander belts.
A relationship betwees chuoset depth, channel width, and measderhell width was
Major bedding plane Cooslencted axing published data from modern rivers and was applied lo poinl.bur
thicknesnes recognized in core of the Mesaverde fluvial sundbodies (Lorenz and
others, 1984). Using the empirical relationships I) channel width = 6.8 n channel
Mudstone drpthim (in meters), and 2) meaederhelt width = n channel widthioi (in feet),
rrnervntr widths that ranged from 350 to 320 m were recoostracted for individual
sandstones penclealed by the MWX welts. Assumptions were made that I) puint.bm
Covered
Ihickness, where nel eroded, isan appeosimalien of paleochanscl depth, 2) point bars
nampled by core were repeenenlulivr of Ihr fluvial system. 3) point bacs sampled
provide a minimum thickness (and therefore allow calculation of a mioimum width),
und4) Iberewasan arbitrary 10% povl.deposilionut cempactioo. Thereservoirwidllss
thus calculated are compatible with widlhs derived from the well.Iu.wrll correlation
percentage method for Ihr interval ax a whole. which snggests widths nf 125 to
430 ra. Finally, apparenl sandntone widths were measured from aie photon of near.
vertical outcrops along the Grand Hegback. There wrre ambiguities in determining
which sandbody lerminationn ore eral (as opposed to covered) and apparent vernos
actual widths, but mrasuremrnts ranged from '400102130m andare muthemalically
compatible with the widths calculuted by other methodn (Lorenz and others, 1984).
Axial trends of the meandre bella are difficult to reconstruct. The local
25m patrogeography at this time was in a state of trannition from southeastward shoreline
progradalion le norlhoastword prugrudution (Mc000key and olhers, 1972).
75 tI Additionally, there is commonly a significant variability le Ihn relationship between
treat meandrebelt trend and the esgionat slope. Finally, the dimensions of Ike
No Vertical meander belts are significantly geratet than the spucing of the M'rVX wells. und thus
Exaggeration putrncurrentv derived from orientad core or xtipmeter logo ace indicative only of the
oery local puleoflow sector within the high.sinuosity channel complex. Subsurface
eruervoir trends in Ibis section were therefore poorly cosstrainrd. However. becaune
Ihr inferred rrnervoir widths are no much greater than the welt npacing, well tesI
resultn were not affected by solai trends of the meanderbell rrsrrvoies. The fluvial.
measderbelt reservoirs arr also highly helerogexeous, with much internal lithologic
variulion similar to that fonnd iv Ihr deltu.plain nImIa (Fig. 19). In addition, there arr
complexities caused by superimposed, laterally migrating channel nynlemn and by
mnd plugs created by abandoned channels.
As a result of Ihese complenilirs and uncertainties, the sedimenlologic
interpretations of the geometry of specific reservoirs in the fluvial zonr arr leso
definitive than those for the nnerower dintribulary channels of the coastal and paludal
I) Fluvial zone B is inferred lobeo meander bell with a minimxm width of '-300 na
with a generally north.noath trend (Fig. 20). Thin is one uf the leant helemogeneous
of Ihr fluvial reservoirs.
63
 ns_s.s s_0_s__s__ .._.N. .s._._s...__
Fluvial zone C is rec055leucted as o meander bell with a misimum width nf 440m,
probably trending ooetheant, and with un associated flunial splay derived from a
A. DIPMETER LOG source to the southeast, possibly loom as eaely chanorl io the fluvial C meaoder
bolt (Fig. 21).
Dip Angle DIPMETER LOG
Fluvial cone E probably consists of a northwest-trending meantlee hell ut leant
B. 550 n mido and an overlying splay (Fig. 22), It woo cooed only in
MWX-l; sandstone and reservoir developmeol in MWX-2 are inferred from
Or iOn 20e 30n40c50c
Dip Angle geophysical legs,

O 10e 20e
consistent low-angle
tu dips to southeast are ORIENTED CORE FROM INTER VAL
6295
¿
¿ probably mudstone I' CORRELATIVE TO DIPMETER LOG Engineoeing test data from the fluvial anse consist of pressuee-istorfeernce lests,
pressure drawdawrilbcildup tests, poromechanical communication, initial-pressure
laminations comparisons, and hydraulic-fracture diagnostic results (Table I). An argon.tracer
injecaton test was conducted in cono B, with no sign of tracer migeutics to the offset
Sandstone: 0,90-scale wells owing to fracture-dominated, anisotenpic permeability. An in the patodal and
s.. norr-nodiment deformaSen, coastal rones, the effects of internal reservoir hetreogeneities scpeesede effects duo

I
burrowed
temeaoderbelscbannellrouodaeies, This is less significant io this interval because the
scattered dips probably large reservoir widths compared with well spacing und draioage area mude the
I-
o-
w n.
-s spurious
I
I.- 5765
o-
LI crossbedded sandvtone:
cross-bed azimuth
(poleotlow) toward
oriontndcsrr
conoborstss
observation of boundary effects unlikely.

Prenaare Terrieg

w 50 degrees An interference test io the fluvial E nuodstnne (Fig, 22) yielded rapid
communication between the tent well (MWX-l) and the offset wells (Waepittski and
i dipmeter shows steepen- laminated mudstsne and
others, 1988), as shown in Figaro 23, More than one set of natural fractures is present

6300 ¡ng-upward pattern of in Ibis reserveir (Lorene and Finley, 1989; Finley und Lorenz, 1989), and therefore the
permeability anisotropy innatas stroog an elsewhere in the formation, allowing mere
(1-m) thick trough of the effects of the sedimentary architecture to be seen in the well tesa results. A
J cross-bed: foresets dip mallslayered system was used to model the system behavior of the fluvial E reservoir.
s. to the northeast with communication between all three wells of the two mosa important layers
(Branagan. 1990). Unambigoous and rapid pressure intreference between wells also
Tick mark indicates was obrerved for the first time in this azoo, but buildup times were pareliagly slow.
dip azimuth This apparool discrepancy wan successfully modeled by assuming albio layer with an
saotroptc higts-pormeability fradare system (to provide rapid inlerference), combined
with a thick layer with a more standard uninotropic fracture system (Braeagao, 1990).
Tick mark indicates These hypothetical permeability units muy correspond Indifferent sedimentary units
seen in core Irom M'sVX-l. whore at least two poinl-bar units are inferred und where
dip azimuth the associated splay deposit, being thinner, muy contain more closely spaced
fracturen.
During she drawdown/buildup tests, there was no evidence for a boundary in
proximity lo any of the three wells. althosgh boundary effects could have bees
masked by the comptes internal helemgeneitien in the reservoirs, particularly the
Btu. 8.(A) Example of paleoltow vectors (and therefore of the probable axes natural fractures, and by the large size of this reservoir.
of tnw.tinnosity channels) inferred from doxvnhole dipmeter log. (B) Dipmeter An interference test was attempted in fluvial zone B (Fig. 20), bnl on interference
log correlates to cross-bedding measured in oriented core (interval 5,765 to mus observed. lt is inferred that natural fractures control permeability anisoleopy in
5,766 fI). this zone.

Fracture Dingenotice

Hydraulic-fracture diagnostics were anett during fracture enperimeots io the B. C,

and Branes, bat only the tests on the E anse (Fig. 22) nhawed anything thaI could be
Continued on page 77

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Brueagun Characterizaljow of Mesaverdg reservoirn 64

 PALU DAL ZONE 2
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
Gamma Ray ( no Gamma Ray Gamma Ray f no
(API Units) CoreJ Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) \CoreJ Porosity (%)
o loo 20 0 0 100 20 0 0 100 20
I

7240 - mudet/coal. mans/lam

,,,_..mudst/ss. mass/lam
mudst, bk. mass, siderite nodule
--ss gv lam/rippled, rooted
mudst, bk. cerb I
-ss/mudst. bk/gy. deformed lams
Neutron mudnt. bb, siderite nodule
Porosity Density es. gv, burrows
/ Porosity ncudet. bk
7250 -
rsmudst, bk. mess
os, gv, deformed bedding
msdst/55. deformed bed

M- Ss, gv. rippled & o-bedn

rip-up vgl
7260 se, gv. deformed bedding
Q. n,sdst
w Ss, gy
-'-ss/mudst, inclined lam.
cs/rip-up cgl
ss gv/bm. c-beds
es/rip-up vgl
as. gy, lam. carb
7270 ss/rIp up vgl
u u
as. gv/bm. mass
nn.gy/bmn. carb
s/ip

I
p g1

7280 sn/rip-up carb

ss/rIp up vgl

Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 65

Lorenz, Warpinski, acd Branagan
.ua..su....*.... eess...
Fm. 9.(Previoss page.) Gamma-ray, porosity, and rore-lithology logs from
PALUDAL ZONES 3 AND 4
paludal zone 2 (see Fig. 2B for location). Geophysical logs in MWX-1 indicate
good reservoir properties (probably a main-channel sandstone facies), bnl core MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
taken in MWX-2 to access these properties shows that the reservoir quality in this Gamma Ray / no Gamma Ray Gamma Ray
well is poorer, as the depooilional environment changed laterally brtween the (API Units) core) Porosity 1%) (API Units) Core Porosity 1%) (API Units) Core Porosity 1%)
wells to an inferred levee splay-channel deposit (suggested by the molliple rip-
op clatI zones). Geophysical logs in MWX-3 indicate farther reservoir quality 0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0
deterioration and possibly a chaonrl.fringe/oveehank environment Blank core. 7065
log intervals representcorr sampled and removed prior tosedimentologic study. missing section: elsss, lam, bar
Harbored crossovers of porosity logs indicate gas-filled porosity.
Density probable fault es. rasend. 'ryl
Note that the core width has keen greatly exaggerated and the well spacing
greatly reduced in this figure and in Figures 10-12 and 20-22; Core widths of Porosity _modsr. am, ca, mods5 esos
between 0.8 and 1.3 mm would he correctly proportional to the vertical scales, 7075
and proportional well spacings would be 0.3 to 0.8 m. Fignres such ax these -Slssf/wadsf. oo bk
commonly convey a false impression of data density. Abbreviations are hem
becomes (i.e., grades downward into); bic: black; bru: brown; bore: harrowed; SISeS/mudO. IN
curb: curbonaceous;rg: eoarse-geained;cgl: conglomeratic; cizyoc claystone; deform: shorty lew,oetrd
Neutron es. sirrled
dcformed;fg: rcne-graioed; gy: gray; irreg: irregular; lam(u): laminated (lumi- 7085 sots ssd:mssstd.fsrnsdt,6s
coal rassies
nations); maos: massive; mg: mediam-gruined; macdoe: mudstone; pig: purling; Porosity wods5bkleme,5 )
oust: silgstone; sa: sandstone; efg: very fine framed; s'i: with; 0-bedo: cross-beds. 55. r,rred

7095 em. oreled

wadsf. s:Oy.
7105 515sf go/bk. ren- 55:5 toms
ss/sRes. go. deformed lerne. cmb
t- modes. bic, sidnñfeeoduto
es. go. reeled, curb It
adSt. bk. side,i14 nada
suo. rirpled

7125 ?b:nbude
$ChI
Feo. 10.Gamma-ray, porosity, and rorn-lithology logs from palndal zones 3
und 4 (see Fig. 2B for location). Zone 3 is inferred lobez distribotary channel SL uy etrled
on thehusis of sedimentary slenctnres in core from MWX-2 and MWX-3 and us flu:d,eed micos,
reservoir properties (clean sandstones with gus-filled porosity) shown in logs 7135
from the three wells. The overlying zone 4 is strikingly different. Geophysical
logs from MWX-1 and MWX-3 soggest main-channel sundsloneo, hot core
material in MWX-3 consists entirely of ripple-bedded sandstone suggestive of z
proximal splay deposit. This is corroborated by a core from MWX-2, showing es. uy. mas
thin-bedded, interlaminaled modotones and sillstones uf a distal, probably 7145 00M
sobaqurous splay deposit. The MWX.t geophysical tugs may represent prusimal
splay deposits, as in MWX-3, or possibly the parent channel of the splay. The
geometric arrangement of the deposits soggetto the former. Blank eure-lug
intervals represent core samples removed prior tosedimentulogic study. Hachured
crossovers of porosity logs indicate gao-filled porosity. Abbreviations explained1 7155 's
on Fignre 9.

Loreoz, Warpiuski, and Branagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 66

J
COASTAL RED ZONE
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
Gamma Ray Gamma Ray Gamma Ray
(API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%)
100 20 0 0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0
I I P I

6490 muait, chaotic codified wood

titis s_t
dent, fossil boce
siderite binds __en dnne.d olsyel
as. rippled
cl ayst
mudst& siderite rip.
6500- s-beds ,'Oenuity leven Ptg
Porosity eltit. 15m, burrows
deformad o-bedt si. e-bede
rip-ups deformed '-elti(/mudet. lam

6510- t
e-bede
clapet csrb
sflst/modet, Isms
serb si. r.ppled
6520 -
u-bed,. csrb
-C
Q.
clapit. carb
_-sllit. lain : ::et 15m

n-bed,
e tut/etsidct. law
s.. ripples deformed
6530 -
':
rip-ups
s-beds

sitsI. ripples
s.. s-beds eltat/modet. 1cm
6540 - as. tipple,
---
- _-_.._1
t 1g tip-ups

n- bede
tip-ups
6550 - muait. carb
sltst/rnudst, 5m
Ltin cody ptg,
Pto. ILGammu.ruy, porosity, ucd core-litbology logs from Ihr ruastul red
euer (see Fig. 2B fo locution). This reservoir unit is composed of two channel
6560- sandstones sepurut d by overhank deposits in MWX-1 and MWX-3 hut which
are in erosional contact in MWX-2. Thiesiug of the upper sandstone in
MWX-g und MWX 3 suggests that MWX-2 penetrated neat the middle of the
channel. The lower sandstone Ihickess toward MWX-3 (cot cored) but contains
cross-bedded sandstones cta muie-cbueeel facies in Ihr Other two wells. Black
core-log inlrrvulsr presect core samples removed prior to sedimeelologic study.
Huchured crossove sot porosity logs indicate gut-filled porosity. Abheeviatiosis
explained on Figur 9.

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Braoagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 67

 COASTAL YELLOW ZONE
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
Gamma Ray Gamma Ray Gamma Ray
(API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%)
0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0
6420 I I I I

medst.
sitst/mcdst. lam c' rcFl es, deform
55 nppled sftst/nsudsf, lam
6430- rip-ups cerb - s.
ss rippled
Density - - --
Porosity
- ,. .r - 55, 0-beds
-

burrows
n,sdsf p555
e- beds
.-:---- !- s 1-uds

deform
6440 - ,oadnt. bk

ilp.cp S-beds
c-beds f e -slt..I/Clnyst. lam
ripples Ir_st. cMb
6450-
°__'
carb

s-beds --
j 0-beds
id :s,c-beds
deform
s-beds
d
6460- b rly-aps

moths Czrb
-- --
slsnt/mudss. lam
siseS, rippled
_.,cleyst, lam

deform
6470 -
mass
'-_ oleyst. s,der,f e
siSst, burrows
a ¿f ,- Ss, mass \'mudst. lam
50m Clayst
6480 - olayst. bk. lam
slset/mudst. lam
mudeS
ic:t yaooes

_--_ 51555/modeS. lam 12.Gamma.pay, porosity, and core-lithology logs from the coastal
yellow aune (see Fig. 2E for location). This cone is atoo a cempesite reservoir,
separated in two welts by overhaek deposits bet in erosional Contact in MWX-2.
Pateoflow vectors (porn the two sandstones suggest that Ilse channel acm are
ebliqse to each ether. The towep sandstone Contains ptaeai- cross-beds dipping
to the southeast in MWX-1 core, but troagh cross-beds dipping to the east-
northeast in MWX-3 cure. These may represent mid-channel bars and side-bar
channels, respectively. Blank core-tog intervats represest core samptes removed
prior to sedimentotogic study. Hachsred crossovers of porosity togs indicate gas-
fitted porosity. Abbreviations explained on FigureS.

Lorenz, Worpinski, and Branagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 68

 5500

values calcululed from Fao. 13lA) Compooite Homer plot of pressure buildup with time (solid line)
5l00 after pressnre drawdowu. A Homer plot uses t+atiAt for the time axis, where
reservo r-simululion model-
t = length of time that the well was produced (drassdowss), and St = length of lime
since shut-in (time during which pressure has been building). As time since shut-
in increases, to.Sti.ht approaches 1(see Matthews end Russell, 1967). The first
- -a part of the curve (a) represents data generated while the wrllbore volume
X
4700 A" equilibrated with the reoervoir ('welibore storage" effects). The second part of
the curve (b) is "normal' pressure buildnp. In the absence of complexity, the
slope of this segment of the tine will be maintained until reservoir-pressure
measured values equilibrium is established. Deviation from this slope (part e of 1h r curve)
indicates that a change in flow regime has occurred in the reservoir. One possible
cause for this is interporosity flow between the sandstone and natural fractures,
bola nearby fault or no-flow boundary also would cause this npturn in Ihr slope.
4300 Given Ihr narrow widths of Ibe reservoirs in this facies and the rxistener of a
fault, the latter cause is most likely. Comhiued efforts also are possihlr. Atoo
shown is the pressure-buildup curve (diamond-symbol trace) produced by
calculations of a modeled reservoir having the dimensions suggrsted by
E sedimrulologic studies for the patudal zone 2 reservoir, u fault boundary,
saudstour permeability as measured from core, and a natural-fracture system.
3900 (B) Sketch of inferred paludal nono 2 plan-view geometry and limited
to drainage area.
a

3500
Io 100
Hornee Time

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Branagan Characlerizotion of Mesaverde reservoirs 69

__._...s_.._..... __.__...._ a..... ......M.a...
NITROGEN RESPONSE AT WELL MWX-1 AT 6500 ft
MWX-3

208 f t
L N

MWX-1
o
¡Sg
MWX-2
zw 0.8 Fia. 14.Chart showing times and volumes of nitrogen injection into

(7
MWX-2 in the coastal red and yellow zones und (he recorded appearance of mnch
smaller volumes of nitrogen at irregnlar intervals in the MWX.l weilbore. The

I
(0
o lack of perfect injection.appearance correlation is attributed to reservoir
heterogeneity. SCFM = standard cubic feel per minntr.
o
0.6
z
e
09
e
0.4
0000%00o0000000000
o

0.2 O0O00 00000000 0000

000O00 000
j I j j I
O i I I I
I J I i I i i I I r i

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 ¿2 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114

lINIE IHR)
5000
o
(J)
NITROGEN INJECTION AT WELL MWX-2

w
I-
4 I Ï

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Brazagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 70

 DISTANCE FROM WELL, FEET
B
A.
A. PALUDAL MINIFRAC EXPERIMENT
200
B. WNW ESE

SIDE VIEW
100 7000 -
BOREHOLE
SEISMIC UNIT I -. -
- og o -
-

VSPIine2 -.
. MWX.3 /
/
VSPIisse3
o
P0SSI8LE
FRACTURE
RE0RIENTATI0N 7100
:..:...
o-
ZONE3 0 0 0 0
w O
MWX-1 O -
MWX-2
- .. VSPIine4 -100 7200
MWX-3 MWX-1
-400 -300 -200 -100 O 100 -4 -30g -200 -100 100
>km DISTANCE IFTI o KCL INJECTIONS
DISTANCE (ET)
y MINIFRAC #1
O MINIFRAC #2

- o.
Fus. 15.(A) Plan-view layout of vertical seismic profile (VSP) survey at the
MWX site. (B) VSP through Mesaverde strata at the MWX site (from Lee, 1989,
Fig. 12). Vertical colssmn represents cumulatively summed VSP data, with
arrows indicating peak-trough combinations that are corretative between
verticalty summed traces and lateralty stacked data and that are used for
identification of key stratigraphic horieons. The main figure shows the laterally
stacked, horizontally polarized shear.wace component of the VSP data along
VSP line 2. The northwest edge of the coastal red cone, located using interference
patterns and amplitude reduction of shear waves, in placed -400 ft (-1200m)
from the well along this line (Lee, 1989). The high.amplitade left-bending
pattrrn (unshaded) between the two diagonal arrows is correlated with the base
of the red sandstone. For further discussion, see Lee (1985, 1989) and
Scans (1985).
aiWW°'1
Fia. 16.Plan view (A) and cross-sectional view (B) of microveismic.event
tocalions within the formalion as measured hy geophones in the MWX-3
wellbore daring and immediately after the creation of a hydraulic fracture ist
paladal zones 3 and 4 (hydraulic fraetare initiated from MWX-l). The
microseisms may record energy released by fracture tip propagation, asperity
crnshing along the fracture during release uf pee.ssnre, or other related energy-
producing events. The plan view showu that the fracture propagated along a
wesg.northwest trend. The dispersal of event locations may he a function of
fracture propagation 0100g several trends, a function of the limits of accnracy of
the geophones, or both. The range cf the gruphones was limited, and few events
east-southeast of MWX.1 were recorded, although the hydranlic fractnee
undoubtedly propagated in that direction. Note also that the estreme western
end of the plan-view-evenl swarm seems to define a slight change in asiat trend,
possibly dueto breakout of the hydraulic fracture from the reservoir sandstone
into adjacent, differently sleessed madstones. The cnrved heavy line marks the
inferred northwest boundary of the noetheast-grending composite reservoir.
The side view shows that Ihe fracture also estended vertically hnth above and
below the inferred limits of the reservoir.

Characlerization of Mesaverde reservoirs 71

Lorenz, Warpioski, and Branagoo
 NRSNR
Sandstones project as flaliross from hillside

B A

sp5

Tracing from photomosaic combined with point bars1

Upsection field notes: perspective changes left to right

t Uphill
100 lt (30 w)
- point baro

Sandstone (channels)

flood deposit Feu. t7.Pbotomosaic (A) of meanderbett sandstones in nutcrop along the
Mudstone (floodplain) see Lorenz, 1989, 11g. 6) Grand Hogbaek at Estes Gateb (north of the MWX site and 1.0km west et Rifle
60 11)20 m) point boro Gap). Reeks are stracturatty rotated te near.verticat at this tocatity. Sandstones
Interbedded Mudstone and form erosion-resistant flatirons between which overbank mndstones form the
Sillstone (proximal overbank) recessine and covered intervals. (B) Trueing, confirmed by field work, of
photomosaic. Note the wide laterat extent of the sandstones compared with those
Covered in Figures 4 and 7. Sandstone noted osa flood deposit is thicker than most and
is composed atmostentirety of ptane-porottet bedded sandstone, tocatty distorted
by soft-sediment deformation. Other sandstones display lateral accretion
bedding and cross-bedding, bot the latter is commonly obscered by tichen
West side of Estes Gulch, one mile growth.
west ot Rifle Gap along the Grand Hogback:
Verlical relief from skyline to valley floor approximately 1000 h (300m)

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Branagan Characterization of Mesavecdc reservoirs 72

 rooted sandstone
Depth CORE-
(feet) LITHOLOGY
"rippled sandstone LOG SUMMARY
w
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
A A
soft-sediment deformation
\
burrowed mudstone
A
D
F
TYPE OF DISCONTINUITY

CORE DOWNHOLE
o F loo
A C D E

o
F

GAMMA-RAY LOG GAMMA-RAY LOG F 8 o

5280 o
cross-bedded sandstone F
\ - 5250 O-S
\ cv 5 C/D >CI) o
\ F
mudstone rip-op
t> -F F Cl) 75 o
o
dusts F
D
C/).
cross-bedded
sandstone lo LU

soft-sediment F
50 °
deformation 8
zw
rip-op Ctasts
o o
- 5300 A
25
5290 cross-bedded sandstone o
Approximately 25% of core removed prior to O
study, thus there may be more discontinuities o
cross-bedded sandstone than plotted here. o

point-bar
sequence in core
fProbable
rip-op cIento 1
reservoir sandstone: 4-inch (10-cm) diameter core
coal
/
rooted modstone
A: mudstone partings Feo. 19.Types and distributions ei heterogeneities within une of the teso
zones of mudstone clasts comptes meauderhetl reservoirs (fluvial aune B). Compare with Figure 6. Note
5300 the absence of siderite rip-o p cIaste in this interval, whereas they are commun in
carbonaceous zones the delta-plain facies. Most (65%) of the heterog050ities are grujo-ojee changes

carbonaceous, borrowed mudsfone

zones of very fine-grained sandstone or siltstone at bedding planes, distributed evenly throughout the reservoir. The other types
of heterugeneities are more common near the top and bottom of Ihr reservoir.
Fsc. 18.Composite sandhudy from the fluviat-meanderbett facies (core from
sandstone grain-size changes Fractures land therefore fracture permeability) coo he terminated by any of
these types of helerogeoeilies.
ccre removed MWX-1). Inferred stacked point-bar sequences are shown by arrows along the
rore-lithotogy iog. Note that the downhote gamma-ray log (measured at 10.6ml
, siltstone mini shows only about a half of the definition of different sedimentary unito
compared wilb the corr-gamma tog (run os the core after removal from the
wetihore), which was run at about 1.6 mlmio.

Lorenz, Warpinoki, and Branagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 73

 FLUVIAL ZONE B
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
Gamma Ray Gamma Ray Gamma Ray
(API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%)
o loo 20 0 o ioo 20 0 100 20 0

mudes. cerb, burr

eilst, burr mudet. verb
eitss, burr. lam
5320 - mudes/clayst, deform, burr sleet/mud, 1cm
e sltss, burr. lam
se 00g ripples
:::: flpples
arm, -otmdÇslsst/ss, ripples _____
burr

g) en. nfg. deforse

- -'î-clarst. bb
stese. lam ce, m. s-beds
sit st, deform
b 1g .,_utii_1 : es, vlg. npplrs
se. cg. mens
- . - 4 ne, mg, mass

es. rn-ego-bed
4 5330 -
se. Vf0. 5-bode

Chaññèl
se. m-cg, o-bedo :: ::::
5e. mg. c-bode
::: et. f-n,g. deform. cmb
es. m-cg. 0-bed ss.,ng.,-beds es, m-cg, mats/n-beds
se. m-cg, c-beds
5340- se. 00g. lam, curb sS.m-og,maes
es. f-mg. deform mudas. bb
es. m-cg. 0-beds se. w cgo bede
s15s5, deform, roots

altee/mudes, tam, deform mudes. bk, cerb

claytt,bk. curb
mudes, bk, burr
rn/slice inclusion
5350 eilst

Pic. 20.Gamma-ray, porosity, und core.Iithotogy logu from fluvial cose B.

Note that porosity-tog crossovers err prrvaleet io she towrr purs of thr reservoir,
where the sandstone is somewhat coarser graised and cleuner. The saedslose is
thicker is MWX-0, und several measured cross-bedding vectors suggest sortb-
to-northwest local paleoflow. Core materiat shows that cross'beds dominate bot
give wuy to ripple beddieg fleer the lop. Btask core-log intervals represent core
samples removed prior to sedimentotogic study. Hachured crossovers of
porosity togs indicate gas-tilled porosity. Abbreviations esplaised es Figore 9.

Lorenz, Warpieski, and Branagas Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 74

 FLUVIAL ZONE C
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
Gamma Ray Gamma Ray Gamma Ray
(API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) Core Porosity (%)
0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0 O 100 20 0
5700 I I I I I I

mudst, ceeb sllst/mudst. obscure

sltst, ripple slmss. (am/mass
su. vI g. ripple Neutron
ntlst/madss, deformed lam mudef/claysm, bk
Porosity f Density
5710
nl elf et, ripples, Clay P595

ss/sites, ripples. clay pt95

If
I Porosity
os, ofg. ripples
ss/modem, deform
-' f
eradtt. lam
SS. ripple
(rubble Cone) E,-xaa eIlst/modem - lam
mudne/slfet, burr. lam sltsf. deform 41 as, 1g. reef. meas
Ss. 1g, c-bed, roofs
Coal/clay peg / TL ''-mudsm
"- f b
slnst/medss, irreg lam

deform
5720 - SS - i s.. mg. mess

'C
se. f g. c-bed
w/onaly pIgs
mg, mess, rlp.aps
û f Ss. 1g. mass
bem ong. 05mb
5730 - se. 1g. u-bed Sn. 1g
medsf/claySr, lam
del erre
rffst/meduf. em
55, mg. eked
slfsr/mudsf, lam se. 1g. ripple. nerb
slId, ripple
55. f9. e'beds, Caeb se. mg. mats
bcm mg sllsS/mudst, lam, deform . sa. 1g. reef
Ss vIn, mane W)í%
born mg
mudst/slSsf
5740 - mudet/claysf. Curb slfsr/se, mass
eIlst, mass unlst,'olast, lam
pdf/lff.b sIseS/sn, ripple. barr
eleves. bk. oerb
mudst/clayee, lam ss/sItes, mess. herr. rent
es. wIg, ripple/mass
:I-iir'
-
-

mesdsl. esrb

Ftc. 21.Gamma-ro porosity, osd oore-lilhology logs from fi viel aooe C.

Thicker i5MWX-1, Ibis coge splits and occurs is MWX-2 asd MWX-3 ana cross-
5750 bedded main-chaser! sandstone facies and an underlying rippled and rooted
splay deposit. The deeper perte of the moie cheese! io MWX-1 m y bave hers
the soerce for the splay, which was seboeqeently cevered by the laterally
migrating end vertically eccrefieg meanderbelt system. Blank cere log ietervels
represent core samples removed prior to sedimentolegic study Hachsred
crossovers of poresity logs iedicate gao-filled porosity. Abbreviations explained
os Figere 9.
Fm. 22.(Following page.) Gamma-ray, pormity, and core-lithology togs
from flevial ayee E. This interval was Cored only is MWX-1, The escellest
resrrcoir quality sees is geophysical logs in MWX-2 mao not anticipated,
highlighting the lateral variability of sasdotenes is this facies. Core material
seggests a main-Channel facies and several slacked point bars, with as ovrrlyieg
splay and Overhank facies. Blank core-log intervals reprenent core Samples
removed prior to nedimeetologic study. Harbored Crossovers of porosity logs
indicate gas-filled porosity. Abbreviatioss explained oo Figure 9.

Lorcoz, Warpieski, and Branagac Characterizalion of Mesaverde reservoirs 75

-........ s......a.. aR__N.
FLUVIAL ZONE E
MWX-1 MWX-2 MWX-3
Gamma Ray Gamma Ray / no Gamma Ray f no
(API Units) Core Porosity (%) (API Units) (SCore) Porosity (%) (API Units) Core/ Porosity (%)
0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0 0 100 20 0
I I
5520
_-eltss, roots, deform
Neutron
bon, as. rig. rppios Porosity'
mudes. bk. carb
se. mg. 0-beds
sitas, carb f Porosity
5530 - se. mg. o-bede
olayst. gy bk. mess
51555, gy-9n, roots
born modst
eiter. gv-go, meas. Carb
change core runs
sites/vt g es. lams. burr
modas pig
sitar/ss. bm. ripples
5540 - claves. bk
as. rig, ripples. carb
born es. mg. o-bede
ea, vip. ripples. cerb
o. born deform
a born r.ppled
O mudes ptg
5550 - sa, m.eg. 0-bede

n
mudas pig
es. erg. detorm
ea-Sg. Irn

5560 -
bom deform
born i-bedded
ri
born deform

borne bedded
mudos. bk.bre. carb, mais

5570 - -1

Lorenz, Warpinski, and Braoagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 76

suggestive otan interaction with laterat meanderbelt boundaries. However, all of the
tests broke through the top and bottom boundaries of the sandstone reservoir. Figure
24 uhows the plan view and cross-sectionat views of the mapped miceosoisms. with
an apparent wing length of about 75m. The fracture Wut designed foe much greater
lengths, and thin discrepancy is probabtp due to an runt wing that entends mueb
farther than the mappable west wing (the grophones in MWX-2 and MWX-3 could
detect events only a limited distance in this formation). If the fracture had penetrated
farther tin the went wing, the geophours should have observed microseisms from
farther in that direction; that they did not is suggrutivr that the fracture may have
terminated there at a high-stress tens boundary. Welt tests and pressure-decline
analyses suggested usemge wing lengths significuntty is coccus of 75 m. Thus,
fracture growth may have been forced eastward awing to u high-stress western
boundary. This boundary, possibty ata reservoir margin or internat clay plug. was not
predicted on the basis of sedimentotogic study, hot neither is its existence precluded.
Poromechanical Response
Mechanicat comwunication between the welts wan eteurty seen in both the C und
the lirones. Additionutty. an unusual srss wan conducted in the C sandstone, whrre
measurements were made of the stress changos in 04WX.2 crested by fmctuning
operations io ortI MWX-1 (Vs'arpinski and Branagun, t989). Os the hasts of
anutyticat results and finite etemeut modets, it was ctear that the stress changes
observed daring fructuring could br communicated only through the sandstone and
not through the surrounding mudstones. Figure 25 shows the measured stress changes
in the ubseenution wett (MVs'X-2) una function of bottom-hole prensare is the fracture
welt (MWX-l) during several fracturing operations. The rapid sncreanr tu stress at
high pressures indue so fracture height growth iota high-stress tithotogirs. Luudtng
refers es injection conditions when peestuens are incerasiog; unloading refers te
pressure dectine and flowbuch.
tn the E Zone, a poromeehunivul response in well MWX.l wan observed during u
breakdown (injection of small amounts of fluid julo the erservose) tn wetl M'tVX-2.
Again, propagation of this response would be likety only through sandstone; st would
be absorbed by intervening mudstanen.
Fis, 23.Interference between wells in flnv'ml Zane Eis shown by the lempurul
eorretulinn between t) flow und bnttnmhule pressure in MWX.t, und 2) changes
in the borehole pressures munitured in MWX.2 and MWX.3 (purtienlarty at 13
and 30 days). This was the first rune In display definitive interference, and it is
attributed tu a mnre pervasive fracture system within the low-permeahility
sandstones, Atsu shuwn (círuutae.symbol traces) are the resnits nf the reservnir.
model stmnlatíun, which used a multilayered, nutnealty fractured mudel with
different pressure and vnlume transmissiun capacities fnr different layers. Use
nf such a enmptrx modet was necessary in order to duplicate the prudnetinu
characteristics nf the heterngeneuus reservnir.
Lorenz, Warpinski, and Branagae
The engineering and geophysical tests described hoer (suwmoeired in Table t)
provide information on the geometry of Mesaverde reservoirs is the vicinity uf the
MW X-3 MWX weltbores and between the closely spaced welts. The cowwon turk of
2900 commenicution during interference tests is ascribed to dio highly anmsetropie
permeabitily trends caused by natural fractures and accounts for the apparent
contradiction between noucowmanication and the evidence for interwett reservoir
bottom-hole 2800 continuity derived from initial pressure data, tracer tests, und perornechanical results.
pressure (psi) The tank of evidence for boundaries in the fluvial reservoirs during drawdown/
boddup testa is a function of the large sire of the reservoirs Compared with welt
spacing. These testa and the VSP survoy, however, showed boundaries in the coastal
2700 and paludat furies where the sandstones are significantly narrower. Fracture
diognostics also confirm narrow reservoirs is the putudal sono hut suggest that thons
MW X-2 320 0, muy heu mujer discontinuity (or an unexpectedly close boundary) within one of the
fluvial reservoirs.
bottom-hole Several testa indicated internal reservoir heterogeneity. Pressure buildup (back te
pressure (psi) initial reservoir peensures otter pressure drawdown) was at somewhat different ratos
in the different welts, and the transmission of nacer gases between wells was only an
oou000000000 erratic function of the injection pulses. Results of both types of tests can be attributed
3100 to tortuous flow paths muutting from sedimentary heterogeneity.
The MVs'X project wan designed primarily for the purposes of testing and
developing reservuir.ntiwulution techniques rather than for the purpose of reservoir
MW X-1 chueacterization. However. av the project progressed, Ihn necossity of choeuctreioing
3000- the reservoirs in order to understand test results, optimier stimulation designs, und
cutcutute reserves bocame apparent. lt wan found that the engineering and
geophysical tesis could initially be interpreted und modeled in numerous ways, bui
that sedimentatogic stodies provided u limit ta the number of possible engineering
bottom-hole 2000- models. Those medets und test results in turn provided limits on, and modifications
pressure (psi) of, the sedimentotogic interpretations. The MWX project provided ahundant core
material and togs und was tocuted close to outcrops of the pertinent strato, but it stilt
dewosutrates the difficulty of quantitatively characterizing reservoirs from the
limited data commonly uvailubto from subsurface oporusions. Nevertheless, thr
1000- project atto provided insight into techniques that can housed to limit the uncertainty
of snbnurfave, nonmarine, reservoir dimensions, and it demonstrated the natur of
iuseruction between the geologist, engineer, und geophysicist.
surface-flow rate 200-
(1000's of cubic
feet per day) 100- Helpful reviews of this manuscript were provided by Jumes Neat, David Northenp,
Ken Burrow, Douglas Hamilton, und Noel Tyler. Kay Lang. Frances Forrest. und
0- Knut Degroytee drafted most of the figures. Lornu Bloombeeg typed and retyped the
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 many versions of this mununcnipt. This work was sponsored by the U.S. Drpurtesrot
of Energy under contract DE-ACS4-76DP00789. manuged by K.H. Frohne and
Time (days) DOE's Morgustowu Energy Technology Center,
measured values
oooo values calculated using
multilayered reservoir model
Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 77
 FLUVIAL E FRACTURING EXPERIMENT
200
MWXS PLAN VIEW
. Pic. 24.Plan view (A) and cross-sectional view (B) of microseismic-event 300
100 locations within the formation as measnrnd by genphonrs in the MWX-2 and
N MWX-3 weltbores (from Thorne and Morris, 1987) during und immediately
£ PUMPIN TESTS
after the creation of a hydraulic fracture in the fluvial zone E reservolr MINIFRAC #1
- POSSIBLE
BOUNDARY 0°0A P MWX-1 (hydrautic feactureinitiated from MWX.l). Comparewith Figure 16. Again,tbe
hydeautic fracture prupagated along a west-northwest trend, parallel to the
00 MESH MINIFRAC .
- OF LENS, 0 measured maximum in-situ horiauntal cumpressive stress. The geophunes were 250 - o POSTloo MESH MINIFRAC
RESTRICTING
FRACTURE
O

o
05v 0W O
-
capable of measnring events farther to the northwest than seen, and the
apparent absence of events farther in that direction may depict a reservoir
. .
GROWTI.l MWS2 O boundary, although the inferred limits of lbe reseevnsr are wrIt beyond the o
borders of the figure. The fracture broke nut uf the reservoir ahuse and below
00 0 t the aune, and this is recorded in the cross-sectional depiction of event locations.
The frac tnre in snferred tu have propagated significantly farther to the southeast 200 - s
than actually meosared by the geuphones on the basis nf well testing
after stimulation.
.
-200 w o
-300 -200 -lOO loo 200 o
O
DISTANCE (FT) z
WNW ESE 150-
53GO o
BOREHOLE
SEISMIC UNITS
SIDE VIEW Cl, o
CI)

5450 o
I-
100
ci
o
's, 'a-
o -ç5
5550 FLUVIAL o
E ZONE.. S-ççt'çz--
OO W
oob0 °o° 85Go o 05$
0 0
o
W Ftc. 25.Evidence for mechanical continuity uf the finvial zone C reservoir 50°- '2
5650 sandstone between the svettbores 0fMWX-t and M',YX-2. Stress was added tu the
sandstone at MWX-1 by injection uf finid (al pressures abuse the minimnm in-
.
sito stress, or "net-treatment pressarethe horizontal asis). Concurrently, the o
minimum in-situ stress was measured in the MWX-2 wellhore (vertical axis) at
5750 I
I
MW
different stageo by instantaneous ohnt-in pressure tccbniqnex. The measured -a-
MW1(-3 l-IW1S-2 I
in-sitn stress in M'.VX-3 increased axa function of the added stress at MWX-t. o I I I

-300 -200 -100 100 200 Stress transmission through the interbedded mudstones wontd be nntikety; thus o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
the sandstone is continuous between wettbores. (See Warpinski and Branagan,
DISTANCE IFTI 1989, for further discnssion.)
NET TREATMENT PRESSURE (psi)

Lorenz, Worpinski, and Branagan Characterization of Mesaverde reservoirs 78


Baacouzc, P. T., 1988. Well testing. analysis, Patuda! Zone 2, in Maltiwell
Experonent Final Repoel: 11. The Palada! Interval of the Mosaverde Formation:
Sandia Report SAND88- 1008, p. 7.1-7.1 1,ra
1989 Prefraclure well tooting and analysis. (and) Pos!fraclure wolf testing
and analysis, in Multiwell Expreiment Final Report: III. The Coastal Interval of
the Metaverde Formation: Sandia Report SAND88-3284, p. 7.1.1-7.1.6.8 and
p. 7,31_7325an
1990, Peefracture well testing and analysis, (and) Postfraclure well testing
and analysis, io Motliwett Experiment F1001 Report: IV. The Fluvial Interval of
the MetaverdeFormaliote: Sandia Roper! SAND89-26 12/Paris Aond B. January
199gnn
Cwos.s.e, C. L., Len, S.J., ono Wa.rzoo. R. H., 1985. Comprehensive mol!
totting and modeling of pee- and post-fracture mol! performance of the MWX
testiculan tight gas sands: Proceedings, t985 Society of Petooleam Engineers)
Drpaetmesl of Energy Joie! Symposium on Low Permeability Reservoirs,
p. 191-282 (SFE paper nomber 13867).
Festeo, S. J., ovo Loonvo, J. C., 1989, Characterization and significance of natural
fractaren in Mesaverde reservoirs aIUto Mullimell Experiment silo: Proceedings,
1989 Sociely of Petroleum Engineers Joint Rocky Mountain Regional/Low
Feesneabilily Reservoirs Symponiam and Exhibition. p. 721-728 (SFR paper
number t9007).°
Lun. M. W., 1985, Interpeelution of azimuthal seelicul seismic profite survey at
Ma!Uwell Espeeiment tite, Garfield County. Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey
Open Filo Report 85-428.44 p.
1989. Azimuthal vertical seismic profiles at the Maltiwnll Experiment
site. Garfield County, Colorado, io Law, B. E., and Spencer, C. W., edn.,
Geology of Tight Gas Reservoirs in the Finedale Anliclise Area, Wyoming, and
al the Mnitimell 0-perimen! Site, Colorado: U.S. Geological Snrvey Bullelin
1886, p. 01-016.
Loeceoz, J.C.. 1985, Prediction of size and orientations of lenlicalar miorenien ir Ihr
Menaverde Group, northwestern Colorado: Proceedings, 1985 Society of
Feiroleam Engineern/Oepariment nf Energy Joint Sympnuiam on Low
Permeability Reservoirs. p. 23-3 t (SPE papee number l385I).
1989, Reseecoir sndimenlology of rocks of the Menaverde Group,
Mullimell Esperimen! nile and csut-central Picesnee basin, northwest Colorado,
in Law, B. E., and Spencer, C. W.. edn., Geology of Tight Gas Reservoirs mn the
Pinedute Anlicline Area, Wyoming. and at ihn Mnlliwell Experimenl Site.
Colorado: U.S. Geological Snescy Bulletin 1896, p. Kl-K24.
oses Fears, S. J., 1988. Disteibution of regional fractures and fradare
peemnabi!i!y controlled by sedimenlological helerogeneilies, Mesaveede
renervoirn, Colorado (absi.): American Associution of Petroleum Geologists
Ballotin. y. 72, p. 875.
1989, Oiffeeences is fradare eharacletisties and related prodaclion,
Mnnaverdepnnnalinn.northweslem Colorado: Society ofFrireleum Enginmers
Fennulios Evaluation, v.4, p. 11-16.
Hosvzn. D. M., Ci..soit, J. A., oxte Scoots, C. A., 1984, Delrrmmna!ien of
wid!hs nf meonderbell sandslone reservoirs from veellcal dnwnho!e dula,
Mesavrede Group, Piccance Creek basin, Colorado: American Asnociatton of
Petroleum Geologists Bulletin. v.69. p. 710-72!.
..s.s.a..
Lorenz, Warpiuski, und Bcanagun
unen Rr.recnuon, A. K., 1987. Laie Cmlaceoss Menaverde Gronp on!creps
nl Rifle Gap, Piceance Crock basin, nerthwes!em Colorado, in Bess, S.S., edn.,
Rocky Moun!uin Section, Geological Socin!y of America, Centennial Field
Gside, v.2. p. 387-3 10.
Wonreasso, N. R., Soorsonus, P. T., ovo Szs'et.eo, A. R.. 1989, Fraciurn
characterislics and reservoir behavior nf u!ress.uensi!ive fradare systemn in fIai-
lyinglnnticulurformutions: Journal of Petroleum Tochnology.v. 41. p. 615-622.
M.sresmws, C. S., own Rcsnct.s., D. G., 1967, Pressure buildup and flow tests in wells:
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and Frooleom Engineees, Monographs. 1, 167 p.
McGocnev, D. P., Houx, J. D., H.st.n, L. A., Ganonsa., H. G., McCunnes, D. G.,
Wesnien. R. J., azoo Wm.r, G. R., 1972, Ceelaceoss syntem, in Mallory, W. W.,
edn., Geologic Adas of the Rocky Mountain Region: Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologinis, p. 190-228.
Nononuoe, D. A., ovo Fuosese, K-H.. 1990, Insights and contributions from Ihr
Multimell Enpeeimen!: afield laboratory in tighi sandutone reservoirs: Jonenal
of Petroleum Technology, v.42, p. 772-779.
Se.sos,s. C. A., 1985, The Mullimell Enperimen! geophysics program final report:
Sandio Report SAND85.1013, 64 pen
Tueuse, B. J., ovo Msnosu. H. E., 1987, Advances in borehole seismic fracium
diognosticu: Proceedings, 1907 Sociely of Petroleum Engineers/Depaetsnrnl of
Energy Joint Symposiom on Low Penneabilily Reservoirs. p. 165-172 (SPE
paper number l6405).
Worsen, D. L., 1964, Mancos-Mesaverde (Upper Cretaceous) inleetonguing
relationships, soulbeant Ficeuece basin, Colorado: American Auxocia!ion of
Petrolesm Geologists Bulln!in, v.40. p. 1091-1107.
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Stimula!ion-Phase II, in Muttiwell Esperimenl Final Report: Il. The Faludal
Interval of Ike Menaserdepormalien: SondiaReportSANla88.t008.p.6.0-6.43,
8.1.1-8.1.21, and 8.4.l-8.4.46.
1909. Hydesulic fracturing in tighifisnurod media, in Petroleum Geology
into Ilse Second Cenlury: Centennial Symposium a! New Mexico Institute of
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Peteoleum Technology, v.41, p. 990-997.
Somzn, A. R., Csrou.u. C. L., Lanose, J. C., ossu Taonesn,
B. J., 1988. A case study o/a stimulation experiment in a fluvial, sigh!, sandstone
eeservoimt Proceedings, 1988 Sociely of Pnleolenm Engineers 63rd Annnal
Technical Cosfeeence and Eshibi!ion, p.751-764 (SF5 ynper numbee l8258).
Lonesz, J. C., Nuornuer, D. A., M.novv, R. L., unte
Frenvn, K.H.. 1987, Fesclsring and lesUng cane study of paludul, 6gb!. lonlicular
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p. 535-545.
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a SPE papeen are available by papee number from Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Bon 833836, Rschaedson, Texan 75003.
us SAND reports are available ihrough National Tocbnicnl Infoentalion Service.
5285 Poe! Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
Charadlerizalion of Menaverde reservoirs 79
 ..seaaa a...*a.s
THE LARGE-SCALE ARCHITECtURE OF THE FLUVIAL differeutiatc individual channel bolts from laterally und vertically iotvrcouoected typn, magmatic nrc. The detriIsI inRI is derived from the uplifted edge al rho by a northeasterly-directed fluvial syslem. The paleoflow directoous of Tnrnce-
chaunelbeit deposits. forelaud (cf. Tumor-Peterson aud Ftshman, 1986). The Morrison Formatiot, (mean
WESTWATER CANYON MEMBER, MORRISON Oue of the best-known examples of the documentation of aluvial architecture is
Petersou (1986) show that Campbell's (1976) transect of the fluvial system is
th,ckness 200 m) famous foe hosting more that, ball the nruuium eeserees in thu snbparallel to thu regional pateoslope and is uot transverso, as Campbell (1976)
FORMA11ON (UPPER JURASSIC). SAN JUAN BASIN, NEW that of Campbell (0976) ou the Upper Jopossic Wesfwater Canyou Momber of the United Stales, it. divided into three members in the study area (Fin, 2), which amin suggested. Conueqnendy, truasveese views of the Westwater luvial system, us
MEXICO Morrison Fsrmatiou, San Juan Basi.,, New Meulas. Campbell's work has been nscouding oeder 1. Recapture Member, a lithologically heterogeneous unit illustrated by Campbell (1976, his Fag. 2, and Fag. 3 herein), are nxlikety to
eseeusiveiy oiled as a typical esamplo of a braided river deposit iuvolviog the comprising inserfmgeriug fluvial, lacostoine and rollan deposits, 2. the Westwater represent cbaunel cross sections.
presorvation of laterally coalesced 'channel systems' and 'smaller channels' and has Canyou Member, a laterally roteusive InviaI sandstone; and 3. the Brushy Basin MisIl and Turner-Peterson (1989) re-studied the Westovater Canyon Member
E. JUN COWAN been repeatedly used in textbooks (e.g., Cant, 1978; Leoder, 1982; Colliuscnr, 1986). Member, a playa lake cumples Çrmnee-Peteeson, 1955, 1986; Turner-Peterson and
Depart teens 55/ (iloology,
utdloieg the conceptual mi-fold hierarchial subdivision of bounding surfaces (Miall,
These 'channel systems' were described by Campbell (1971e) to be vertically and Fishmau, 1988). The Westwatee Canyon Member nndeelios sud interfmgers with 1988c). Individnat lithofacies (cf. Miall, 1978) were idextilied and separated, thou
University of Toronto, laterally coalesced, ond to range in width fesm 1.61034 km and in thiclaoess from 6 the overlying Brushy Basin Member along an arbitra,y bonndary. The Brushy combaned mb lithofacies assemblages deli. 'architectural elements' (cf. Miall,
Torsotto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B1 1061 m. Individual 'smaller channels' have widtha of 30 to 366 m and depths from Basin Member was truncated by late Early Cretaveous erosion dnring uplift along 1985). The peeseuco of lateral-accretion deposits along with dowustmam-acoreted
ltoti m (Campbell, 1976). the southern maegiu al the San Juan Basin. hi the sonthweseern portion of the macreforms in the same espesares, was interpreted to be the producl of sandfiat
ABSTRACT: Tho W M,toe moyos Mstu, st lo Msth,so, Fson,tia. (lippue toil,) b,, p,oeilso,l y On the basis of detailed sotcrop studies, this paper shows that the 'channel basin, the Upper Cretacoous Dakota Sandstone directly overlies the Westwater dopositoon in u low-sinuosity, multiple-channel river. They could usa find support
boon o,oep,eted ., scue,00g of Osai sh.r.eel .yooe,Co,a st kds,erten ,,,idr od on, of orto,, sysloms' of Campbell (1976) do not eeprrsent depositioual channels, but are post- Canyon Member, whereas towned the cast the Brushy Basin Member thickens at for the fining-upward chasnel-fill cycles as documenled by Campbell (1976). Tbc
thiCk. heinoe,bg,tio,, of the wunbu, isdic,te, th.r th cb.05rl ,you,,C ,o,s,ily ,rposent pon deposirional aquifer conduits or peeeeeability-pothwoy compartments. The conduits the eepeuso of the Wvstwater Cauyon Member. present study nupperto the braided chanoet inturpeetation al Mall and Turner-
d,ps.ataon.i .qotfr, sonase,.. defi.ad ,o,o,d by airEd,, ,,ed,ts,,r colo,,. theo th,e posare (identified vu the basis of color, which reflect the state of sandstone osidation) are acar breaks in the stoatigraphy, together with differing pebble Sthotogiea, were Peterson (1989), but many of the sleuctures interpreted to represent
d,p5050,,l testate,. The uee,b,r t. cs.opo,ad of .os.ipo.od, isd;o,do.f fl.nng-op moor up to several leus of meten thick, and were formed by the vertical coalenoeuco of used by Tuosser-Peleeson (1986) to divide the Westwater Cauyou fluvial unit into lateral/dowxstrram-acceetiou macroforms are reinterpreted herein as tatreully
rash boss 5-15 n lbik. The b,olos, ,eedtha of thom ,hee, .ud000, bsd,ra i ff5, Od sa.sdstouc sheets oboss 5-IO w io thickness, inlerpeeted bore to represent there sabmembees thought te repeesnuc separate fluvial episodes. On the basis of restancted seoxo fills formed in u wide braided-channel belt. Fining-upward cycles is
ps,ubiy rosord ,,an,,i kaloo,son. The o,dth:theckoo,. of the ums,,, 'n nil ,sjthio tho channelbelt deposits. The sheets upe internally compoxed of large concave-up trough cross-stratification oriexhalious, Tneuer-Petrrsou (1986) concluded that the this unit have 00w been documented by 00dm (1991).
lypi loe, of ,.edocr, body dono,us,o oepos,d 1,0,0 tIbor Osa r.ndoo,,o.. od 'ot iolo,y,eted Is features ('smaller channels' of Campboll, 1976) which are interpreted to represent tower fluvial nuit shows a northeast to east-uorihcastcrly-dieccted, basiu-wide
Op,0,ont.ggo,d,ilso.i oh.osrl-bul,,. S,ed,tow bsdj,, lhickrs th,o boOt 2 u M, th, of
The putpolo of this paper rs to describe the architecture of rho Wexlwater Canyon
large scone fills produced isa wide braided channel belt. paieoflow paitern, whereas rho middle and opper units showed o bosin-wide
.sI,ig.o.seso of the,e iedinidoai seo boue,. ,ad do rs, rrpsr,ros iOdsoldosi cb.00,i bols,.. Member allwo scalet. 1. The fiPsl duds with the touclsres at the member scale and
southcasf to cast-southeasterly-directed puoem. The overlying Poisou Canyon dcsceibcx the largest .rchitoctnral componcul of the Westwasor Canyon Member, namely
ooe,pntodpsr005ody. GEOLOGICAL OVERVIEW S,sudslOno (a null bel oxgiug fo the Brushy Basin Member of the eastern San Juan -5- I0-m-tlsick saodstonr sheets. The idcetit5ed sheets no contrasted willi Caospbells
lstr,o,ily Ihr hort. oO,coi, ,bood.ol c000aOe-Up t,ough, sypisaily Sos, tod, 55,, thiok, find
Bast,,) and tts ponotbie eqsivaieuts showed a retutu to a uorthcaslerly-direoted (1976) architectural recseosrucion of the member. 2. The nccoxd scolo st description
both i,so,uily od tonically ,oth looliord piloI- 15 lOt,-.ngie c,o,,-Or.Ofird ,,od,Ione, O pEo,, The Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation was deposited in the San Juan Basin paleoflon. These patterns a,e quite different from the paleoflow pattern of detail, the intoteal archifrcuoe of the sheet tandstouo, idonlifred iu part see, as well the
rnfl,bato.g *O1O5 lor.o. lin l,srs,iiy-Iani,ed orno, os tho bogo 1,00gb, od soon st thele (Fags. ln, b) which lay several bandied kilometers cast of a LaIe Jurassic Andean- Campbell (1976), who considered the whole of the member to have bee,, deposited sigeificasoce of ubuedust large oosghs (typically 3005 st) preveer iv rive eherro.
000,n.l silt, 00r0, IhM thoy op,root ,bso-hoth 'oser till, ,.ther th.s oosilaod olorguod oh,ssrl,.
Tho ooc.oe-op o,srs,s,l b..,,. . s,gotsr flon. t,,, sos,, hkty boned doo lo i,,gr.,ssl, 000
opa,,uss *thi,, otile, md lohse,, sh,vv,L Phy,ical ov,,djlivo, ,isod., to ,Ovno-fls,, 000o,,5,500 vt4v 0030
a' /cA 0_
-
o cb,so,t os,ofloe000s ,,ay be ,r,psoothl, fo, theo foex,Iio,. IS, ,bssthnl pee,oeo.Iise os On,e WY(NE
bteogh, n the We,se.O, Cyeo Menthe, eso,i,1,nt teeth the enpootod pose po,o,o.tio., st po.itioo OTt
T
Quotoreoty alluvioni [j Mid. Jubovvic San Rafael Gp.
bo,fs,00 o,, ,000ping. ,.edy-b,,idea shea,,! boit. 50km Cbolacesuv Upp. Triassic chicle For.
Rovine of the hte,aioee odto,I,, th,t s,tened oh.500iboi, ,,odOose 1,0db, tes,ily f,!! rohes the
thlskoo,, .ego of! to lint, oo,pooboo st thee, botv,p,eed 0,0e,! nyte. Poe-drpo,itinal !,ego-,raI, 05500pavglr Upp. Jutassic Mvfflbon Fm.
,o,,,sst, 50,0101,0 me l,0 eeprolrd s tan ,sthn to, emgr to, foot,! ,ynent,. 0,010105, hoot -( ip!'0
the, "ego er il to o ,es,lg.05.I,s, st the bodo,, se ino,ea,ed g,th.,-moo hoo,ogroeoy,
,eoillbogo'eisveoa,e dec,ro, ,rap,otwrty. st the 00x5011
J On,

INTRODUCTION Fgurn lb
Zio, ip!,ft
aarifyiug the segen sud postdops,sitioual burial history of flavial-saud,toue
bodies it. critical to nuderstaudieg the scale sud role of heterogeneities involved lu
rho migeahiou of pore Iluids followiug the burial of sandy fluvial depouits (cl. MisIl,
19881e). The architecture of saudstone bodies rosaltiag from channelbelt avulsion 400 klo
J.. toS
and coeval basinal subsideuco has been modeled qnautiy.alivoty by scceral workers
(Alesauder sud Looder, 1987; Alex, 1978, Bridge aud Loeder, 1979 Leedor, 1978). PIC. 1.-a. Loeation of the study aren i,, n ba,inal eantnut. The ntndy area
These qoatstitative models are able to predict depositiosal patterns resulting from enelu,ed in the rectangle ix detailed in b. Modified from Sant on sod Turner-
syudspositioual subsidence and repeated avulsion of channel belts. The resulting Peterson (1986, Fi8. 3). b. Study are, with puxitions uf the Interni profilea
architecture of the sandstones controlo the pore-fluid flow, and hou iufluencrs nued to eonstrnnt Fig. 6 shown an bl,ek bues. Nnmberu refer tu fixe measured 3vSn
hydrocarbon migrafiou sud the emplacemeut of some economic metallil cosos oros, xeetionu uf Campbell, amo shown in Fig, 3. Detnilnd map of Ihn Kit Cnrxon't Ss-sn
sock as uranium. Applicatioe of fhese modelo requires the field recogmtiou of Cavo are,, nhown enclosed, in illustrated in Pig. 4. White Ruck Me,,, in
individual chauuelbelt deposits. There arc, however, few finid descriptionn in the laboind au 'WRM'. Map bunters parailnl UTM grid. Geolugy from Haekmaax f 00 '0h los_n
fluvial li,eeatnee, especially those of sandy mnitiohauurl fluvial systems, which and Olson (1977).

Cowuo Architecture of Ike Weslwafer Cinyon Member, Sun Jim Basis 80

 esaggeeatioe of the profile presented bore to enable direct visual comparison (Fig.
Dakota Sindoto,c Odi 6). Sandstone colar was noted and divided into three becad categories; white, buff
aud red.
The descriptive terminology of saudotouc bodies axed here follows that of Friend
and others (t979) who mtoodaceut a classification scheme based ou the
width:thickness ratio of sandstone bodies. Sandstones with width:tbickuess ratios
less thou 15:1 are termed ribbon-sandstone bodies, and sandstone bodies that hive
width:thickness ratios of over 15:1 are termed shrrt-sandstone bodies. The
that formed ou an iuclieed surface (ere Paola and others, 1989, their Fn, 2). By ter
the most predominant lithotacies are Si, SI and 5h which make ap more than 80%
at the deposit and wore difficult to separate because of comptes gradations.
Another lithofaciet, Sthb, although subordinate in occurrence, is interpreted te be sat
the product of deposition teem humpback dunes (cf. Saunderson and Lockett, 1983;
Allen, 1993a), A more detailed discussion of the gradation between these lithofaries
is presented in Cowan (1998) and Godin (1991).
The bounding-surface subdivision employed in the detailed profdrs of the Kit

g
saudstonc bodies of the Westwatrr Canyon Member all display ratine greatly
eucrMirsg 15 and aro therefore identified as sheet sandstones.
The lithof aries scheme follows that of Miall (1978) with mctfiticationo (Table 1).
Lithofacics within the sandstone shorts include horizontal and parallrl upper-flow'
regime stratification (Sh), inclined and parallel apter- to transitioual-ltow-eegime
stratification (Si), low-angle cross-stratified (<10 ) upper- to transitional-flow-
regime stoatification (SI), teoaaJt cross-stratification represents lower-low-regime
threr-dimrusiouat dunes (St), topsot-presorved conves-sp humpback cross-
stratification (Sthb) and rare climbing ripple cross-lamination (Sr), which was
ideotified at only one location. Lithofacies Si essentially representa lithofacics Sb
Carson's Cave area (Fig. 4) is modified from Mialt (1988c). Fest-order bounding
surfaces that bound sots of lithofacies are eel illustrated here in ali profdes unless
indicated. Second-order bouudiug surfaces are planes that separate veneta of
dissimilar lithofacies. las this popar third- and filth -order bounding sarfacos are
laterally restricted aud ostensive, discordanl erosional surfaces respectively. Slash-
order bounding surfaces are essentially fdth-order surfaces, but are treated between
major depositional systems (such as formational boundaries). Third-order bounding
surfaces are commonly concave-up in sectirnat view, and fifth- and siath-erder
bounding surfaces are flat across most of the eupesures, but may undulate locally.
Conves-op tourth-order bounding surfaces, interpreted by Miall (1988e) ta

M arino sandst000 EoIansandstono

Fluvial sandstone Fluvial and lacustree units
Marnelieotone West transect covered by Figure 6 East
risueii:.
SobOna (0) siltstene
T T TWIT TITI ITT III IT I IT

Fis, 4.The Kit Carson's Case area in detail, Centaurs in 28-m

Fis. 2.Gnnnrnliaed stoutigr.phy of the Jnrusuie s*outn, an nupound in the intervals, Lucafiun ot detailed lateral pretiles (Figs, 7, 10, 13 and 16)
uplifted edge of the sonthem Su. Jun. Beni.. Prom Turner-Peterson (1986, labeled: White Rnek Mesa East (WRME), Hilt Tep Read (HTR), Kit
Fig. 2) Carsuu's Care East (KCCE), Kit Carson's Cave West (KCCW), 1-km°
UTM grid reference teem Church Rock 24,008 tepegraphic sheet,

too vi

METHODS
The Westwatrr Caayon Member crops out discontinuously for about 500 km
around the west amt soothem uplifted mergins of the San Juan Basin. Photomosaics
wore produced from obliquo aerial and ground photographs along a transect on the
rast-west-trrndùtg cliff forming the southrru margin of the basin, exponed in
northwest Now Mexico (Fig. lb). These wrer used as boxe maps for plotting major
sorteen trucos of the lithotogic boundarirx, both with the aid of binoculars and by
wathiug the outcrop where possible. Four profdes in the Kit Carson's Cave area
were rsutninrd where the enposure was flat enough to permit luspeetion on a morn
detailed level (Ftg. 4).
The outcrop shown a Ftgurn 5 illustrates the autore of the Westwatrr Canyon
Member at White Cliffs. The original drawings of similar cliff espesores were
erdrawn ut a vertical esaggeration of fsvr, and each of these profiles was projected
into the plano joiniag Campbell's (1976, his Fi0 2) measuend sections 1 and 9 (see
Fig lb). Campbell's peofde (Fig. 3) mes also redrawn te match thr oS vertieal
Campbell's "channel system"
Fis, 3.Cross section nf the Murrisun Formatiun according
Campbrlt (1976, his Fig, 2). The rectangle representa the re-esumined
seetien us prrsentrd in this stndy (Fig. 1h), and illustrated in Fig. ti.
Stratigraphie ubbresiatinns are: Recapture Member et the Merrisen
Formation (Jmr), Westwater Canyon Member (3mw), Brushy Basin
Member (Jmb), Daknta Sandstone (Kd). Numbers refer In the measured
sections et Campbell (1976). Vertical rsatgeralien iu s52. The upper
sorfaer et Kd is net the actual mp ut the Daketa Sandstone,
represent constructional surfaces of macreforms, were not recognized in the study,
PART t: THE LNeGE-SCALC SANDSTONE SHEETS OF THE WESTWATER CANYON
MEMBER
to Of the taegr-scale profiles, only the White Cliffs profde located on the
westernmost end of Campbell's (1976) peofde (Fig. 3), is described in detail here.
Other profiles are simplified and presented as Ftgure 6.
Whirr Cfi//e Pro/ile
At White Cliffs (FW 5) the tower basal contact of Ihr Westwater Canyon
Member with the underlying Recapture Member is sharp, and can be followed
consistently ocross the exposure, The sixth-order erosional bounding surface
between the Westwatee Canyon Member aud the overlying Dakota Sandstone is
also sharp, bot attains u relief of several meters just rase of the break in the cliff
lac (Ftg. 5). The overlying Dakota Sandstone is a black carbonaceous shale, a

Cowan Arcicitectere of the Westwater Canyos Member, Sas Juan Basin 81

 I''-s.- . -cr'
''--_-ta
- ""?'¼.
'r,-
'

-.-*-.' T

F s. 5,Au example of a stiff profile from White Cliffs (refer tu western end of the profite. Vertical sandstone cuIre changes (marked by
Fig. 1h for location). Each sheet.sandutone body composing the arrows . see test fur explanation) are controlled by the preservation of
member is numbered one to eleven on the eastern end of the profile. thick uverbaaak deposits, shows, in black,
Note the amalgamating nature of the Sandstone Sheets toward Ihr

yellowish sa,tdstoue, or intorbeds of those two lithologies. The overbank deposits can re,nob thicknesses of opto 3 m at White Cliffs (as can
Tam.r 1.Thu main lithufaeies uf the Weslwatne Canyan Mnmber, based
sheet across to ndjaeent cliff exposures separated by valleys. This is contrary to die partly on, Miall'n (1978) litlinfacins endos.
The Westwater C.natyon Member at While Clilfs is composod of eleven vertically be soon m the center of the profilo; Fig. 5), but commonly are thinner, tnmcated in docnmonlatian of Campbell (1976), in which faix westward overstepping pattern of
stacked sandstone sheets, as defined on the eastern portion rl the profile; due to many places by the overlying sandstone shoot. The totoral variation in color of the
ostensive amalgamation, the units are not readily seen on the western sido. The
dio "ehanuef systems" in the Wcstwater Canyon Member (Fag. 3) is entirely based xoo OZE rsr'esroevonroni 00
sandstone is evident from dias exposure (the color bouudaries are schematically audio abihty to trace these bounding surfaces laterally foe long distances.
sheets have flat, erosivo bases, except for isolated oouoave-up erosional bases, reprosouled m Fig. 6). The boundary between white- and buff-colored aodulone is The color of the sandstone is higldy variable from one cliff esposare to another;
which arr several tons of motors wide, and display relief s of 2 to 5 m (Ftg. 5). The located a third of the height op from the bose oldie Westwaler Canyon Member on however, While alteratian 'u always underlain by reddish-colored sandstone, 000er Sh 0. sw ru any
worm nana
sheets arr -5 m thick and are capped by goeenJrrd/white.colored fine sandstone
aad subordinato shales which aro interpreted tobe of flavial overbauk affinity. The
die western sido of the profile, whereas o similar color boundary is located higher the reverso. The boundaries of these color changes are taterally gendational but are
Q,adut,snnl nero / xl
tsi
up to the east. At both ends of dio profile, the vertical color change corresponds to vertically abrupt al any one location. They commonly coincide with bases of sheet
basic building blocks of the member ore those sandstone-overbank couplet sheets. borneos wtth marked preservation of overbank deposits (at arrows shown in Fag. sandstones whero dic erosion surf aee has not truocated the underlying oeeebnulc scerna000uns rusten rerod
At White Cliffs, die poleocorreuts from trough cross-sloatified sots indicate a largely 5). S/SI mars °aes íod °nnv
doposat (White Cliffs ned White Rock Mosa oreas, Fag. 6). White saadstoues rn sar torvo mae/bra bnundrg ne/taco, turnare nona a
easterly directed paleoflow, that is, to the right and obliquely ont of the profilo, places occur completely enclosed in fine-grained overhauls deposits in dio eastern ceneS, nceou, croad vougv ahnen
which trends 252" fo 072' (Fig. 5). bheels are inferred te be tabnlar je three Coerspouirr LinIer-al A-of ilen seohons (or. in two dimensions, e.g., Mesa Batto, Fag. 6). The lateral variation in
dimensions, bat locally show marked lateral thinning on the scale of the esposare. color change dons net coincide with obvioos lateral torminalious of the sheet nndtoo o 02 teethtkaurs,coovon suo, nunrticnrua,ea tardy
St sana.nay aacssax.i,tnrstratrodu,vs,S.en menor
Sandstone sheet 5, for example, can be followed from east lo West where is The lateral extent of the profites presented in Figure 6 starts at die westernmost sandstanes. su006s&vsa,snrorurudtvans,scrsv Orna
bifuecates and becomes interlayered with oscrbaok deposits of the same order of portion of Campbell's (1976) transect and follows through to his measured section 9
thickness as the sandstone body, indicating proximity to an edge of the sheet. Sou nubflor,anfltai tersera orada into casserai sou
(Figs. lb, 3), which represents one fifth of the transect of Campbell (t976). Inlerpretalion of rho largr-ocale profiles n. t. 100.0. coursa, tromba, se000trrns rosero rngien vUvObnOm
Therefore, the edges of those tobnlar sandstone sheets ore inferred to have a very lnsthvtdual erostoual bounding surfaces aro difficult to troce entirely along mow Sfhb anadear dunes or 5' 000 susoranurn
low-anglo wedge shape. tu most of the other studied exposures, however, the lateral thou 1.5 km of chit lino (Fag. 6). The erosion surfaces ore lost where dio sandstone The inspection of the sandstone color distribution in the Westwater Canyou
terminations of the sandstone sheets are not commonly observable, most likely sheets amalgamate. Amalgamated erosional surfaces can be identified by intractasl Member, as summarized in Figure 6, indicates that the vertical amalgamation of the
because dio cliff laces are orientated snbparallet to the easterty directed palooflow, horazans within the amalgamated unit, but in many cases these horizons are missing. ftoviotile sheet sandstones played an important role in controlling die final rare rmnn recur Ora 5t0 torn cImebmng pein sun, tien ruaren
Sn sananOs, cross oncuimon sonoras rusa
and as a rosult, subparatict to the long oses of the sheet sandstones as well. ft should bo noted that, in geueral, it is uot possibto to Iraoc dichoso ola sandstone sandstone color distribution within the Westwoter Canyon Member. The origin of

Ccrorsard os pate 04
Cowan Architecture of the Wostwater Canyon Member, Sao Juan Basin 02
 2 3 White Rock Kit Carson's
White Cliffs Mesa Cave area
T Figure 5 HillTop Haod (Fi9 16)
KitCarson'chncoEost(FO.15) Kd
Kd
Jmw ___ __ Jmw

Jmr Jmr
50m
= 5kw 10kw
White RoakMmo East (F0. 7)
0km
- I I I I

2
I I

3
I I

4
I I

T T T T
T
Kd
Jmw -- - - - --
-- ---------- Kd
Jmw

Jmr ' --

6 7 8 overhask
Midget Mesa eposi s
Mesa Butte
Fra. 6,The regional profile of the Wmtwater Canyon Member (2mw) in T T T T white-co(ored

-
the study area. The upper section reprcscutsavertical exaggeration of 5 and I I sandstone
is a projection of the profiles on a plane joining Campbell's sections 1 toO as Kd
I
jmw
edca(oed
What RockMcsabtths ossoalhfxmthdflllrnhoeth
the Studied region. The distinction of lise Westwater Canyon Member from
Jmr 50 m
20kw
the overlying Brushy Basin is orbitoary here in the westrenmost portion of 15kw
the basin, and therefore it is not labeled, Caneced intervals ace labelled os I I I I
'u'. Black = overbank fine material. New darkest shading = reddish
I I

6 7 8 9
sandxtone; white = white sandstone; intermediate shading = buff sandstone,
The lower profile ix the wcsleenmost portion of the section presented in
Campbell (1976, Fig. 2; and indicated in Fig. 3 herein) drawn at the same 05
vertical exaggeration as the profiles in this study. The nnmbees 1 to9 on the
top of each poofile correspond to the positions of measured sections of Kd
Campbell (1976). Stratigraphie positions of detailed profilas of White Rock
Mesa East, Kit Ca,son's Cane East und Hill Top Read (Figs. 7, 10 and 16)
are indicated, The cliff section illustrated in Fig. 3 of Campbell (1976) ix Jmw
152- 16km along this transect

Jmr

Architecture of the Westwater Canyon Member, San Joan Basin 83

Cowan
s.........
Ihn various shades of sandstone colors, and their veesical and lateral distributions,
can only be nnderstood by esaosining the diogenetic history of the Westwaser
Canyon Member. us discussed below.
Diugonetic history of rho Weorwuser Canyon Member. The sandstone colors
observable in the cliff exposures of the Weslwaser Canyon Member are the
cumnlative result nf three known diagenelic eventi that occurerd during the
Jurassic te Tertiary Periods (see Tnmer-Peterson, 1985, 1986: Oranger and
Santos. 1986; Itunslry, 1986>. Two episodes of blruching, resulting in either the
reduction or removal of iron from the steteital geuisa, left some Westwater Canyon
Member sandstones either gray or while. The first episode occurred in the Late
Juenssic so Early Crrrueeous and was related an alkaline, organic-rich fluids, and
the second episode eceutred in the Lato Creluceous, and was related to acid,
organic-rich fluids. The prominent red color of the member represents the third,
und wool recent coloration, which is linked so u Tertiary oxidation event. These
diugenetic eventi are summarized an fellows.
I. The initial alteration, during the Late Juramic to Early Cerlaceous. was
caused by organic acids expelled down from the fine-gruined mudstone soils in
the overlying Broshy Basin Member, which reacted with ieon-tituniam oxiden
(chiefly magnetite and ilmenile) in the sandstones of the Westwator Canyon
Member (Tuener-Peterson, 1986). Iren louched from the deteital grains formed
pyrite. Moro recent oxidation of pyrite (beginning in the Tertiary and continuing
today) resulted in a yellowish-gray color in surface exposures of these sandstones.
This liest alteration event has been linked to the emplacement nf primary tabular
nranixw ore in the Westwater Canyon Member (Oranger and Santos, 1986).
Further localized removal and/or erduction of iron from the sandslones in the
Westwutcr Canyon Member sandstone was the resait of the downward percolation
of acidic, organic-rich fluids from carbonaceous skalen of the Dakota Sandstone
during the Late Crotaceous. This was only possible in the southwestern portions
of the busis after the pee-Dakota erosion of the lacusleine Broshy Basin Member
and deposition sf carbonaceous black shules of the Dakota Sandstone directly on
prrtoeuble sandstones of the Wesiwater Canyon Member (Turner-Pelerson, 1986).
The acidic nature of the organic-rich fluids derived from the Dakota resullod in
kaolinstization of feldspaos (Tarsor-Peterson. 1986). Pronounced localized
"bleuchiog" of thy Wostwator Canyon Member in the study area (e.g., White
Rock Mesa) han been attributed by Turner-Peterson (1986) to this alteration exent.
The red colomtion of the sandstone is attributed by Oranger and Santos
(1986) to a subsequent oxidation excel, which contributed to the fonoation of
redistributed uranium ore within the member. This occurred because of an
increase in hydeodyxamic flow of oxidiring meteoric water from tise uplifted
southern edge of the Sas Juan Basin along the Zani Uplift (Fif s. tu, b) during
the Tertiary associated with the regional Lurumide orogeny (Oranger and Sustos
1986). Sandstones that escaped malice removal and/or reduction of iron in the
peeoious reducing excels were oxidized and sow displuy u prominenl red
coloration. The intermediate buff-colored sandslones may have been partially
leached of iron during the two cartier alteration exrnts, an that these sandstones
were rol as readily reddened daring the later Tertiary oxidation excel (Turner-
Peterson. 1986. pers. commun.. 1990).
Reuoseoomenr of Campbell's architectural model. The -5- 10 lO-m-thick
sandstone sheets, irrespective nf their color, are here recognized as the largest
architectural component nf the Weutwater Canyon Member, whereas the thicker
sandstones represent intervals of amalgamated sandstone sheets. Il is apparenl that
the presence or absence af impermeable tabular Overbank deposits eneeted primary
SRaM**mNNU
control on the migration of pore fluids through the Weslmator Canyon Member
danng tts barest htstoty, and hence the subvequesl colee xarialion of Ihr member
(Figs. 5, 6).
Campbell (1976) identified two scales of channel-filling drposils. The largest,
which he termed "channel systems", arc shown in his constructed prxfslc of the
Wcstwalcr Canyon Member (reproduced in Fig. 3 herein). He described the
"channel syslems" to br:
"...tobular in cronn-section with abrupt rdgrs only at the channel edges.
Separate channel systems commonly arr marked by contrasting overall colors
on outcrops such as grayish-red versus salmon-pink versus buff' (Campbell,
1976, p. 1013).
According to Campbell's crans section, the abrupt "channel system" edgen mece
montly inferred and am shown an dashed lines (Campbell, 197ti, hit Fig. 2). The
color differences in the sandstones mere partly used in the definition of the
"channel system" boundaries as defined by Campbell (1976). The White Cliffs
section (Fig. 5), which coincides with Campbell's section 1, can be hanadly
divided into two units according to the sandstone color at any ose vertical
section. These rolan units can be clearly correlated to Campbell's section as
representing "chaanel system" bedies (Figs. 3, 6). At the location of Campbell's
measured section 3, the Wrntmator Canyon Member in thoided into two "channel
system" deposits. again corresponding lo two distinct differences its sandstone
color. lt is evident that the uppermost "channel system." which is represented ut
Campbell's sections 2, 3 and 4, coincides with the white to buff sandstonx color
as documented in the upper pmfile of Figure 6 (6 to 10.6 km along truosocl).
There is u complex of channel deposits kgured in Campbell's cross section
between Kit Carson's Cuve area and Midget Mesa (sections 4 to 8), where the
"channel system" boundaries were appamndy established using u combination of
dir sasdstonr color and the presence nf overbask material between the sandstone
sheets. As section 9 (Fig. 6, 21.2 km along transect), however, the beundaty
follows the above-mentioned color change criterion, and the "channel system"
boundaries clearly coincide with dir color chango noon in the espesare.
Lateral color changes were not observed Io coincide with sandstone-sheet edges
and do not repersent depesitional features. bat thoy do seem tu coincide in places
with the geometry 0f Campbell's (1976) "channel nyntems". lt can be concluded,
thereforr, thaI Campbell (1976) was partly identifying povt-depnsitianal aquifer
conduits nr permeability-pathway compurtmcsts us primary depesitional features.
Furthermore, his cress nection cannot be aned sa a map of posl-depesitional
aquifers, since some of his channel boandurien are sot defined solely by the
sandstone entre change, and many of Ihr channel beundariex correspond to arcas
of no outcrop (Fig. 6). lt is rvidcns that Ihe dsponitinnal "channel systems" nf
Catnpbetl (1976), in the order of tens of mvters thick. dz not exist; instead, the
-5- 10-m.thick sandsanne shoots am here recognized as the principal aechilecturut
component of the Wrntwater Canyon Member.
Rr 0: INTERNAL ARC5IITECTrJRO OP Trw 5ANO5TONO snooTn
The sandstone sheets. un described earlier, arr internally composed of sleuctores
that were termed "smaller channels" by Campbell (1976). These structuren. as
melt as large mucrefonns, are dsrcribed and interpreted in this section.
Larerul Profilen of the Kil Carson's Cuve Area
The KIt Carson's Cave ama ix located approximately 1 km southeast of White
Reck Mesa, and 4 km norlh.norttreasl of Red Rock State Park (Figs lb. 4). Three
profiles, Whtte Rock Mcsa East, Kit Carson's Cuve East and Kit Carson's Cave
West, are strusigruphicully located immediately above the Weslwater und
Recaptore Member contact, and thr Hilt Top Road profile lien isst below the
Wrstwater Canyon Member-Dakota Sandrlonc contact (Fig. lb). The strata are
oiled uppeoxtmutely 4" so the north-northwest. However, since the tilt is not
appreciable, and to avoid inteoducing error in the data processing, the individual
azimuth dato were noi rotated to horiaontalily. The paleocuerent/azimuth data
illustrated on the detailed profiles ure plotled with respect lo die outcrop
orientation (cf. Miall, 1988u), an indicated en the left tide of each pmftle (Figs
7, IS, 13 and 16). Note alar the scale differences between each profile.
White Rock Menu East (Fig. 7). The ment half nf this profite man previnunly
documented by Miall and Turner-Peterson (1989, Fig. 15). The profile shown in
Figare 7 nf this paper contains paleoflow data from parting lineations net
documented previzanly by Miall and Tamer-Peterson (1989). Although the profite
appears somewhat comptes in terms of the number nf subhorizontal third- and
fifth-order surfaces that occur here, it in relatively sample when reduced down lo
intervals of coherent pulrecarrent erientation, as indicated by the black arrnwr of
cross-sleatal dip directions (Xb) and parting linealion trends (FI) (Fig. 7).
Internally uniform putrocuerent intervals 1, 2 and 3, presented in Figure ha and
Table 2, correspond to sandstone units bounded by fsfttt-order bounding surfaces
A-A', A-A", and A"-A" respectively. The succeeding sandstone sheet is
indicated by the fifth-order beunthug surface B (surfaces sot identified with
primes represenl laterally extensive fifth-order bounding suefacon, which ace
underlain by overbank fines. whereas surfaces with primes arc laterally estessixe
fifth.ordee surfuees which arr not underlain by ovrebank fines; third-order
bounding surfaces comprise the remaining thick tines in the lateral profites). The
sandstone sheet represented by A to A" most likely represents an amalgamated
taudslone body. iudging from the presence of locally presorsed rafts of inuseclasts
along branding surface A'. and the fuel thut the pulcocarrest trend nf sandstone
unit 1 between surfaces A und A' in highly divergent from the overlying
sandstone anits 2 and 3 (Fig. ha). The high paleufiow dispersion mus interpreted
by Mied and Turner-Peterson (1989) an be the product of Incalteed low-stage
conceotration nf Sow around eansioed bue remnants. This may be the case for the
middle sandstone unit 2, where orientations of parting linralions and
corresponding cross-strulal dips differ (Fig. 8a). but the lower uuudstone unit I
can be interpreted an the result of channel flow at an angle to the rent of the
fluvial syntem (al u much wider ncalr than the enpensee). The top naedstonr unit
3 is dominated by lithofucies Sh, Si and SI, and displayx highly random
orientations of paleoflow sunctures from which the exact pateoflnw direction
cannot be determined (Fig. 8a, Table 2).
A striking anpect of this roposam is the presence nf concave-up features which
are bounded by discordant erosional basal third-order surfaces (BS3) (Fig. 9).
Three am several of these large somiclures in this profile, and they oenzmble
"smaller channels" ef Campbell (1976, his Fig. 5). These are commonly filled
with lithofacien Si and SL The large concave-np "hollow" (sensu doscriptive
terminology of Friend 1983) marked 'V' (in Fig. 7) is symmetrically and
vertically filled from beth nidss (Fig. 9). The longitudinal anial orientation of this
parttcular structure trends jflv,5gv The lateral profile ix, therefore, orientated
oblique to the uxial trend of thix hollow. The signihcant anial dip of this structure
indicates the non-horizontal and non-cylindrical sumare of this hollow. Note that
the acial dip azimuth of this hollow is obliquely upstepe with respect to the
paleoslope indicated by the sanroanding paleoflow orientations (Fig. 9u. Table 2).
The asial dip of one other hollow in this area indicated downstream dip with
renpecl to the palrnflom, showing these hollows to be trough-like in three-
dimensional geometry. However, plan espesores of these hollow structures are
ruer; drus, the there-dimensional aspect nf this structure is poorly known. Unlike
comets of smaller trough cross-strutikeution, hollows commonly occar ianlatrd
from each other, but in nome areas arr grouped us described in the nest section.
Kir Caroor'o Cuve Euer (Fig. 10). This profile, located 5.5 km southeast of the
rant end of White Reck Mesa East profile, features horizons of 000rbonk fines
be.ng truncated, and sandstone bodies becoming amalgamated io the south (i.e. lo
the right of profile). The lower horizon of oxcohank fines corresponds to the
overbank fines located direcdy above sandstone unit 3 of White Reck Mesa EasI
profile, and bounding surfaces A and B beth correspond te bounding surfaces A
and B of White Rock Mesa East profile (Fig. 7). The beusding surfaces marked
wIth primes, however, are noi likely the same surfaces as illustrated itt the
previous pmfilr. The palroflew is into the profite, enabling fairly good cross-
sectional grometries to be determined from this esposare (Fign 8h. IS).
Uuforsunutely mosl of thr middle portion of this exposure is inaccessible. but it
can be clearly seen from the profile thaI the dominant lithefacies is Si/Sl with
some displaying parting hneationn on their bedding surfaces. lt can be uppreciated
from the profile that there in no meaningful cyclicity mithin the sandstone bodies
in terms of their compeneni lithofacies (Fig. IS).
As in the previous profile. the striking features are the large hollows. seen here
in lruusverne view (Fig. 18). Detailed examination nf the large-ucale hollow on
the central north end of the profile, labeled 'O', indicales lalced and obliqur fill
of the hollow with Si/St lithofacirn eshibiting purting tincatios on the bedding
surfaces (Figs Il). The ioternul disposition of the stratified Si/SI lithofacirn can
vary qutte dramatically from one hollow tu another; some being vertically filled
(V), whereas others are laterally filled (L), ne combinations of the ubovc. In nne
case Ihn lateral fill was composed of avalanche-face deposition. with angle-of-
repose fino- to medism-gruined sandslone (L; Fig 12). Hollows is Ihr middle of
the profile occur in u group, apparently along one horizon ubove a pebble clant-
rich, lalceullp-continuous fifth-order bounding surface B', whereon ether hollows
are distinctly isolated. However. even when present in groups, the internal
organioatior of the hollows and their scale i s not uniform from one hollow ro
another (Fig. IS).
Shallow northorly dipping second- and third-order bounding surface nacos cue
be identified between fifth-oeder bosrding surfaces B und B', along the southern
and central portion of the profite (LA). These dipping surfaces. which arc
bounded on the base by fiaI erosional surfaces. maul Ithely represent uheet-like
luseral-aecretion elements, as described elsewhere from the Weetwuter Canyon
Member by lcliall and Tamer-Peterson (1989). These feuturem, however. contrast
with she hollows. which are laterally restricted by concave-up third-order
erosional bounding surfaces.
Kir Carson's Cave West (Fig. 13). The Kim Carson's Cave West profile is
located 0.5 km southwest of Kil Carson's Cuve East profile and their orientations
are essentially the vame (Pig. 4), buI the Kim Carton's Cuve WonI cliff exposure
fucrs east. The paleoflom, thoerfure, in out of the profile. as indicuted by the

Coscnued os page 06

Czwuo Archileclure of Ihr Weslwnler Caayon Member, San Juan Basin 84

 Fo. 7.Whito Rook Moor Errt profilo (loortiro or Fig. 4). Stortigorphir of boording rorfoco 2 (BS2), third- ord fifth-ordrr boordiog lorf000 dip-
potitior showo os. Fig. 6. Arrow, oro rodod os followr croso-bod dip- ozm.sths (8S3 rod 5). Azisruth dot. plottod with rospoot to tho ostorop
ozioststh of croso-bod soto (Xb) portisog lisoortiot. bords (Pl), dip-ozimttth of orsortotior os shows. t Ihr loft of tho profilo.
¡mEsonil strotifiortio.s rod low-os.glo cross-strotificrtio.. (Si,Sl), dip-ozmssth

White Rock Mesa East

V V

Jmr

Cowan Architecture of the Westwater Canyon Member, San Juan Basin 85

......._._ sa__a. .a.__....__a.___ .____._..__

 a White Rock Mesa Eant (Fig. 7) C
-......
Kit Carson's Cave Went (Fig. 13)

A
A' ..--'. -'' v-j.,
170'

- -
350

Xb PI Si/SI BS N
B
e Tom.. 2--The paleocurrent and vector dip-azimuth statistics nf the
28O p, as presented FWRMEt=

LA,,
E
150
White Rock
Xb PI Si/SI BS B
Profite; KCC West = Kit Carson's Cave Profite; HTR = liti lop Road
s
Profite. u = number of observations; VM. = vector mean azimuth; si =
/ circular standard deviation; z = Raleigh's z tent of random distribution
- N (at the 5% significance level) where R, U, and B indicate random,
profile orientation
ák respectively. z test not condssct:d for sample nnmb less than five.

*ss
E
s.

- 4F > wv 0/
170
1
Xb

7 205' 27' U 9 208' 25'

PI

B 2
Si/SI

316' 2' .
BS

15 577' 29' U
8 2 15 077' 29' ti f5 112' 26' B 7 087' 74' R 6 SiB' 32' U
50135 134'71 R 6 154'44 R 224155'. 10504'B9' R
__.-
_="-E
b Kit Carson s Cave East (Fig. 10) d 1 11 065' 46 U 2 063' 3 . 1 008'
.

155'.. Hill Top Road (Fig. 16) 88 2 20 064' 31' U 8 553' 9' B 16 054 40' U 9 015' 72' R
C ..-235' 3 4 136: 28 . I l25 . . 2 002 29:

I 43 f'41' 209106 R 34 U
u
X6PISUSIBS A

P as

N C
Xb PI Si/SI BS

rss

BBB'4 y WL,E
1
OB WE
\ 1 black aeeoWS of crons-strasal dip directions (Xb) nod passing tioeation trends (IS)
ais 235v

155
Pm. S.Puleorneres.t, Si/Sl, asid bnm.disig saetare onusitatiosi sisossirney
diugoam fur u. Whit. Rock Mnua East; b. Kit Cnesn.s's Cave East; e. Kit
Carson's Caen West; asid d. Hill Top Road. The oeinntaiios. data are
'Ils
ass O (Fig. 13). lo places, the outcrop is characterized by taterally ts000sive fifth-oeder
Thrs bosodiog surfaces (A, B, B', C), whereas elsewheee it is dominated by
Iii discontinuous third-order bounding surfaces with tocafly very steep angulas
Contacts (up to 26'). The lateratty coelsnuous bounding surfaces, with the
encepuon of A, contd ool ho demonstratod to be the eguivai eel of the surfaces
of the provioas two profites, nor could patoocuzreet trends within packages be
usibividnd into roberont isitnrvsiJa separated by fsttls-order bnsmdizsg correlated, sltuslratiog the difficulty of coreetanog deposdionat psckages from 05e
onefacos. Palr.oesiereat utaristinu urn sammaniaezim Table 2. esposase to another in thin erosiooally dissected terrain.

Cowan Architecture of the Westwater Canyon Member, San Juan Basin 86


4 right (northeast) with respect to the underlying pateutlow indicators, und represents
Ftc. 9.-Vertienfly filled hollow (with Si) ut Whitti Rná Men. Lust prafilti
(see Fig, 7 for locution). The nein of ehe strnetnre dips -10' eownrd the
viewer, which is ronghly np-puleoslnpn. The stuff in ll3 m tong. Dieeetio. nf
view 070 -
Tho large inclined structure ni Uso tooter of the profile (0) eau obliquo vsow of Cave East profile (Fig. 10), bounded at the base by surface C, cao be traced
another hollow, whioh is latreally/obliquely Idled with fithofactos St/SI, with minor laterally to the base of Hill Top Read profile, where it is bounded on its top by
St and Sfhb lithofacirs (Fig. 14). The paleoffow is obliquely out and to the left m surface D (Fig. 16). Most of the bounding surfaces, including first-order ones, cao
the lower sandstone mit i (Fig. Sc), and consistout with lIso axial trond of the be seen in this profile, defming cross-stratified sets in Ihr upper saedslone unit 2
hollow being slightly oblique to Uso exposure. The hollow and tu fill resemble a (Figs Sd, 16). ft can br soon that Stia same places is gondztioual te fithofacies Si/SL
tatoral-accretion struceurr from this view (oloment LA of Mialf, 1985), and simular The lower unit is characterized by abundant Si/Sl fithofacies, some of which appear
structures moro interpreted as tuch by Miall and Turnor-Petersoti (1989). 0e the as bread concave-op stretification. Isolated teongh-shaprd Sthb structures occur in
othrr hand, its concave-up basal surface indicates it is a negative (erosional) the center and centre left of the profile.
featuro, as opposed to the posieivr (conslonctiosal) feature of rlrmont LA noenrally Upper sandstone unit 2, as represented by the unimedal orientation of
developed on a laterally ostensive flat erosional surface. A strop concave-op basal sedimentary steucetres and uniform thickness, most likely represents a single
erosion surface also bounds the southern margin of anothrr hollow marked 'V'The channelbelt sandstone sheet, as described in part I of this paper. Bounding surface
discordant basal bounding surface dip of the hollow 'V' is 26' (Fig. 15), which is D' is moSI likely the base of a channelbelt sheet sandstone, judging from the
close to ihr maximum stablr angle-of -rrpose for fino- to methnm-geaiued sand. abundance of intraclasts along this horizon. Howrvrr, lateral rspesures of this
tat contrast to these laterally limited hollows, the structure labeled 'LA' may bounding surface do not reveal any preserved overbask fine deposits, which may
represent a lateral-accretion element (LA of Miall, 1985, 1988a, e). Its basal erosion have bren lost dur to estensive downcuttiug. The difference in pnleocurront
surface is laterally extensive, and clearly ffal, suggesting a lateral-accretion orientations between sandstone units t and 2 (Fig. fil) also support this
macreform devrloped oua laterally ostensive flat erosional surface. interpretation, as the yaleoflow in the fewer sandstone unit I is ont of the profile,
Hill Top Rotad (Fig. loi. The Hill Top Road profile, totaled 0.4 hrn east- whereas paleoflow in the upper unit u obliquely out to the left (Figs. 8d, 16). The
northeast of White Rank Mesa East profile (Fig. 4), is the most detailed profile sasdstoue interval D to D" here, therefore, most likely represents un amalgamated
constructed in this area, and stoatigeaphically the highest profile from the Kit composite-sheet sandstone.
Carson's Cave area. The uppermost sheet sandstone present m the Kit Carson's An inclined feature (0) is noticeable in the central portion of the profile, but its
Cowoo Architecture of she Weslwaler Canyon Member, Sos Joan Bovin
lateral extant te the eight is not clear. Although its upper bounding surface appears
focally conves-np, this iv dur to n perspective problem of un overhang. The
structure seems tebe localized und the concave-up nature of the lewer third-order
beunding surface can be better seen from the west, looking obliquely at the cliff
face, suggesting un equivalence te the hollow sltvtctsoes seen elsewhere in the other
profiles from this urea. The structure is most likely skewed in orientation te the
an oblique longitudinal section through a hollow. The other shallow structures, as
espeessod by the broad concave-up Si/Sl laminations in the lower sandstone unit S,
ure most likely shallow versions of the concave-up hollows.
The lithofucirs contacts present botwceu bounding surf nces D' und D" are goody
inclined lo the left and may represent shallow laterally acceded surfaces similar to
the dipping snrfaeos present in Kit Carson's Cave East profile as described above,
Isterpretation o/the internal oandstotte-ohert architecture
Paleocurreul variability, as determined from a. the ines of trough eroso-
stratification, und b. parting linration within the individual sandstone sheets, is
remarkably consistent at any one losation in the Kit Carson's Cave area (Fig. 8).
This may indicate thaI the saedslone sheets ercoed a single
depositional/aggrndational event, In some areas (e.g., White Rock Mesa East and
Hill Top Road), it is difficult to determine il the fifth-order bounding snrfaces are
the expression 0f individual sheet-ehannel fills within a larger shret-channolbslt
sandstone bctfy, or il they represent buses of amalgamated ehaunelbolr sandstone
deposits. tu the absence of overbusk 1mo deposits between the sandstone sheets, it
was difficult te determine with certainty which is the case.
The origin of hollows described above eau be interpreted in several onyx. They
may represent 1. large-scale dune sirsctners with outy their Insets preserved; 2.
elongate channels ('smaller channels' us speculated by Campbell, 1976, his Fun, 5,);
or 3. seme other type of scour-fill strvuctuee formed withiu the fluvial channel belt.
The hollows were previously interpreted by Miall nod Turner-Peterson (1989) tobe
ancient analogues of large elongate flute-like scours formed at channel bases, as
documented by Coleman (1989) from the Brahmaputra River. The physical
processes involved in the formation of these flute-like scours are eel yet known.
Similar, but smaller scale structures, have been documented lrom a ephemeral
sleeum deposit by Olsen (1989), and interpreted to have been termed from the
erosional action of spiral vertices developed during a sheet flooding event.
The inteosal organization of the hollow fills are somewhat variable from ose
hollow lo unother, and they can occur as inolaled sets (Figs. 7, tO, 13, 16). These
features do set ersembte the rvgslanty of largo cross-bed sels reported from other
fluvial sandstones such as the Hawkesbnry Sandstone (el. Conaghan and Jones,
1975), suggesting un origin other than that of dune peesorvalion. Channels
downcnttiug into sand banks, if formed, are uot likely to be prrservrd with sleep
banks (in the order of SS' to 30', as seen in the hollows of White Rock Mesa East
and Kit Carson's Cave West profiles) due te the absence of fines und, therefore,
tack ut bank cohesion. Furthermore, the fact that the hollows are most likely
trough-shaped in three dimensions saggostv un origin other than vlougaird
channelizaluon.
A procese for forming deep scours, of up to sin limes the meas channel depth, by
channel convergence, has boon documented both from rivers and from laboratory
flumes (Motley, 1976; Motley und Sebunim, 1976; DosI und llrayshaw, t985; Best
1987, 1988; Best and others, 5989). Those seudies suggest that a wechanism of drop
scouring may be a siguificaul proceso at channel junctions, und this is particularly
the case for the sandy braided-stream enviroumenl, where stream junctions abound
(cf. Dosi, 1987, p' 34; Best and others, 1989). Best (1987) for osamplo has shown
that avalanche faces can develop on the upstream end of these scours. This will
allow the scours potentially to br Idled laterally, obliquely or eretieally by the
nvntanche deposit in a short period of linie during channvl switching or a flood
eveul within a braided-fluvial selling, The scours are, thrref ore, envisaged te form
as eluslers or isolated features, depending on the density und spacing of the
channels within a braided channelbelt.
Another mechanism of deep scouring in u braided fluvtal envreonmrnt was
documented by CanI (1976) in the South Saskatchewan River. CanI (1976, p. 125)
interpreted deep scours, reaching nearly there timos the moan braid-channel depth,
to have formed upstream of a large emergent bar. This process us analogous to
scouring on the upstream margin of an obstacle cast in a flew (cf. Best und
Brayshaw, 1985), with the emergent hae acting us au obstacle within the channeL
This scour-and-fill prtwesa may also be a significant process gosrruiug the final
depositionat state of multichaunol braided fluvial systems, in addition te the ubove
mentioned scour penons, which occurs at channel confineuces. The laterally
restricted hollows erode underlying material, which in same places appears to be
composed of inclined laternt-aecretion macreforms (Kit Carlson's Cave East profilo,
Fig. 10). The hollows may represent initial stages in the development of laterally
ostensive macreforms, since their internal-stratification geometries appear similar.
DISCUSSION
Typical ftuciul-oasalsrosr body dieuruoiono
Friend (1983) classified channels into three typev fixed, meaudering, and
braided, which resull in two different types of sandstone-body morphology.
Channels that are stable between avulsive events commonly create ribbon bodies,
whereas channels that steadily migrate laterally within n channelbelt will create
sheet-like sandbodies, whether they are meaudreing er braided (Friend 1983).
The sheet sandstones, which represent chanoelbelt deposits that have aggraded
between avulstve eveuls, can form thicker umulgamated sandstonr bodies if the
subsidence between avulsive events is sou last enough to allow preservation of
mlerveuing oerrbank Irnos. The field distinction between individual sheet sandstone
bodies (cl. Friend, 1983, p. 350) can only be made from interpretation of large,
laterally continuons esposures orientated transverse lo the palvollow direction. At
present three are u few documented examples indicating what runge of thicknesses
nod widths individual sheet bodies can attain. Commonly, when figures are given,
the authors do not specify which of the following four possible casos these
dimensions represent: i. dimensions of the channel-fill sandstones und foses within a
larger chanurtholt deposit; 2. dimensions of Ihr chaunelbell deposit; 3. dimensions
of an amalgamated chansolbell deposit (i.e. composite sandstone bodies); or 4.
some combination of the above cases, However, following the suggestions of
Cellinson (1978) and Friend and others (1979), reports of the cross-sectional
dimensions of fluvial sandstone body dimensions have increased in the last decade.
allowing a review of the espeeted ranges of channelbelt snudstoso body dimensions
resulting from fluvial deposition. Published ranges of widths and thicknesses of
sandsl000 bodies and their interpreted fluvial stylos are summarizedm Figure 17.
The data presented in Figuro 17 can broadly be divided into three clarare
sandbedy dimensions that arr divided into I. ribbons and 2. sheets following the
suggestion of Friend und others (1979) and shown as circtes und squares,
respectively, in Fig. 17, and 3. some thicker sandstone-sheet deposits that are
g7
 -j .

Kit Carson's Cave East

L g12)

F,e. 10.Kit Cruo' Cavo East profiic (1ocMior o Fig. 4). Strtigeophic
pocitio. ohow. o..Fg. 6. Anirnth doto omc oi.nmn or Fig. 7.

Cowan Architecture of the Westwater Canyon Member, San Juan Basin 88


Fin. 11.-Sonthorn erosional margin and fill of the hollow labeled 0 ai
Kit Carson's Cavo East profile (see Fig. 10). The aziosntb dala (as mdicated)
show that tino mioma] fill of lithofarien SI is filled obliqnely with reapoct to
the strike of tise hollow base. Direction of view 350.
composite in nature (amalgamated sheets), as far as can be gathered from the
documentation. This third claro plots in the upper eight of the diagram (shown as
diamonds in Fig. 17). The sinaje-sheet bodies, mterpeeted to be of
channvl/channelbvlt origin, display wide ronges of saudstone widths. but they
consistently show thicknesses Irin than 12 m. la geortet, the inferred braided
deposits have a wider range of tlticlatesnos than meandering deposits, but the
reported saodutone-body dimensions clatter between 1 and 12 m in thickness
These figures, which aee independent of fluvial stylo or tectonic setting, suggest that
regardless of the original channel depth, erosion or tome other pereesses result in
the preservation of fairly consistent thicknesses of 1-12 m. his worth noting that
although thichoess of sandstone sheets can easily be drciphreed in the fold, lets
confidence can be placed on actual widths of sandstone sheets, even m areas of
wide esposare such as thr Westwater Canyon Member, due to their very high
tcidtls.thickness ratios. The range of channelbelt sandstone widths at plotted on
Figure 17, therefore, most likely beludet laterally amalgamated widths.
Enooptiono to the channelbvlt thicknesses of t-12 mare those of non-channehzed
sheet-flood deposits (Olsen, 1989 Tsnbridgr, 1981), which display very tow
thickness vetoes of less than t ai (18 and 31 as Fig. 17). One very thick point-bar
........a....
channelbelt deposit (Mossop and Flach, 1983), and varions freed channels (Hopkins,
Cowan
Fin. 12.-Direnfion of view 085 along strike of the sonth end of a hollow
labeled L at Kit Carson's Cave East penf.ln (see Fig. 10). The hollow in
laterally filled by two ceoss.stratifind sets. The 1.5 m scale on top in parallel
to the pta.. trace of the mona-strata.
1985), both from the Alberta Foreband Basin, record preservation of very drop
channel deposits in tidal to dettare distributary wttings, respectively (30 and 37 in
Fig. 17). Hopkins (1985. p- 49) suggested that deep channel incision is independent
of base level changes in deltaic wttings, pointing ont thaI chamtelization of apio 60
m below sra level is reported from a modern dolts distributary (Meckel, 1972).
Further studios of fluvial sandbody geomrfoies may reved other deep-river
channelboll bodies oud shed light an the controls of deep river deposition and
preservation.
Dintrnriono of the Weotwater Canyon Member oancdotooe ttodieo
The -s- to-rn-thick sheet-sandstone bodies of the Westwater Caoyon Meot,er
ropresrot choneelbell deposits that aggraded betweon avulsive events (Fig. 18). The
consistent pateocuerenf trends within a theol sandstone deposit songent thaI a singlo
depositional event created each sheet-sandstone body. The estimated sandstone-
body thicknesses of the Westwatre Canyon Member are well within the range of
the clustered values (shown as 'w' in Fig. 17). In contrast. the sandstone thicknesses
as reported by Campbell (1976) are within the range of amalgamated or composite
sandstone bodies (shown as W' in Fig. 17). The wide range of 'channel-system'
Architecture of the Wevtwater Canyon Member, Sau Juan Basin
dimensions as docsanented by Campbell (1976) is ospected if amalgamation of
more regular cka.nnelbelt deposits occurs at random (cf. Bridge and Looter, 1979,
see their Figs. 2c and 4c).
Cliff esposures of the Westwutee Canyon Member serve asan excellent esamplr
for illusteatiug the control of overtook fines as effective barriers to pore-fluid flow.
lt ti apparent that on the member scale, the preservation of overbank.fine deposits
between sheet-like sandstone bodies has controlled the pore-Bald flow,
notwithstanding the internal comptruily of the sheet-sandstone aeeltitectme as
revealed by the detailed lateral profiles. The sheet sandstones, with very little
internal grain-size variation, acted as fluid conduits, and the thicknesses of conduits
or compartments were slyly dependent upon the preservation of oveebank fines
between the interpreted chaonelbett sandstone bodies. The review of published
esamples of tluvial.body dimensions indicates a consistency of sandbody
thicknesses, namely in the 1- fo 12-m range, and the thicknesses of the Westwater
sheets fit in this ronge (Fig. 17). The pore-Bald flow, therel ore, mili be largely
confined within this thickness for saedy fluvial systems. Increases in this thickansa
range wilt be the result of amalgamation of the unit sandstone sheets by erosion of
capping oveebank fmrs, whereas a decrease is likely tobe associated with increasing
heterogeneity of grain size within the sandstone channotbelt bodies (as in deposits
resulting from tnixed.toad fluvial systems).
Implicationo of /udlow prerervaf ion
Ftnvial sedimentotogists have concentrated on the sedimentary features formed
from the migration of positive barforms, and ased these structures to decipher
styles of fluvial sedimentation (Allen, 19Mb; Haszeldine, 1983; Mialt, 1988a(. Little
attention has boon directed to processes in the deepest perdons of fluvial channels
antil only recently (e.g., Best and others, 1989). Theoretically, il is not considered
possible to preserve the entire thickness of the channetbolt doposït, and enden
macroforms, anless avulsion of the channel belt takes place (cf. Bridge and Leedor,
1979). However, scour-fill processes, as documented by workers such os Best
(t987) and Cant (1976), arc comparatively more ephemeral, in a msltichaeeei
fluvial system, than lite of constructional maceotorms; it is likely that these
structures with high preservation poorntial deposited in the deepest parts of the
channel bells may dominate the geological record. The abundant hollows as seen in
the Wcstwalee Canyon Member may represent such scones from the deepest
perdons of the channel belt.
CONCLUSIONS
Several significant conctnsmons can be drawn from this study of the large-scale
features of the Westwater Canyon Member.
I. The 'chaneel systems" described by Campbell (1976, Fig. 3 herein) are sot
chanuelbelt deposits but records of post-depositionat poer-wntrr conduits componed of
amalgamated, -5- Item-thick theol saedsloue bodies.
The individual sheot-sandslene-body thickness of the Westwatrr Canyon
Member falls within the thivhnets ranges al sandstone bodies that are of possible
channetbelt origin. Sandstone body thicknesses in oscoss of 12 m appear to reside
from channelbylt amalgamation.
Diagenetic pore-fluid flow was primarily controlled by the presence of thick
overbank deposits which escaped erosion during amalgamation of channelbelt
sandstone bodies. Published data on fluvial deposits indicate that large-scale pore-
Said condoits composed of homogeneous channelbelt sandbodios fall within the I-
12 m thickness range. Departures Irom this range are espected to be due either lo
channelbelt nmatgamataou oc higher koirrogenoity within the raedvlone sheet.
Internally, sheets display teough.like features -30 e 5 m in crosu.section
dimensions, commonly isolated, with varying orientations of internal filL The
iulcrprelation of these large-scale hollow beatures is mesI consistent with a scour
produced within the deepest portions of a shallow, braided-fluviat environment,
possibly due to chaenel'confluence scouring. The variable inclination of the fills,
with parting lineation on their bedding surfaces, are most consistent with a rapidly
filled scour and are lesi consistent with forms produced from trains of large dunes
or small channels, as previoosly inteepeeled.
The member contains low-amplitude, laterally estonstve macroforms bounded
by flat erosional sargacos, consistent with the interpretation that the style of the
fluvial environment was a braided muttichannet syslem. Hollows. on the other
hand, nec bounded by concave-up erosional sarfacos and are inleryreted to have
been produced in the deepest portions ol the fluvial channel boll, and hence have
geraler preservation potrntial than constructional maceoforms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thin work was coospleted while the unihor was ilse eecipirel of a Canadias
Commonwealth Scholarship. Acknowledgwoni is made lo the donors of the Artserican
Chemical Society Petrolenet Research Fund, AAPG Grants is Aid, and to NSERC for
support of this peojeel throagh research grants lo my supervisor A.D. Miau. I thank the
Navajo Nation (Window Rock. AZ) for allowing field work io be conducted on the
Navajo tedian Reservation. lam isdebled both lo Andrew Miall who initially suggentest
reesamising the large-scale architecture of the Westwaler Canyon Member, and lo
Chnnline li. Taneer-Peterano whose gaidance is and out of the lield was 05051
appreciated. Andrew D. Minh, Greg C. Nailon, Atan C. Kendall, Nick liyles and Paul D.
Godio (who also asnistod in the field) are thanked for stimulating discusnion and
camorets on the manuscript daring various stages of the study. Contractivo criticism
by reviewers C. E. Turner-Pruresou and A. Ramos nerved Io greatly iopeovr the
manancetyl. The oblique aerial phosagruphn used to construct Figures 5 and 6 wore
photographed by A.D. Miro and res,wedaced by Brian O'Dosovan.
nErEOENCES
Asesosoen, L, aun Leeees, M R, 1987, Active teetonic control on alluvial
architecture, in Ethridge, F. G., Flores, R. M., and Harvey, M.D., edt, Recent
developmenf s in fluvial sodimentology; Society of Economic Paleonlologisls
and Miacralogisis Special Publication 39, p. 243-252.
Auen, J. R. L., 1978, Studies in fluviatite sedimentation. An esploratory
quantitative model for the architeetsnr of acutsion-conteolled allevial suites:
Sedimentary Geology, y. 2f, p. f29.147.
t983a, Gravel overpassing on humpback bars with mixed sediment:
enamptes from the Lower Old Red Sandstone, sonthrrn Britain.
Sedimentotogy, v-30, p. 285.294.
1983b, Studies in fluvialile sedimrntalion bars, bar-complexes and
sandstone sheets (tow-sinnosity braided streams) in the Browststones (L.
Devonian), Welsh Borders Sedimentary Geology, v.33, p. 237-293.
89
 S.N___*Ø. ..*.u...e.mu

tA
Kit Carson's Cave West g V (Fig. 15)

C
n -.
B' a
- .==- 00
350
-_- s

Jmw

® (Fig. 14)
30m

Jrttr Fo. 13.Kit Corto,,'t Cove Wt proFile (Iooctio,. oa Fig. 4). So.e
etrotigrophic level oo White Rock Meo Boot 000d Kit Coreoo'r Cove Boot
o
prohibo. Auhnoth dato same reheme es Fig. 7.

Cowan Architecture of the Westwater Canyon Member, San Juan Basin 90


Feo. 14-A clauenp vinw nf the northern end nf din large hollow labeled
0 at Kit Carson's Cave West profile (sue Fig. 13). The discordant third-
order bonnding snofane is marked by arrows. Thn fill in mainly lithof nains Si
and SL Direction of view 260.
Been, J. A., ace Joroeo, T. E., 1989, The effects of Neogene thmvttng on deposition 1978, PlasmI facies models and their application, ix Scholle, P. A., and
m the Bermejo Basin, Aegeetiaa Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, y. 59, p. Spearing, D., eds, Sandstoxe depositional enciroumeels, American Association
330.345. of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 31, p. 115.137.
Beim srnrson, A K cee Tauno, L., 1982, lsochr0000s fluvial Systeme m Miocone Cotmssac, J. M., 1969, Beahmapotoa River: chaawel processes and sadimrulation:
deposits of Northern Pakistan' Sodimeulology, y. 29, p. 331-352. Sedimentary Geology, v.3, p. 129-239.
Beur, J. L., 1987, Flow dyttamics at river chamtel conflueucos: implications for Cotooctos, J. D 1978, Vertical sequence and sand body shape in alluvial sequences,
sedimettt trattsport and braI morphology, ix Ethridge, F. G., awl Flores, R. M., is Miall, A. D., ed., Fluvial sedimenlclogy, Cauadian Socioly of Petrotetao
eds, Reoent and ancient noumarion depositional onvironmeuts, Society of Geologists MemoirS, p.577-586.
Economic Paleontologists and Mitteralogiels Special Poblicalloa 31, p. 27-35. 1986, Alluvial Sediments, ix Reading, H. G., Sedanentaty cuviroumeuls
1988, Sedimont transport and bed morphology al river channel and lacios: Blachwrll Scirntilic Pablicatious, p. 20-62.
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awe Bcuvsoon, A. C., 1985, FIase separation - a physical process for Ihr Bralonaputra: a deposilional model for cooliacntal sheet saodslooes: Journal of
concentration of heavy minerals within alluvial channels: Joarnal of the Ihr Geological Society of Aaslralia, v.22, p.275'283.
Geological Society, London, e. 142, p. 747-755. Conos, E. 3., 1990, The fluvial eodimentology ol the Weslwaler Canyon Member,
Braseow, C. S., aye Ros, A. G., 1989, The morphology of river channel Morrison Formation (Jurassic), San Juan Basin, New Mrssco, USA:
conllnrocos' scales and dywamics, Program and Abslcacls al the 4th unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Toeonto, 162 p.
International Conference on Ftucial Sedimentology, Barcelona, Silges, p.75. Fwesa, P. F., 1983, Towards the field classiltcauon of alluvtal architecture or
Br,saov, R. C., ose Gumecsa, R., 1984, Controls of sandstone body geometry and srqarnce, io Collinsoo, J. D., aud Lew'm, J., ode, Modern and ancient lluvial
architecture in ehe Chinle Formation (Upper Teiassic), Colorado Platean: systems: International Association of Sedimentologisls Special Publication 6, p.
Sodurnentary Geology, v.30, p. 51-86. 345-354.
Bno,or. J. S., ose Lenenr, M. R., 1979, A simolatiou model of alluvial vtratigraphy: Sacien, M. J.. raso Wn.uaur, R. C., 1979, Vertical and laIeraI building of
Srdimenlolrgy, v.26, p. 617-644. river sandstone bodies, Ebro Basin, Spain: Journal of Ihr Geohcal Soctety,
Ca.rruru., C. V., 1976, Reservoir geometry of a fluvial sheet sandstone: American London, y. 136, p.SO-46.
Association of Peteoletan Geologists Bstllclin, v.60, p. 1889.1020. Gou.onas. W. E., 1981, Depesitional archilcctttre of Cenozoic gulf coastal plain
Cace, D. J., 1976, Braided stream sedimentation in the South Sashatchcwao Riere fluvial systems, is Etheidge F G and Floree, M. R., ode, Recoul and anctenl
anpablished Ph.D. thesis, McMtstrr Umvrexaly, Hamilton. noumarier depositional environments: models for exploration: Society of
Architecture of Ihe Weytwater Caayon Member, Sae Juan Bosin
Cowan
Pio, 15.-The sondiere erosional margin of the hollow labeled V at Kit
Cazxon's Cave Went profiln (sen Fig. 13). Thc dip of the banal margin und
overlying attitndn of Iithofnninn Si is 26. Thn staff wIth 10cm markings rest
anIlin basal snrface trace. Direction of view 260.
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogisls Special Pybllcatioo 31, p. 127-155.
Gmcoio, M. R., ave Rese, B. R., 1990, Ribbon sandstones ir the Pennsylvanian
Waddeos Cove Formatien, Sydney Basin, AllanUc Canada: the influence al
siliceous duricrusss on chaonel-biuf y geometry: Sedimentology, v.37, p.45-65.
Goon, P. D., 1991, Pining-upward cycles in the xandy braided.nver deposits of the
Westwater Canyon Member (Upper Jurassic), Moretson Formation, New
Meuico: Sedimentary Geology, v.70, p. 61-82.
Gsussro, H. C., ace Semen, E. S., 1986, Geology andare depassls of the Section 23
mine, Ambrosia Lake District, New Mysico, ix Turner-Peterson, C. E., Saulos,
E. s., nid Fishman, N. S., eds, A basin analysis case study: Morrison Formatian
Grants Uranium Region New Mexico, American Assaciatiou of Petroleum
Grologisls Studies in Geology 22, p. 185-210.
H.scsuas, R. J., eye Gotee, A. B., 1977, Geology, structure and araaium deposits of
the 1s2 quadrangle, New Mexico and Arizena, U.S. Geological Sarvey
Miscellaurons Investigations Series I-981, scale t:250,tMi.
Haaw.rs, P. L, 1986, Regional diagenetic trends and uranium mmrraliaation m the
Morrison Formatiou across the Grants Uranium Region, ix Tamer-Peterson, C.
E., SanIes, E. S., and F'tshman, N. S., ails, A basin analysis case study: The
Mornsou Formation Grants Uranium Region New Mexico, Amrncaa
Association at Petroleum Gaolegisls Studies in Geology 22, p. 277-301.
H.ssaiuosr, R. 5., 1983, Fluvial bars reconstructed tram a deep, straight channel,
Upper Carboniferous canIf mId of northeast Fxglaud: Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, v.33, p. 1233-1247.
Hoross, J. C., 1985, Channel-lull deposits formed by iggradation in deeply scoured,
superimposed distribatarios of the Lower Koalenai Formatiox (Crctaceous):
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v.55, p. 42-52.
Ka.scs, M. J., ose Msecsresv, L. T., 1987, Contrasting architecture of Iwo allavial
saltes in differeut structural settings, io Ethridge, F. G.. Flores, R. M., and
Harvey, M. D, cdx, Recrut devrlapmrnts in flosial sedimeutology: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Miucralogists Special l'oblicatiou 39, p.253.262.
L.swxnvee, D. A., sse Wvciaan, B. P. 3., 1987, Evolution of drainage syslems in
eespance ta Acadian delormatirn: The Devenian Baltery Point Formation,
eastern Canada, ix Elhaidgr, F. G., Flores, R. M., and Harvny, M. D, eds,
Receul developmeals in flavial sodimeulology: Society al Ecouomic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Psthlication 39, p. 263-300.
Lanem, M R 1978, A quantitative stratigraphie medal of alluvium with special
reference to channel deposit deadly and intrecoouectedness, ix Mialt, A. D.,
ed., Fluvial sadimeulelagy: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir
3, p. 587-596.
_,1982, Sedimentology: London, Gvoege Allen and Uuwin, 343 p.
Monza, M., Nmaus. W., ran Potsnnranoaoas, C., 1988, Aochitrcture of the Caslisseal
fluvial sheel sandstones, Eocooe South Pyrenees, Spain: Sedimentology, y. 35,
p. 719-738.
Mesmos, L. D., 1972, Anatomy of disseibatary channel-fill deposils in Recanl mud
deltas (Abstracl): Aservican Association of Petroleum Geolegists Bolletiu, e.
36, p. 639.
M,aia, A. D., 1978, Lithofacies and cervical profde models in braided river deposits:
a summary, ix Miall, A. D., ed., Fluvial szdimeotology. Canadian Society of
Petreleum Geologists Memoirs, p. 597.604.
1985 Architectural-Elemeul Awalysis: a new method of facies analysis
applied ta fluvial depusits: Earth Sctienca Reviews, v.22, p.261.308.
1988a, Arehilectural elements and baunding snefaces in fanal deposite
Anatomy of the Kayruta Formation (Lower Jurassic), sauthwesl Colorada:
Sedimentary Geology, v.55, p.253-262.
19886, Reservoir heleragnonities in Saved sandslanes: lessons teem
aaterop studies: American Association of Petroleum Gaolagists Ballotin, e. 72,
p. 682-697.
19886, Facies architecture in elastic sedimentary basins, ix Klrinspeho,
K. L, and Paola, C., cdx, New Perspectives in basin analysis: New York,
Springer-Verlag, p. 67-81.
rase Tcusrn-Pmonsaiq C. E., 1989, Variations in fluvial style in the
Westecater Canyon Member, Morrison Formation (Jurassic), San Juan Basin,
Colorada Platease Sedimentary Geology, v.63, p. 21-60.
Meure, M. P., 1976, An esperimenlal study ol channel confluences: Journal of
Geology, v.84, p.535-362.
sss Sanvsssi, S. A., 1976, Stream junctions - a probably locations far
bedrock placers: Economic Geology, e. 72, p. 691-697.
Marrar, G. D., sen Facen, P. D., 1983, Deep channel sedimeutation in the Lower
Cretaceous McMurray Formation, Alkabasca Oil Sands, Alberta:
Sedimental ogy, v.30, p. 493-309.
Na.as, M., awe Lronrn, M. R., 1978, Changing chanarl marpbotogy and magnitude in
the Scalby Formation (M. Jurassic) of Yorkshire, Fegfand, io filiali, A. D., ed.,
Fluvial codirurutology: Caoadiaa Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 3, p.
431-440.
Osare, H, 1989, Sandstone-body structures and ephemeral stream processes in the
Dinosuar Canyon Member, Monnaya Formation (Lower Jurassic), Utah,
U.S.A.: Sedimentary Geology, v.61, p.2O7-22l.
91
 Kd o E
Hill Top Road
D" (top of sandstone sheet)
4,

235 055

D'-

30m

o
ISo. 16.Hill Top Road peofile (location on Fig. 4). Stratigraphie position
shown on Fig. 6. Azimuth data same scheme as Fig.?.

Cowan Architecture of the Weutwater Canyon Member, Sao Juan Basin 92


loo
E io croIent Archer Conoty, Trees: Palavogeography, Palaeodlimatology.
10 -:
«-w
-H? OrHcec.,.m,,o
C,'--
O loo 1000 10000 100000 1000000
sandstone body width (m)
F?o. 17.-Log/log plot of poblished width thicknoro dimcneiono of
,end,tone bother, with ronges indicoted by the bort. Pcoblished dote which
did not .ndieote ronge, ore not plotted with born. Sonetee no follow,: lend 2,
Abrohomkreel Fm., Steer (1980); 3-6, Chink Fm., Bt.kry ond Gnbitoeo
(1984), width ronger of 4 ond 6 colimoted otonming widtb:thiekneno rollo of
15:1; 7 ond 8, Coxtiexent Fm., Morne end other, (1988); 9, Middle Siwnlik.
Bebrentmeyrr end Tenxe (1982); 10 end 11, Seolby Fm., Nomi end Lender
(1978); 12. Ft Frevel Fm., Lewrcnce end Williome (1987); 13- 16, Oligoceno
end Mioceno of Ebro Botin, Friend ond otbere (1979); 17- 19, Brownetonen.
Tenbridge (1981); 21) end 21, SeIt Wert, Member, Morrixon Fm.. Pecoreen
(1984), width ronger of 22 entimntcd oeo,uning width thickrex eolio of 15:1;
22 - 24, Willwood Fm., Krone end Middleton (1987); 25. George Well Axle,
Oebville Fm., Gollowoy (1981); 26 ond 28, Archer City end Noeono Fm,.,
Sender (1989); 29, Beoni Ort Fm., Tncner end Whotely (1983); 30. MeMnrooy
Fm., Moseop end Fled, (1983); 31,32 end 33, beet, timple end mnitietorcy
,andbodir respectively. Dinosonc Conyon Mbr, Moeneve Fm.. Oben
(1989); 34,35 end 36. .looiltet, Hnnehip.nsp. end Qnebrndn dei Coro Pmo.,
Beer end Jorden (1989); 37, Lower Kootenoi Fm.. Hopkino (1985); 38,
Woddrnu Cove Fm., Gibling end Knot (1990); W, ehennel ty,toen
dimenenons of the Weetwotee Cenyon Member n, green by Contpbell (1976);
w, entimnted thret nend,tone body dineennione of the Weutwotee Cenyon
Member os prexented heroin. ,ninimnm width only, mexitnum not known.
Cowan
Foot.,. C.,Wnso, S. W., ace Roeooae, M. A., 1989, Upper-regime parallel lamination
os the result of eobolenl transport and low-amplitude bedforms:
Sedimentology, v.36, p.47.59.
Peseenos, F., 1984, Fluvial sodimeetataon on a qaivering ceaton: Influence of slight
crucial movements on fluvial processes, Upper Jurosuic Morrison Formation,
westens Colorado Plateas: Sedimentary Geology, v.38, p. 21-50.
Soseen, P. M., 1989, Early Premian depouili000l envieorameotc and pond boerbvds
Folaeoeoology, v.69, p. 1-21.
Savevs, E. S., ase Tcnuoe.Peeeenov, C. E., 1986, Tectonic scttieg of the San Juan
Bosio in Ilse Jurassic, in Turner-Peterson, C. E., Saetar, E. S., and Fisirman, N.
S., odo, A basin aoelysis case srndy: Morrison Formation Grants Uranrum
Regton New Mexico, American Asuociatioe of Petroleum Geologists Studies is
Geology 22, p.27.33.
Saaeeonon, H. C., oso Loosrre, F. P. J., 1903, Flnme experiments on bedlorms nod
strnclnees al the Iluso-plane bed traooitioo, ix Collinsoe, J. D., nod Loein, J.,
edt, Modeso nod aocienl fluvial systems: teternatiosol Associatioe of
Srdimentologists Special Publication 6, p. 49-58.
Seseo, W. M., 1980, Channel saodstone and bar morphology of the Braufo,i Group
uraoinm diuthel near Branfort West: Traosactiont of the Geological Socivty of
Sonth Africa, v.83, p.391.398.
Tcvn000e, I. P., 1981, Old Red Sandstone Sedimentation - Ax enampir from the
Browoutones (highest Lower Old Real Saodstone) of Sonth Control Woles:
Geological Jonro,nl, y. 16, p. 111-124.
Torree, B. R., see Wo.sve.rv, M. K. O., 1983, Slrnctueot nod trdimrntation controle
of coal deposstion in the Noogoma graben, oorthem Zslulaott, Sooth Africa, in
Colinuon, J. D., nod Lewia, J., edn, Modem and ancienl fluvial systems,
International Association of Sodimentologiuts Special Pnbtication 6, p. 457-471.
Tcevoo-Feevnxos, C. E., 1985, Lacosleine-bomate model for primacy araoiam ore
deposits, Graste uranium region, New Mexico: American Association of
Petrolrnm Geologists BolIche, v.69, p. 1999.2020.
1986, Ftnvial srdimrntology of a major uranium-beariog sandstone - a
tardy of the Weslwaler Canyon Member of the Morrison Formation, San Juan
Banjo, New Mexico, io Tnrner.Petreson, C. E., Santos, E. S., and Fsshman, N.
S., edn, A benin analysis case study: Morrison Formation Grants Uranium
Fot. 18.-The bogo-tente nrehiteetnr.1 model of the Wentwoter Conyon
Reglen New Mexico: American Association of Petroleum Gvologiuts Studies in
Member finviel tynteen. The block diogrom lilnulonten wening.ntoge flow,
seen looking toword the nonthweet end the Lote Jnrnimr megmetie ore. The Geology 22, p. 47.75.
ase Faenc,a, N. S., 1986, Geologic synthesis and genetic mcolrls leo
sendotone nolte prodnced between eech ovnleive event of the ehennel belt
ore opprooixnotely 5 m thick, end ore bonnded by ieteroily-entcnnivr fifth- uranium mineralization in the Morrison Formation, Grants uranium eegioo,
New Mexico, in Tnrnrr-Peterson, C. E., Santon, E. S., and Fsuhman, N. S., edn,
order bonnding enefecen. The width of the nondutone theett in mont likely o I
bco. The nendntone bedim con be either single 0e composite chenneibeit A Basin Aaalysiu Care Study: Monoton Formation Grants Uranium Region
New Mexico: American Auuoeiatioo of Petroleum Geologists Studies in
tandutonen, depending on these verticel ttecking. en ,hown by the eoennpieu
of ,endttone thretn A to E. The terge hollow, (tnbelled HO) within the Geology 22, p. 357-388.
tandutone sheets ore interpreted on ehannnl-conflnence scone, prodneed ans 1988 Oeigie nod disoibstion of albite, illite/smeclito, and
downutrmom of emergent ehonnel tond boos, which in tern prodnee low- chlorile in Jurassic Lake Toodichi': coeseqseoce of early diagceesis ir salioe.
amplitode tetero) occrotion (LA) end downstream accretion (DA) deposite. alkaline lake: Geological Sociely of America Abstracts with Prognato, s. 20, p.
A51-52.
Architecture of the Westwater Canyon Member, Sac J510 Basis 93
 TABLE 1. Lithofnoies cedes for fluvial environments (modified feom Miall, 1978) TABLE 2. Classification of bounding surfaces,
VARIATIONS IN FLUVIAL STYLE AS REVEALED BY
ARCI-IITECT'URAL ELEMENTS, KAYENTA FORMATION,
Code Lithofacies Sodimentary Interpretation 'rero'tl? nrdert
MESA CREEK, COLORADO, USA: EVIDENCE FOR BOTH Stenacftares
EPHEMERAL AND PERENNIAL FLUVIAL PROCESSES Individual foerset laminae or horizontal lamtinne. Estent' tOn1Otm.

Forst ordnen
Dm massive or konizontal bedding longefodinal A art (McKre and Wirr, 1953) boundary; usually erosional fo some degree, bat not
MICHAEL H. BROMLEY crudely bedded imbrication bans, lag
Drpat'tretrtnt of Gralogy orossouttang the previoms set; separating situilae lithofaoies. Interpreted as the result
geavel deposits, of relatavely orderly migration uf bedforms nador conditions of steady flew. Lutent:
finicceaity of Toronna,
sirve deposits lüt,lOam.
Toronto Cavada MSS 3B1
St sand, medenm teoagh ceoss-beds solitary or grouped second ordne:
Amcnncv A,cbttootanat atad,,s the Kayente Fotnntat,on (La,tee Jaanaatt) at the Cototo Ptateaa
so very ooa.sn, dunes (lawee A tatort (McKee and Wirr, 1953) bounding surface; asnally erosiomal, separating
,teeal the chanactetnSho of tato typo of aaodntooe Why, that ceflea both ephornenat and peeceniet maybe pebbly flow regime) oosots of dissemilar litholucies. Interpreted as reseelting from a change in flow
SottO ptnaco.a The fiant typ, in ntetpn,ed of high-nega, honiaoetatty-tataieaod antone, fonatng
mothpte-coeot atatys ap to t thick. depmitnd by lath 5Ocd The antond type a tomp000 of planar conditions, e.g., from soasoual discharge variations. Estoof' 1f 10mw
Sp Sand, meditata solitary ne gronped liaguoid, trans-
tee,a-beda, defonn,,d patatnhio cno,a,beda and naanioe aaadstoae toveed ande. lorn.nepnte float from fo very coarse, planar cross-beds verte bars, third orslwrt
pn,eoaat tice. dttniag Stgb etage
may be pebbly sand waves Manor erosional scours, which cress col tots and covets; Interpreted as reactivation
The anyte et depmtetoa a depeadeec Opon the degree Of teotnene,a mtthtn the bonndaees of the
(lower flow sarfaces, such an those created by the formation of chmbe ohaunels or levo.
channel system ta qtteatton When tOtttee,nent nsa dOrniaant. aeilim.ntary lilt Often eefleOa the
regime) orrvansns. Extent: ltl0lOtm.
geoa,eoy of the ,oetntateg channel. Pateoest,cet diafitbaho, nettetta the deptaitieg float teadttion, in
tonfoed bedient Hooaonfatty.tatninetota natta thom at,Oegty nntn.tet.t cannvnth nheneaa the
Sb sand, very tine to horizontal lamination, planae.bed flow f ogni, orden
hetenolithie atiand netta ehem a stee Oefen
very ooaesn, parting or sfeeaming (lowee and The ontyeomen tinily non-erosional bounding surface; therefore ente in omtcrop.
When finn. n,m oate,tftned (danng fltgh tage. mhe,t tsef,nege mese tattndatnd). the tatathog may be pebbly lineation appen flow Inferpreted as the preservation, perhaps through very rapid burial, of an nppee
aaponila ate hOed asceta tatcetingeniag sotS ttttdertyiag cottI med aandbodt,s, A none of mtenatganttea
regeme) surface of a major sedimentary feasare, such asan in-ehauuef sand bar. Eqnaivulrnt
dtipteya ahanp thaagen io pateoflmm den,ntou mithin e. arne afnttgnephto Saumon. n.nsttiag fnm the
sintttannom echo. nl confined etat nacanfiaed depcsihan.t p,vrnsaes. The ieteedtgoaetnn encorde the to a formtet (McKee and Wein, 1953). Extent: liS'm,
SI sand, roe low-angle (o 10') scone tills,
etnenentat ehsndonmnat of channel,, as tange teco,tftnnd banfne,no ea000ached on then. daning ttgh
stage
cross-beds ceevasne splay., filth ordrr
antidones The basal erosional surIner of any major channel sysfrm, often immediately
Dtach.age oan,,bettty in nte,,nd Item lithntaciea cornpoaihne. Oseaste hut perenetat dtsohange
entorne e nade tange of ttthOtsttat. ntttdtng clay dtapea naantheg f overheat by substantial lag gravels. Geometay oflon mirrored by overlying, oested,
eoetnarn. atamiah nom elaahy Sm' sand, l'me to massive bedding, flood events,
dtacharge floss 0,5 fmo tithof,ctea typco tetan nepeeseanng ton.argtnte maatng and caning 00m sad third-order surface., separating progressively smaller channel lilla, An aid in
conner, intractasts flame structures debris flaws recognition may hr sharp rhaoges in paletwureent trend across the surface.
thorn repreneattng hegh.negnne peak fien.. Clay drapes ano atnent.
Interpreted as the deepest extent of ermita ta tacar dn.ing the formation of a
Spa' sand, foe to coarse, ovorfmened parabolic bed shear on matme assemblage of related architectural elements, the classic ensample being
INTRODUCTION
may be muddy cross-beds with minor satueated latcral-acoeetiou drposits. tossent: 1Sal5am.
or pebbly massive intercalations sand
They paper eepeets oman. oagoeag ssady of fluvial fades neohitectaeno im tian flavial
Kayonta Fonaaataon of then Colorado Plateaa. The aspect dealt with herem in tiar igel, ordnet
geometries of two ooateastimg types of sandstone body, in omtcrop atar Ueavan, Peo. fl.Lonmtiom nf sitady gram. Laterally-extrusive erosional suelanes which may merely be coalesced fil th-oedrr
additional lithofacies defmed by author satofaces, bas traceable ovee large distances. Interpreted as separating major
Coloeadn (Ftg. 1). The style of dopositiom, whether from perennial or nphemeeal
nteeama, sa mfeeeed feom thou geometry and lithofaoies composition. Uait geometny acooss es gamed by walking, free climbing oe aid climbing. The deteentination of member-scale emits within n sedimentasy system, sack as rollan and fluvial
Dne disudvonttage nl this method of analysis lies indie Smitations imposed by the members within n single formation. Lutent: iSa-iSSu.
was resolved asing aeohiteotmrnl-elnment analysis, as peoposnd by Allem (1983) and bonnding-snrfaoe oedee generally follows the law of cross-cutting relationships perspectnve of din camera. Thy ideal onlorop for photography is a vertical fao. with
MiaU (5985, l988u, b, o), with modilinatioms drveloped by Ihn amthoe. (Tablr 2). The lalfee stop torves to divido the aatoeop tiste goortically related Stile depth-ol-lield variability, with the photograph taken straight on to the
packages or aeohafeotnral elements (Table 3) deposited abovn basal erosional strategruphic middle of the fane. This is rarely accomplished in practico, and the
ARCHITECTfJRAL-ELEMENT ANALYSIS sarfaces, Having divided the otatceop into distinof otoments, one muy dina catey dio result es dissartaon ef perspective aruund peomontertes and reenteunts in die cliff
study info as wach detail as desired. face, Thes 's refleoted in the resultant line drawing (seo W'ezosick, this volomo). An KAYENTA FORMATION
Aecbatectmeal-elemenf analysis involves Ihr oonstraofion of oatoenp photomosaios The largest advantage of the geaceal method, in this aathoe's esperionce, is the esample of dios n the third-o.nier surface beneath element 4D-DA to the left of din
(e.g., F'eg. 2), wfuoh steve as ceeteoal maps of the omtorop laces under seedy. By abstruofioa of the outcrop groeetefry feom the total of the information persons. This bot destgmataag etrmoat 4C-CH in Pigmee 2. Careful on-site enamimation of this The Kayvuta Formation is port of the Lower Jneussic Glen Canyon Group,
stattooeng an assestant at some distano. from din omforop, peetinemt iefoemntiou stnp then permats the strategic focnsing on the acoltitectaneal elemento so derived, surface shows it to be noarly flat at this lonation. From the photograph, it can be consisting mf the Wm.gase Sandstone, Kayenta Formation and Navajo Sandstanr, a
snob as lithofacies composition (Miall, 1978, Table 1), paleofloso data and while not being distracted by adjaoont (and oheonologioolly sopaeatn) strata. The eren that there is a dry wash descending over the outcrop fato at this location, with system deposited predominantly by volian pronosocs, bracketing the Kayemta fluvial
boundnng-snrface onentahon can be recoedod 0m a mylar ovoelay while the mosaao and oveelay torve as both field motes and map and give one an instant about 3w of rrenfrant rebel. interval. Outing to the pancity of fossil evidence, rooks of the Glen Canyon Group
geologist weeks the oatoeep faon. Data are eelayrd by two-way radio. Outcrop erfeeenoo to spatial relationshIps among strata, regardless of scale. have beco assigned ages ranging from upper Triassio (Gregory, 1917; Hnrshburger
Ccoitoaodcopago9ti
Bromley Vanillines in fluvial style, Kayenta Formation, Colorado 94
 I
58-CH AREA 'B'

J
4B.CII I

BOUNDING SURFACES
SCOUR TRENDS atE000l
lstADndordcr
TALUS AND EXCLUDED OUTCROP OUTCROP FACE TREND PAL EO F LO W
tPALEOFLOW NORTH BOURSINS SURFACE DIP
10M Cdorder _- 5tflorder

FIA. 2.Pbotomosthc of study outcrop. Paleoflow readiugs are epresented

by arrows, the reading located at the point of the arrow Outcrop is oe,ontod
at roughly 155, that of the major parallel joast systems m the area. Units of
interest are of the LS and DA type, see Table 3 For element codes. Areas of
foeas mentioned as the test are lettered.

Bromley Variations in fluvial style, Kayenta Formation, Colorado 95

 .....s.........,u..........

SCOUR TRENDS BOUNDING SURFACES

PALEOFLOW NORTH OUTCROP FACE TREND PAL EO F LOW ISt&2fldordor - 4thordOr
155° BOUNDING SURFACE DIP 3rd order 5th order

Bromley Variations in flUviUl style, Kayenta FormUtion, Colorado 96

 ROUNDING SURFACES .- SCOUR TRENDS
stS2pdorde, - 411100er PALEOF LO W
BOUNDING SURFACE DIP

Bromley Variations in fluvial style, Kayenta Formation, Colorado 97

TABLE 3.Liihofaeses 000icut of avchijecoteal elements (Modified from MiaU, 1985). the Navajo Sandstone (Bromley, unpub. data). Conglomeratic stoats are
predominantly composed cl reworked mudstone fragments, with a minor lithic
component, which form lags at the base el channel bodies.
The outcrop sludied is part of a larger system al well-euposod outcrops located in
Element Symbol Lithofacios Geometry and the Dolores River canyon erar Uravan, Colorado (Fig. 1). Structural dip is
Assemblage relationships negligible less thaw 2" at the study outcrop. The local structural grain is expressed
in a system of parallel joints with a strike of 155-160 ,parallel to the Satt Auticline
trend of southwestern Colorado (Landis aud others, 1961; Catee, 1970). This trend
Channels CH any combination finger, lens or sheol; is espressed m the study outcrop, which wastes parallel to the joinl trend, yielding
concave.np erosional large, lInt vertical laces in some places (Fig. 2). This has yreldrd a near-longitudinal
baso; scale and shape section of a cross-bedded randbody in the outcrop whose mean paleollow azimuth
variable; nested or is about 331' (element 4D-DA, Fig. 2). The outcrop ix typical of Kayrnta outcrops
overlapping concave-up in the region, usually a system of stacked benches (Fig. 2). lt is located
secondary erosion surfaces stratigraphically in the upper two-thirds of the formation, and can be found in the
Dolares Canyon 1 km north of milepost 83 ors Colorado highway 141, on the west
walt of the canyon (Fig. t).
Downstream DA St, Sp, Sh, SI, Sr, So, Ss Ions resting on
tInt or channeled base with ELEMENT GEOMETRY
downstream.dipping set and
cosol bounding surfaces Aechiteciural elements are sumbered in Figure 2 according to their apparent
fenrtie relationships, bused on paleorurrent and bounding-surface characteristics.
Laloral LA SI, Sp, Sh, SI, Sr, wedge, shect,lobe; with The numeral indicates an element us part of the same package, the blowing letter
accretion Sn, Su, 0m, Gr, Gp internat bounding indicates chronological redor (i.e. 4B is older than 4C, but is interpreted as being
surfaces dipping cross- part cl the same geneval depositionat complen). The two-letter cede following the
hyphen is the architectural-element type (Table 3).
Paleceurerni and bounding-surface dips arr ee by arrows ou the line
Laminated LS Sh, Sl, minor St, shoot, blanket drawing (Fig. 2), the reading is at the arrow point. The arrows are oriented with
sand shoots Sp, Sr north at the top. Paleocurrents are also represented in summary roso diagrams,
The Kayenta Formation indie Dolores Canyon is composed of interbedded shoot
and ehauuel saudbodirs displaying various till geometries. Two common types of
sandstone body are the torta of this paper. The fient type comprises ostensive
horizontally-laminated sandslowe sheets composed of fina- lo mrdium-grained saud
(units lA-LS, 2-LS, 2A-LS and 3-LS, Fig. 2). The second in composrd of
and others, 1957; Lewis and others, 1961) to Lower Jurassic (Pelerson and sedimentary structures that display various degrres of penecantemporaneous
Pipiaingor, 1979; Lulled, 1987). Tentative correlations of Glen Canyon strata with deformation (unit 4D-DA, Fig. 2). Pulerounrenl trends in both types al unir are
those of the Lower Jurassic Newark Suprrgronp (Eastern USA, Maritime Canada) strongly unimodal, caeyrng only a few degrees from the unit mean (Fig. 2).
have boon made (Poterson and Pipieingos, 1979). This avsigirs the Kaycuta The basal eoutaels of horizontally-laminated sands are bruadly coneaee-np
Formation to part al the Sinemuaian to Toareiun stages of the lower Jurassic erosional surfaces. The cross-bedded units appear to drape over underlying features
system. with titile eresionat relief. Where basal reliel occurs, il appears Io have bren filled,
The Kayenta Formation was deposited by ephemeral streams (Middleton and but not scoured, during the s'rvcrs-atiep dcpesitionat eveut (Fig. 2).
Blahey, 1983; Miall, 1988a) and perennial rivers with highly variable discharge
(Lutteell, 1987, 1989). The rivers flowed southwestward across an arid plain from Hoeszonially-laserinatrd Sasatbodiea
the ancestral Rouky Mountains, whose remnants comprise the prescnt
Uncompahgee and Gunnison Uplifts. The horizontally-laminated units comprise thick bundles of horizontal Io gently
The thickness of the Kayenta Formation ranges from an erosional edge in undulatory laminar displaying purring linration (lithofacies Sir, MiaU, 1978, Table
southwestern Colorado to more than 170 w in southwestern Utah (Harshbaeger t). Foersot structures, larmed indie tee al bed irregularities, allow an azimuth tobe
and others, 1957; Cater, 1970; Middleton and Blakey, 1983; Lutloell, 1987). The inferred for the otherwise ambiguous parting lineasons (Fig. 3). The lower beds cf
westward thickening is accompanied by n decreasr in gruin sizo and an increase in these units (m the lowermost parts of their concave-up geometry) arr commonly
stream sinnosity (Lntteell, 1987). Irr the study ares the formation averages 55 m in composed al medium- te large-scale lecugh cross-bedding and lenses of
thickness and is composed of lavender to red, very (me- to medium-grained, mrrafarmational eonglcmeeair (lithofacics Stand Gm, Table 1; elements 2A-LS and
lithaeeuitie und arkosic sandstone (Lulled, 19g7; Beomley, unpub. data, 1990; 3-LS, Fig. 2) The upper contact is usually cut by later channel ccmpleues.
clasaafication of Folk, 1980). Silly and muddy strata occur in rare tenses in the main ¡strierai groeseity. The horizontally-laminated uuilx are internally simple.
body of the lormauon and as discontinuous lacustnine strata immediately beneath Lamrnae are orgunizod into bundles leom 0.1 to mare than 5 w deck separated by
Bromley VarialiOes is fluvial style, Kayenta Formaliots, Colorado
low-angle discordancies. The latter typically bleud laterally into continuous laminae
(Fig. 4). The laegescate geometry commonly reflects the geometry of the
containing channel, which is usually wide relative to its depth, with geetty-dipping
margins. Progressively smaller nested channel-fills are separated by third-order
reacuvaoon sudares (e.g., element 2-LS containing 2A-LS; Fig. 2). Io other units
there appear labe lewer reactivation surfaces wilhirs the main body of horizontally-
laminated sand, although the nosled geometry is still eellected somewhal (i.e.
element 3-LS, Fig. 2).
Paleccsv-esaa. Palroenreent character in hoeizontally.taminated units is strongly
unimedat, paralleling the trend of the containing master channel (oirike direction of
fifth-order surface) Elemeul 2-LS (FIg. 2) illustrates this character well.
Craoo-hrdded Sasailhadiza
Three litholaeies types predominate in cross-bedded sandstone units.
Lilhefacira Sp (Miall, 1978); Planar to tangential cross-bed sets varying in
Ihreknesa from 10 ro 40 cm with local thickening le more than 15 in over
depresoons is thr basal bounding surface cf the unit (Fig. 2). In seme areas thr
courts are soon to climb slighily over bed undatations (Fig. 5).
Laalosjacieo Spa; Sets coesisiing cl eccumbenily folded deformed cross-bedding
(Allen and Bunks, 1972). The folded freesetu are usually similar parabolic folds
with their acial plane parallel to thr sel bounding-surface (Fig. S). The chaeacter of
the delormed sets enries downstream, ccntairing a continuum cl Iren from
distinctly preserved, folded lamiune ta complete disruption ol the appea limb cf the
fold (Fig. 7).
Litho) acier Ser; Massively bedded sand. Beds are usually 10 to 20 cm thick, but
can exceed 1 m, and are composed of (mr to medium saud showing no upparent
grading. Tabular mad intraclasts are common, eawdomly snapended in the
framework. Sots occur either as distinct units with sharp lower and upper contacts
or gvudationally downstream from Spe sets (Fig. 8).
The cross-bedding displays a spectrum of deformation, the most common being
reoumbent paeubelic bIded forrselu (Allen and Banhu, 1972), which undergo
progressively greater disruption in a dOwnslream direction, sometimes completely
desirrying all formel laminar. This is a common leature of many fluvial sands
(Allen, 1984; Dan and Doll, 1980). Various mechauisms loe the formation rl
deformed cross-beds have been proposed (McKee and albers, 1%2a, b; Allen and
Banks, 1972; Dan and Doll, 1980; Owen, 1987). The common faclor in all of the
deformation mechanisms proposed is the liquifaction of unconsolidated sand
combined with some form of tangential shear stress, be il gravitational, current-
induced, or both.
laici-saI gcoaereery. The cross-bedded units are fairly common in the upper two-
thirds of the Kayenta Formation in the Dolores Canyon region. Units of this type
hace characteristics observable at several locations in the study area. Their essential
attributes are broad, tabular, aud internally condatewl trains of planar crass-beds
doposited on bounding surfaces that dip down-palcocurreet at an angle of 8-10
Some bounding surfaces appear to preserve the original form oldie large bedform
cero which the sand waves migruted (urea 'A', Fig. 2). These surfaces would be the
formscls of McKce and Weir (1953), or foneth-reder type of Miall (1988a, b, e;
Table 2). The lower bounding surface is nearly always subplanar, displaying little
evidence of erosion ob the underlying element(s). Cross-bed sels can be observed
draped over and thickening across low depressions indie lower bounding surface of
Element 4D-DA (arm 'B', Fig. 2). The units are commonly very eslensive, and
always occupy the upper parI of a larger architectueal-element association. The
association consists of multiple, mutually cross-carting CH-elemeuts (see latee
ducuuaaon( ut the lower portion, with the cross-bedded mdl formiag a sheet on tap
shosemg some evidence of cedeposstian with the underlying channels (Elements
numbered 4A to 4E, Fig. 2). The apper parts of the amts arr often cross cut by
small-ssalo chaunrl bodies, which may inteefinger midi Ike cross.brdding, strongly
suggesting simultaneous formation ob the two features (arca 'C', Fig. 2, enlavged in
P5g. 9).
Paleocu,restc. Paleocurrents in cross-bedded units are also strongly unimodal,
occepyrug a siegle 20 class m a current roso. Readings taken in widrly.spaced
lrcaeons uteng-rurreni and cross-current vnry by only a few degrees (Beomley,
unpub. data).
Chaansrl Sosaia (CH eleetesta)
The elements discussed previously are geometrically distinct from associated
sandstone bodies, displaymg peonounced concave-up basal eeosiow surfaces
(cIments 1-LA, 4A-CH, 4B-CH, 4C-CH, 4E-CH, SA-CH, SU-CH and 6-CH; Fig.
2). The channel margins ob CH elements usually have steeper dips than those al the
baso of LS elements (lles is not easily seen in Fig. 2). CH elements can also display
prominent nested-fill geometry (element 4B-CH, Fig. 2), which reflects thrir
progressive abandonment. More commonly, Sthofacies associations are helceolithic,
with many second- and third-order bounding surfaces (Table 2) and lenticular units
(e.g., elements 4A- and 4C-CH, Fig. 2). Grain-size distributions are usually
haphazard, ranging from pebbly to granular sands to silty and clayey lenses. All cf
the abcve featnecs would seem to indicate vinable flow conditions, If these
elements represent the drpesiis of a perennial river syslem, then the channels which
they ultimately (died were subject to all of the flow conditions possible in that
system, being the lowermost physiogeaphic elements in it during deposition. With
tuck vunabdily present, the deposits should contain variable sedimentary stmuettires
and gram-size distributions, us is the caso here.
In contrast to the above features, CH elements commonly have well-developed
basal conglomerate stenta displaying evidence of sseady flow, such us orderly cross-
bedding (e.g., lithofaries Gp nl the base of elements 4B. and 4C-CH, Fig. 2).
Pateceurrents show a wider spread, which reflects the variability in depositing
bedlorms (Fig. 2).
DIsCUSsION
Architecture
In contrast to the CH elements, the internal architecture of the horizontally-
laminated elements geeerally compciscs only two lithatarics types, one representing
high-regime plane bed and the other upper lowne-regrme dune or sand-wave
migration. Mud draper, an indicator of irmqull conditions, arc absent
Conglomnentic strata, whrn present, area poorly serled miuture ob mud mlraclasts,
pebbles and sand. The nested inleenat architectitre (whmn present) and Ilse large
thickness of individual bundles ob strata suggesl tormation by a series ob sudden
erosional/depostlionat oceels.
The nested architecture appears so be the result of a maltistage peiwess, which
muy have occurred in rphrwrral wadis. The idea rs as follows: Daring n large flood
event, the estire wadi system is subject sa rapid sedimens mflus asd deposition. As
the flood hailds, a short period cl duur migratioe occurs in the scudi floor, bebore
the main body of the lord. During peak flow, srdimentation switches to upper-
Co dos page 100
98 j
 Fra. 3.Foresels formed m lee of bed undulation m a horizontally- F,. 5.Climbing planar cross-beds. These have patchy oceurreucro
laminated mut. Current from right to left. Seule is 12m. throughout clement 4D-DA. Current left to right. Leus cap is 50 mm.

Fue. 7.Various examples of the cross-bed deformatioa conlinsons. Fur. 8.-Massive sandstone furies interbedded wills (lowermost set) and
Lowermost set is exarutially undefornird, whereas the topmost sot h.0 only gradational from (fourth set) deformed cross-bedding. Leus exp IsSO mm.
a few vestiges of foreset laminatiou remaining. tens cap is 50mm.

Fe. 4.Irregular surf ace m horizoulally-lansinated sand unit (sudor lens Fus. 6.Typical occurrence of parabolically-folded cross-beds. Sets
cap, dipping to the right), grading laterally into continuous laminae. Stich comprise a continuum from uormal planar cross-beds to totally disrupted
bounding surfaces are rare and discontinuous. Leus cap is 50mm. forms (see Fig. 7). Note how bounding surfaces dip dowucurrout. Leus cap
(in fold axis) is 50mw.

Bromley Variations in fluvial style, Kayenta Formation, Colorado 99

NØ__.._._..R. ....S..S. *SS*aS.S..ø..


4D-DA
Spo
regmse conditions, burying Iba iuitiut duna bed audre think deposits of Isorizonal
laminar, which often typify she deposits of floodwaters (McKee und others, 1967;
Tuobridge, 1981; Stear, 1985). As the flood wanes, these deposits are incised by the
waning stream or subsequent floods of rassulter magnitude (Fig. lob). During the
waning stage, dunes and sand waves occupy the new channel, resulting in trough
cross.bedding (Facies St).
fo basal trough cross-bedding in these units is similar in amir and diupasition to
the main channel deposits of dar Bijou Creek system (F. G. Etbeidgr, pees.
common., 1989), which resulted from moderato flashflood events thaI eernained
Bremley
NUSs
chute channel je figurg i lia
sm'
4E-CH
- a-
5
5 2-LS
Fm. 9.E.hirgcmc.t nf ootnrop fcn im tho mon of irrtnumtin frogman..
crnnn-bcddrd sor.dstu..e orni and rhrnnl body (lotalions bun on right-hand
Inorthi m.d of Fig. 2). Symbolo 05m Fig. 2. Noto ihn noddnr. clings in flow
directions m Ihn noon nf mterfmgnrierg, reprennoted by shaded nigeng time nt
left canter.
confined m the channel system. The familiar heeczons.sl lamiscar of the Bijou Creekvegetation. Avsdsien would divert the waning-flow stage and conceivably yield a migration rates of bedfoem and bar were the same, although proof of one
deposst (McKee and others, 1967) occur in overbunk arnas as the result of multiple 'terminal fill' of horizontal laminar. mrehamsm over the other required that the entire barform be preserved. The
large-runoff eveuf s. These beds are incised by the present channel. Should such a Elemeet 4D-DA resembles closely the down-climbing cross-stratified sets observed geometry in Banks' papee was attributed to unsteady flow conditions
system aggrade theougkt tune, the resulting deposit could consist of peripheral described by Banks (1973), who proposed mechanisms related to bedform which, in turn, influence the relative rate of migration of bcdforms of differing
'overbank horizontal lansinae iateebedded with axial trough cross-bedding (Fig migration rato us bring responsible for the geometry al the units. This geometry scales. Unsteady flow seems likely in this case, given the likelihood of wide
lOa). may have resulted from the downstream migration of megaeipplrs at a vate luster discharge fluctuations io the arid environment posedated for the Kayensa flucial
Peeservanon of the assemblages in this study may have resulted from upstream than that of the barform over which they migrated, hence preferentially preserving system.
avalasen during a large flood, au occurrence quite penible if ene postulates a the doscudliosbiag teatuee. Il was also thowrs that such deposits could form ander Aa import.ouf feature of element 4D-DA is that it terminates and intertingees
floedplam of poorly-consolidated sandy alluvium with sparse or nonexistent conditions of nel sodimeutation (i.e. sediment toad o stream capacity) if the with a CH element at its northern extremity. Palcoftow directions in the CH
Ccxvv.sed co page i02
Variations io fluvial stylo, Kayenta Formation, Colorado loo
 basal trough future erosional confined
position of future flow
erosion surface crossbedding surface
area of figure 9
position of future chute channel low-stage overbank
flow flow

A B

F,o. 1O.-Dopooitiorol modoh for olomohiu di000socd m trot: loft-bord
foco of block diogoom ir o porrprctivr viow of ootcrop limo drowiog o, Fig. 2,
with third dimoruioo irforrrd from moourrrd doto, o. Model for tho
rlomrot-4 ocoomblogo. Flow diroctioo, bocomr loto vorioblr with mcrrotod
dirckorgr; cr000-brddcd mid-chomwl rood sboct (rlrmoot 4D-DA) ocorotro
downotorom tody doriog high rtogr. ChiOc chomnolt b, bor top drvrlop ot
110go deopo. b. Modo! for Ihr olrmoot-2 ococmb!ogr. Moim chmo! ryrtom
(dopocitiog olomrot ZA-LS) formod from Ihr migootio. of d000 doomg
cmall floods. Ovrrbm.k ocooc coociol of forjo, Sb roflootiog corcovo-op
gromrtoy of modi roorgrn. Choorrl rvrofo.11y bocomr, bmiod, prrbop or
Ihr rosolt of opotorom ovultio. dimog flood.

Bromley Variations io fluvial style, Kuyenta Formution, Colorado 101

[

N_..S......
element (4E-Cil, Fig. 2) ore at roughly 60' to those of 4D-DA (Fig. 9). lndividoal
cross-bed sots with northwesterly palooflow diroctions interfsnger, in Ihr same
stratigraphie interval, with chamseIfilling coeds of lithofocies Sb and SI with
roughly due west paleoflows. This geometry suggests that 4E-Cil woe activo doring
deposition of 4D-DA. An 4D-DA encroached on 4E-Cil, its Ion was swept away
and included into tito laminated channel deposits (Fig. lob), eventually plugging the
channel. TIns su reflected by the aforementioned changes in pal000ow and
sodimentary-slouclure type (Fig. 9).
Element 4D-DA is both a transversely- and longitudinally-entonsive lobular nuit,
typical of dus type of oloment. It entends for al least 1.5 Ian in the downcorronl
direction (part of the longitudinal dimension in visible in Fig. 2). Element 4D-DA
can be traced across the Dolores Canyon lo an ontceop some 900 m southeast of
that in Fignrr 2, indicating a width of at least that of the canyon, about 200 m. This
mdicatos a osca channel system of al least equal width, and if the channel bedies
associated oath those bar units aro genetically related, it suggests a bankf nIl depth
of thin river (assnming coecal activity of the underlying channels somewhere in the
system) of al leant tOm.
Element 4E-Cil lu composed predominantly of litholacies Sb and St (Table t).
Bounding surfaces within the demonI dip generally downstream with little corianco
between boonding-snrface dip and parting lineation on the contained laminar,
forming broadly concave-np, nested tronghs (area 'D', Pig. 2). The laminated sand
deposits are interbeddod with minor channel deposits composed of inteaclast
breccia and coarse pebbly sand.
Thc broad, tabular geometry of element 4D-DA in comparison to its asnociated
channel sands (elements 4A, 4B, 4C and 4E), suggests formation in a perennial
stream during high discharge, when the braided(S) system was at banlcf nil depth, or
even overtopping its banks. The lack of a basal lag deposit and the way that
element 4D-DA appears to drape over pre-oninsing depressions withnut significant
erosion suggest that it migrated by increments us a large eassd theol. As the sheet
advanced, it heded everything il encountered in its path, he it an active or nearly
abandoned thalweg. Evidence for both can be seen in the outcrop (areas 'B' and
'C', Fin, 2).
The consistency of paleollow direction in element 40-DA occurs in planar cross'
strata (tithofacies Sp) which usually display greater vnriassce in patcoftow direction
(Allen, 1967; Miall, 1974). This may he a reflection of the scalr of the baeform that
contained the cross-bedding, perhaps a large transverso mid-channel sand wave or
island. The 'straight-through' nature of the deposit, sweeping over minor
perturbations in the loor, in strongly suggestive of deposition during high stage,
when the bar, emergent during normal discharge, was drowned by strongly
unidirectional bunhf nil flow (Fig lob). Because the Bow was 001 coulined within
the braided system, neither were the sediments so deposited. The resulting deposit
would be a broad shunt at least us wide us the bunkfull width of the depositing
stream.
The ocenerenee of deformed cross-bedding may have resulted from stage
fluctuations whore periodic subaerial esposare of the bar permitted laying out of
intergrannlar poren. Upon a renewed high stage, the sand shoot would then become
saturated once again, and as currents fmally overtopped the barlorm, turbulent
shear in ils lee may have caused failure of the downstream taco of the bar. The
downstream-directed disruption of each Sp set would suggest o progressive'
feedback mechanism of failure. As material from the upper barface is swept
downstream, the etfectcve shear stress would increase as more material is ontraiaed,
becoming a fall-fledged slump at the toe of the bar.
The horizontally.laminaled units show a similar consistoney of poleottow
Bromley
direction. Current mdicalors m hoeizontally-lamioated nuits closely reflect the trend
of theo vnclosmg channels, l'bis suggests deposition during bankfull Sow in a
manner similar to element 4D-DA, encopt lar the difleronces in flow regime
between the two elements. This contrasts with the greater paleocurrent variability
wsllun Cil elements. The miernal urchilecfoee suggests that they resulted from a
sonos of similar discharge events.
The absence of mud drapes suggests that t. ail such bottiers were removed by
erosion, or 2. that flew waned rapidly te zero, precluding a phase of suspension
deposition. The latter possibility is favored here, given the presence of mud drapes
w nearby Cil clements. This would snpporl ephemeral deposition as the process
responsible for LS elements in the Kayenta Formation.
Paleocnsrent Trepido
lt is clear from an rsamination of thin outcrop that there ore some striking
reversals In palecwurrent trend between adjacent architectural-element nmrmblagrs,
i.e. between Ihr 2-assemblage and the 4-assemblage, which shows a nearly 180'
reversal along a northwest-southeast trend. Other such wide variance between
elemenls occurs between 3-LS and the 4-assemblage, 40-DA and 6-CH, and
between l-LA und 3-LS. This characteristic cae be seen in other outcrops in the
Dolores Canyon region.
The 4-assemblage represontu deposits of u fairly large river syslom, as discussed
above. Other occurrences ot northwest- or southeasl-trending architectural
complenes appear to have similar scale, as though there was an enternal factor
drtermsmng the trend of largeriver uses in the region. The trends maybe the result
of basinal lilt imposed by the growth of elongate diapiric structures with the same
trend in underlying Parados Basin evuporites (Bromley, unpub. dota; Tyler and
Elhridge, t983a, b).
There is little question that syndepositional salt movement affected the ultimato
geometry of earlier Mrsoeoic formations in the Parados region (Doelling nod
others, 1988). Aneas were displaced sulficiently lo produce pronounced
unconloemities within the upper Triassic Chinle Formation. Such vertical
displacement would almost certainly affect drainage in Ihr vicinity of the
dsslurbance. 1w the case of this study, periodic interruptions of regional
southwesterly paleoflow by anticline growth deflected drainage into paeallelism
with the growing salt structure, in this ease the Pnradoe Valley salt unticline (Fin,
t).
The large preserved thichness of some nlrments may have been dur to
subsidence of the Nuda syncline (Fig. 1) ss salt migrated laterally into the adjacent
anticlinal smell.
aCKNOwLeDGeMENTs
The author thanks AD. MiaU, M. Giblieg and A. Ramos for their critical reading
of the manuscript; many helpful comments w ere recesved as well as direction lo
some crucial references. S. Tribe provided able field ussistance, euduring geais und
high temperatures admirably. Funding lordes paper and the larger effort of which
lissa part has come from both Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada and American Chemical Society grants ander Min's supervision.
Vurialions io fluvial stylo, Kayeoto Foroaalioo, Colorado
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Laxen, ER., Suonsiannu, EM. sun Es.sson, D.P., 1961, Early and late growth of the
Gypsum Valley Salt Anticlinr, San Miguel County, Colorado: U. S. Geological
Survey Professional Papee 424-C, p.C-131-C-136.
Lean, G.E., tunes, J.H. axe Wn.son, R.F, 1961, Age of the Glen Canyon Group
(Triassic and Jurassic) ou the Colorado Plateau: Geological Society of America
Bulletin, e. 72, p. 1437-1440.
Los'snes.s, P.R., 1987, Basin analysis of the Kayreta Formation (Lower Jurassic),
cenlesl portion Colorado Platean: Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Northern Arizona
Unisrrsity, Flagstaff, Arizona, U.S.A.
1909, Basinwide sedimentation and archilectural features on an evolving
ancient fleer system: Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic), central portion,
Colorado PlaIras: 4th International Coofemnee on Fluvial Sedinsentology,
Baecrlossa, Spain, Getobee 1909, Program with Abstracts, p. 170.
McKce, ED., Comic, EJ. zoo Brunsssno HL., 1967, Flood deposils, Bijou Creek,
Colorado, Juno 1965: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v.37, p. 029-951.
Rosvos.os, MA. uso Buuucn, CH., 19624, Laboratory Sludies on
Deformation in Unconsolidated Sedinent'. U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 498-D, p. Dt51.Dt55.
arm , 1962b, Enperimonts ost inleoloemotional
recumbenl folds in cross-bedded sand: U. S. Geologicul Survey Professional
Paper 498-D, p. Dt55-D161.
ase Wren, G.W., 1953, Terminology tor slratification and cross'
stratification in sodimesstary rocks: Geological Society of America Bullvtin, e.
64, p. 391-398.
Miau., AD., 1974, Paloocnerent analysis of alluvial sedinsents: a discussion al
threcuonal variance and vector magnitude: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, e.
44, p. 1174-1185.
1978, Lithofacies types and vertical profilo models in braided riser
deposits: a summary, in Miall, A. D., ed., Pluvial sedimentology: Canadiau
Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir Sp. 597-604.
1985, Architectural element analysis: a now method of facies analysis
applied to fluvial deposits: Earth Science Reviews, v.22, p. 261-308.
l98Oa, Architeceurul elemenls and bounding surfaces in fluvial deposits:
anatomy of the Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic), Southwest Colorado:
Sodimentary Geology, v.55, p.233-262.
l980b, Facies architeccsee in clastic sedimentary basins: in Klrinspehn,
KL and Paola, C. eds., New perspectives in basin analysis: Springer-Verlag,
Now York, 453 p.
19806, Reservoir heterogeneities in fluvial sandstones: lessons from
oulceop studies: American Association of Petroleum Geologisls Bulletin, e. 72,
p. 582-697.
Mmnceses, LT. ave Baeuev, RC., 1983, Procossrs aud controls on the intrrtougsting
of the Kayenta and Navajo Formations, Northern Arizona: colian-fluvial
interactions, io Brookfietd, M. E., and Ahlbrundl, T. S., edn., Eolian sedimonts
and processes, Developments in Sedimentology, 38, Elsevier, Amsterdam, p.
613-634.
15-ano, G., 1987, Deformation processes in nnconuolidaled sands, in Jones, M30, and
Preston, R.M.F., eds., 1997, Deformation of sediments and sedimentary rochs:
Geological Society of London, Special Publication 29, p. 11-24.
Prsnnnou, F., son Permusucs, 024., 1979, Stratigrophie relations of the Navajo
Sandstone to Middle Jurassic Pormatious, Southern Utah and Northern
Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1035-B, p. 1-43.
Secan, W.M., 1985, Comparison of the bedform distribution and dynamics of
modem and ancicel sandy ephewerul flood deposits in the seuthwestvre Koran
region, South Africa: Sedimentary Geology, v.45, p.209-230.
Tcvmmoc, LP., 1981, Sandy higls-energy flood sedimentation-some criteria for
recognition, with an enamplo trom the Devonian of SW. Fegland: Sedimentary
Geology, v.20, p. 79-95.
Toen, N. roo Essinmsn, P.O., 1983a, Pluvial arvhitecture of Jurassic uranium-
bearing saedsloacs, Colorndo Plaloax, western United Stairs, in Collinson, J.
D., and Lencin, J., edn., Modern and anvioul fluvial systems: International
Association of Sedisnentologists Special Publication 6, p.S33-547.
ano , 1983b, Depositional setting of the Salt Wash Member of
the Morrison Formation, southwest Colorodo: Journal of Sedimentary
Petralogy, v.53, p. 67-82.
102

ARCHITECTURAL-FAdES ANALYSIS OF NONMARINE
DEFOSITIONAL SYSTEMS IN THE UPPER TRIASSIC
CHINLE FORMATION. SOUTHEASTERN UTAH
RUSSELL F. DUEIEL
U.S. Geological Sni'vey,
MS 919, Boc 25046,
Denver Federal Center,
Denver, Colorado 80225
AflTOACD The Uppee Teiarnic Chale Fonenaton in aoetheatteno Utah ia a aeqaenve of continental
aoala deposited in a bank-ono reatonic batte. Aechiteeisnnl.fooe, analysa of copna.oea o anb.paeativl
canyons nod te ditta nt,noned,eg atenetneat opitita evocas an icteicatety jntcebeddvd Onniat-,telta,v
nannten n-nom cflaeteneeiand by: t. 5010v floniai.vhanoel bnlnn conatiting of atavked, hifl- and loe,-
nencaity channel t,nnpinona. 2. ovnebaok deposita. tavinding Ivoena. paleoaola, muettes, and smala
ttnotaptaie lakea i!nteefingeeed natI cern-asno aplaye and lavmtnnn deltab ned 3. eanentiOr lnvanntfle.
haoin, lac,nnncv-e,adflat, tad roban nandahect sonto On-matted theoaghoot Ihn entine nwdy ateo.
Stcattgeaplcnt panela of vlonety.apnced me.nosncd ncttioea ocineled both peependietlte and patetici to
drpcaibocal dip depio the lactea acdhitvct,tc bath eonh,n the catea-channel atenta and the eclat,oea of
tIte enten.channet deponttn to adjacent vhanevt toteptenen.
lethn Shtnaenenpand Mon,lcrBotic Mennbeneic thetoeceepactottlte Ch,ole Foettattoo.flcnial.
channel cem,ptenct mcteefingee enith ecoa-vhaneet ladre, titear eenea.chnnnal encira celade leocen,
teen-tate aplaye, and eccttaod completen cceaiatmg of tee,ateiee dettai. lakea. and acanthes, lette Mona
Back and PeOittrd rennet Membaen in mc middle pact of the ChinIn, flto3al-chaonel cneaptenvn
ioteefingce .0th ti000ptue atenta chaeactcni000 by pateonola and vecoaac aplayo Locally, pateoaol
honoont and take and etanth depoatta avene at tnaekee beds in 110cc dimeaatona, 'tice (lcd Roel, and
Choces Ron-k Membeen in the tIppen pact ot the Chante tee dom,naled by lannently eaneaaaor tavenotne.
baum. tac,utniee.wtdflat, and mane roban nalbect ata that entended nbencwfiont the aao0y area.
INTItODUCtTION
Rocoal advances in the development of flovial facies models have metaded thc
analysis et thece-dimensiontat allnviat archilrvttnee. Flaviat-sontdnlone architecture
has afteactcd cotnsidcroble altenation, peiovipally with the potential application et
archilevlaral-vlcment anndysis lo peleolvttrn reservoies (e.g., MiaU, 1985, 1988).
Aeehilovttaeal elemcst atnalysis has located priattaeily on saadolouvo rn finan-ial
tyslcms, and allows for the description of all fine-geainned exteo-ohanrnel deposite is
Ihe siagfe cirment OF (oveebanek fates; Midi 1985, 1988). Few studies have
addresoed the architecture of finne-grained facies. Palthongh sandstonne bodies arr
commonly dic host ranks foe vaniotns cneegy eesonarccs, oedeestandiag the geomeloy
and orchileelnnee of fioc-gea'med continental tacies is cesnvial lo mamy studies of
sandstone geometey. Eancasing rnudrovks and other fine-geained strata cana intluence
the geometny and insereounectedness of sandstone bodies and be the source of
hydeoearbons and diagenelic or eninecaliziag flmds foe sandstone host cocks.
Finc-grained facies hislorienlly have been neglected is sedimentologic and facirs
analyses (see review in Miatl, 1987). However, is recent yvans, ten-end lypes of
studios have licensed on t'mr-geaincd conlinontal facies models and architeolnaee.
SInISes dealing exclusively with the sedimenlology of fine-groinvd facies are loo
nnmeroas to review bene; however, sevnrat notable papers diecass the geometey
and archilectuer et floodplain ne oveebank strata Ethnidge and othees (1981)
Dsbiel
discnssed floodplain and ekanavl selpaencee is coat-boaring Torliary rocks of the
Powder Riven Basin, Wyoming. They ercoenized point bars, abandoned channels,
levees, cren-ana splays, lakes, deltas, and wnll- and poorly-drained swamps, and
they suggested that tine environmeuts oro simitac to these described for Hotoceec
backswamp deposits of the Alchafalaya basin is Louisiana. Inn a etere reoonl study,
Farrell (1987) described the sodimontology and facies aOnhiloclntee of overbank
backswamp dnposils along a modern mnandeebcll margin of the tower Mississippi
River. Studios of lower Ritenne Ioodplain sequencos have cased paleosols lo detail
vertical and laieraI facies relations is fine-groined overbanh deposits (e.g., Bows
and Keass, 1987; Kerns, 1907), and pndolacics analysis (Kraus and Bown, 1988)
incorporates seqoenees el differing prdogenie maturity lo recoastetacl ancionl
allnviat seqncnces.
Continental strata of the Upper Teiassic Chiste Formation is sontheastern Utah
are dominated by fine-grainetl facies. Flovial-chaunel complexes are present, but
they comenomly reprrsent less than 30% of the Chiale section. The greater part el
the secliou consists of fme-grained sandstones, siltstonrs, mudsloues, and
carbonates deposiled is complrely isteri ingerrd overbank, ttoontplain, and
taenstrinv sellingu. Many studios have vsamined Chiale sedimentology, and
discussions of deposilional euvieonanonfs and lilceature reviews can be fonnd is
Stewart and odors (1972), Blakey and Gabitosa (1903), and Dnbiet (1989a).
Relatively few studies have analyzed Chiale architecture. Blalsoy and Gabitosa
(1984) discussed controls on sandstone-body geometoy rod aechitecturo is the
Chiste, including generalized colations lo encasing modutones, bnl they did not
isciede detailed descriptions of fise-grained lacios or of regional arvttilectttrr.
Deacon tend Middleton (t989) described the three-dimessiosal aecltitrctnrr of
Chiale flavial sandstones is northeastern Arizona. Dxbiot (198%) presented
peoliminany evataations of Chiale archilcclsrr and tise-grained facies is
soathraslcrnt Utah.
In southeastern Utah, thn Colorado River and its teibnt,aries have cul an
estensivo syslom of canyons that espone the Chiste Formation is Iheoc dimeusions.
This study reconstenacts the laierai and vertical facies nolations of lisc-grained
deposits in the ChinIn. Fluviat-choanvi complexos are isclnded is the
reconsleoctious, bst only io reflect theft overall geomelay and lateral relations to
dic fine-geained ostoo-clsanuol deposits. Steatigraphic cross sections oriented both
peepnodieulae and parallel to depositional dip were couslolacled from closely-spaced,
measneed stratigraphie sections 10 en-atarle facies associations and the three-
dimensional architecture of the fioe-geained continental depositional environments.
The study area is is sontheaslorn Utah near the couler of the Colorado Platean
(Fig. t). Within the slody area, 006 stratigraphie sections of the Chiale Formation
were measnrrd along incised canyons of div Colocado Rin-ce drainage syslem indic
vicinity of White and Red Canyons and along the Orange Cliffs, aeoond the
Teaedalc nplif t is the vicinity of Capitol Reel National Park, and around the Circle
Cliffs nplift east of Boalder, Utah (Fig. 2). Bocaase oroslon Inox removed the upper
part of some sections, the entiev Chinle is not represented at every locality. In ordre
to compare Chiale facies and depesitional systems over a larger part of the
Colocado PloIera, additional stratigraphie tectiona of the Chisto were moaxnred is
western Colorado, is northern Arizona, in wostern Utah, and aroand the San man
Basis is nonthwrntcrn New Mrsico (Fig. 2)
neGtONAL 5E'rI'ING
The Chinin Formation was deposited is s continental back-arc basis about 15-
20' noeth of the paleooqnator (Slewart and othecs, 1972; Dickinson, 1901; Blakey
Archilectural-facies analysis of nonmarine drpositiooal systems
3e 09' f05' - SONKSVILLE
ShALT cose CITO
St
UTAH COLORADO HENRY 8
e5
39t cd
n . osoNs
JUNCTION
UnUB
fInare 2
cantoNna
u
.suoENeu e,'re.nx
'i
SAN JUAN
BASIN
noi co r suns
I
FIG. 2.Lmnutiou nf 106 mnoaearnd strntigruphin urntinut (.) nf tise
ChinIn Fnrmation in sonthoastern Uttah. Inninod naaayonn nf the Colorado
River drainage systnm alung Ihn Orunagn Cliffs and in Whif n and RasI
Canyons allnw nlnsuty-spannd measured seefions and straligraphic croan-
section panels tn he usent in fiat reconstruction of the eontiaanntal
depnxieinnal nyseems of the ChinIn. Additinnal ouialrnps nf tian Chiaale arneand
dan Tnnndale Uplift antat Ctapitnl Rent National Park and aromad the CirnIn
Cliffs uplift suar Bonldnr pnraaait extnnuioaa of tian depnaxilinnaJ mndcl to tian
ARIZONA NEW MEXICO
nnrtlawest, along Ihn trnnd of northwnxterard-fluwiaag fluvinl systems within
the Chinin.
FIG. 1.Outline nf tino Colorado Platnan in the Fnue Cornnrn rngion uf
Cnlorndu, Utah, Arizona, and New Menico, shawing lonation of tian study
arna ita sonathnasfnra. Utah. Mnasnarnal strutigraphin snntions (.) of the ChinIn
Pipiringos, 1970 Dobiel, 1987a). In dis area, the Chiale OOnOisls of six f orosal
Fnrmaiion ontside nf the immndintc study arca wnrs used tn cnnapinte tian
members, is ascending ondnv the Shisarump, Monitor Bolle, Moss Back, Petrifiod
depositinnal mndnl.
Forest, Owl Rock, and Charek Rock Members (Fig. 3). Im northeastern Arizona,
Chiale stratigeaphy is complicated by the absence of the Moss Back and by the
and Gubif oso, 1983; Ziegler and others, 1983; Dnbiol, 1987a, b). Claslic sedimeol previous assignment of equivalent tonits to both the Choeck Rank Member of 1kv
was supplied todo basis uoettn- and northwestward from de Mogollee higblonds is Chiale Formation and lo the Rank Foist Member of the Wisgate Sandsione. Recoot
southern Arizona and northern Mexico and south-, wcsl-, and northwestward from sedimentotogic and stratigraphic stndins have reassigned the Rock Foist Member to
the ancestral Uncompahgre and Front Range higblonds is Colorado. Additionally, the Chiale Formation (Dnnbiet, 1909k). In southwestern Colorado, correlative rocks
volcanic ash was snpptied to the basis from a volcaaic-magmatic arc off the west are assigued to the Dolores Formation.
canst of tho continenl (Stewart and others, 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; The ChimIe Formation fills large paleovalleys ceceird into the nnderlying
Bnsby-Spora, 1988). Mcwnkopi Formation (Slewart and others, 1972; Blakey, 1974; Blakoy uod
In southeastern Utah, the Chiale Formation anconformably nverlies the Lower Gnbitosa, 1983; Deabirt, 1903, 19870, b, c). The patooralleys probably evllect
and Middle(S) Tniassic Moenkopi Formation and ix oncouforennibly on-celais by the incision is responese to regionally towered base level. Snbseqnent riso is bane level
Lower Jurassic Vítngate Saendstonne (Slewart and others, 1972; Pelerson and resulted is aggrodation and filling of the patoovalleys by Chiale strata.
103

___.,_z\ ?
Z Lavvstrine Mvdtlot
o The Monitor Bntte Member overlies the Shinaerenp and is one of the most
- C-
a Lavustrine Basin
e-
FIG. 3.Stratigraphic framework of (be Chink Formation and correlative
rocks m southern Utah, northern Arizona, and southwestern Colorado.
LITI4OFACIES AND DEPOSITIOI,LSL ENVIRONMENTS
Lithofacies m the vaijoos members of the Chiade Formation include a complex
assemblage of lithotogies aod sedimentary stenctures. Lithofadex assemblages
md,cate deposataoo m an intricately interfmgered flovial-deltaic.tacnsarioe system
(Blakey and Gubitoxa, 1983; Dubiel 1983, t987a, b, e, 1989b). Stratigraphie sections
were measured to identify and record process-controlled lithogenetie units and
paJeocerreet indicators (Fig. 4). Patroearrvnts were determined both from
measurements of the azimuths of available trough cross-bed and ripple axes, and,
more reliably, from the treed of channel axes exposed in opposing canyon walls.
For the cross-beds, vector means and streagths were trigonometrically calculated
following the methods of Patter and Pettijoha (1977). The sodimeutology and
depositnonal environments of the Chiale io sootheastern Utah are discussed by
Dnbiel (l987a, b, e). Lateral and vertical facies relations, isopach maps, and
stratigraphie cross sectiuns were used to interpret depositional environments of the
individual lithofacies (Fig. 5).
The Sbinarump Member at the base of the Chiado Formation o characterized by
white to yellow and gray, meditan, to coarse.grained and congjomeeafic sandstones
and minor, gray sittstones and mudstones. The sandstones exhibit comptes cd-and-
fill sequences, lenticular infernal scour surfaces, and minor, large.scate lateral-
aecretlon bedding at the top of the unit. Large.scate trough cross.stratifieatiou and
less abundant tabular.ptanar crans.stratifieation are common sedimentary
steactuees. Sandstone bodies grade laterally over tens of meters into s'dtstoee and
mndsf one lenses that contain orgonic.carban fragments and whole, carbonized plant
f ossils.
Dubiel
The Shinaramp Member fills large paleovalleys (Fig. 6) and is cemposed
primarily of stacked channel deposits consisting nl sandy bndforms with nsiaor
Bnaidrd Fluvial lateral-accretion deposits al the top of the unit. Lithology, sedimentary structures,
isopach maps (Dobiet, 1983, 1987a), and architectural elements indicate that the
Shinarump was deposited by tow-sinuosity, bedtoad fluvial systems that initially
EXPLANATION Exijan Seed Sheet were confined in paleovalleys mcised seto the underlying Moentaopi Formation. As
aggradation proeveded, the paleevalleys were filled. Slightly sinuous Shinarump
streams migrated laterally and deposited fluvial strata that exhibit some lateral-
accretion, or paint-bar deposits near the top of the Shinarump.
Iteteregeneons lithosomes in the Chiade Formation. The Moaltor Butte contains
301st- purple-mottled, yellow te brown and red sandstones and siltstones; green,
bvntomtic sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones; red, calcareons mndstones; black,
oeganic-rach mndstones; and pink to eau, miceitic f imnstonrt. Several el the Monitor
Bnoe facies are described in mere detail bei ese.
Gnerlyiog the hhinarnmp Member and eshibitiug a gradational contact selth the
underlying rocks iv a purpie, yellow, and white-mottled soady sdtstese-and-
sandstone interval referred to bree as the puepte-mottled unit (PMO) of the
EXPLANATION FOR
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS Lacuntrine Basin
Monitor Batte Member. The PMO in characterized by irregular dark pttepte,
yellow, and white mettles that result from different concentra tiens of iren-b
minerals. The diflereutsat precipitation of iran was controlled by o fluctuating water
table mithin gteyed pateosots (Dnbiel and othert, 1987; Dnbiet, tSS7o). The PMO is
Flaoial also characterized by abandant, large-diameter trace fossils interpmted tu be the
passively-fitted casts of lnagfish and decaped boorows (Dnbivt and others, 1987,
Marsh
200er 1989; Hasiotis and Mitchell, 1989). Both the burrows and the mottling are
interpreted to reflect a fluctuating watee table, probably in response to seasonal
Lavunttino Basin Bending, within Chiade sediment at the timo of depositiou.
Deta, crevasse splay
The PMU can be traced laterally over tons of metres into pnrple-mottteaf and
Locustriee basis gray siltstones that centain finely comminuted organic detritos. These units grade
distally into very thinly laminated, black mudstanes with organic-carbon cantents
LOvastrllto revdtlat locally as high as 20 weight percent (Dubiet, 1983, 1987a). The black mndstouex
typically contain abundant vhitinons tests of conchostoacans, tisi, scates, and fish
Lovestrine Delia bones, whereas the gray mndstones contain abandant, calcarreus Ltaravirtnla sp.
Flnedplain. pvleesnl
pnceocuneervTs estracodes and organic-carbon fragments. The black wndsfones are locally as muck
Meandering Fluvial
Entas sand shoot as 15 in thick (Fag. 7) and contain coal lenses as mnch as 2f em thick. The PMO
Vuete, veo,, resaltan! and black te gray mndsloues repeesent genetically related coarse-geained elastic
'5,5,, -, et l,oughc,osscnds
C vr Meunering Fluvial deposition in low-energy Bnvial systems and associated fine-groined elastic and
VOCI soongrv loti length
o n' sands t 0 Orti organic deposition in tacusteine-marsh and bog-wetland environments.
PAlrosrds Conchmtracans typically inhabit ephemeral pools and tacastrine marshes that are
Chance! Aals subjected to seasonal drying, whereas Darwinnln sp. ostracodcs are indicative of a
mere permanent, lacastrine environment. The oecnreeuce of these particular
Luvustrino Basin invertebrates within adjacent mndstones indicates that the water had a stiejstly
alkaline pH nl 7.5 to 8 and that the salinity wan less than 5 ppt (Dubiel, 1983,
Poleosol
FIG. 4.Three selected measured stratigraphie sections of the Chirrie Meandering Fluvial
Formation depicting the heterogeneous tithofacies present in the continental FIG. 5,Measured stratigraphie section nf the Chinle Fnrmalion in the
elepositional system. Sections are Ineated on Fig. 3as f. Bine Lizard mine, 2. Marsh southern part of Monument Valley. Dnpositional environments are
Hillside mine, and 3. Four Ares mine. Lithofacies are designated on the Meandering Fluvial interpreted un the basis of lithnfacies, lateral and vertical fades relations,
basis of rock type, color, sedimentary strunfnres and bedding, and included and included fauna and flora. Deposilional environments include tow-
fosuils and trace f ounils. Eaplauation of symbols amo applies to subsequent siarnusity (braided) and high-sinuosity (meandering) flnniat-ehannnl systems;
Braided Fluvial
cross sections and interpretive panels. Lithofacies associations and lateral freshwater lacustrine-mornh, lacustrine-della, and crevasse-splay eumplenes;
Vallay Fill
and vertieul facies changes defme individual depositionaf environments, flondpiain dnpnsits modified by calde and neetie patensofu; and extermine
shown, in Fig. 5. lueustrine-basiu, laeustrine-mudtlat, and coSan nandsheet deposits.
Archilnctoral-facien analysin of nonmaeine depositional sysierns 104

FIG. 6.Fluvial sondstonen of (ho Shinarnmp Member of the Chiale
Formation at Colt Mesa m the southern Circle Cliff e. The fluvial complen
tille a (orge volley crodod into Ihr nnderlyrng Moenkopi Formotinn; the
slope of (ho paleoval ley wall is visible at (ho righl end of the outcrop
(dashed line). The uranium mine odRe (nrrown) at the bane of the Shinarnmp
0003 m high.
FIG. 7Thick euposure (>15 m) of lacnutrine-marsh mudstoue in Ike
Monitor Butte Member of the Chiale Formolion in npper Rod Canyon. The
marsh deposite (entire outcrop in (coot of geologist) are black, vory thinly
laminated, and have organic-carbon contents as much as 20 weight percent.
The marsh deposits contain an invertebrato fauna of conchostracaus,
ostracodes, gaslropods, and bivalves along with plant fossils, f inh boues, und
disarticulated remains of higher vertebrates. Geologist in center for scale.
Dubiel
FIG. 8.Large-scale foresuts (small arrow) of lacusleine-della and
creva-splay comptes in the Monitor Butte Member at section LP.
Foresets are about 15m high; note geologisl (large arrow) for scale.
1987a). Locally, the gray calcareous mudstooes also coetam a freshwater bivalve
futesa and the ditarticelatesl remojas of small vertebrates (Parrish and Good, 1987).
Gradationally overlying Ihr PMU and relatral marsh and facostriuc units are
laterally extensive bat thin-bodded, barrowed limestones about 10 cm thick and
Darwi nra/a sp. ostracode-bearing medstoees that are about 5 m thick. This srquencr,
je tom, is over/am by green, bentonitic sandstooes, siltntones, and mudsloues that
commonly oshibit large-scale loresets as machas 15m thick (Fig. 0). luterually, the
brevets consist of beds of abundant, small-scale, tanate climbing ripples capped by
2-em-thick reworked zones ol symmetrical oscillation ripples. The gerce borescts
invariably contain organic-carbon fragments and well-preserved whale specimens of
Late Triassic plants (Dobiet, 1987e).
On the basis of lithology, sedimentary structures, fossils, and facies associations,
three Monitor Butte Member strala are uterprelod asan exlensive system of fluviat
and lacustrine-deltaic distributary channels and lacostaine, predetta, and lacmtrine-
delta deposits (f)abicl, 1983, 1987a, b, c). Them fme-grainrd strata could be
assigned to vasions litbotacies within the overbauk fines element (e.g., Mmli, 1985).
However, rather thau being a snbsidiary component of overbank lines deposited
from an adjacent tinvial system, the fine-grained Monitor Bolle Member taeles
represenl strata depnsitrd within a major lacustrine and marsh complex that
dominated the depositional setting in the lower parc et the Chinte Formation. The
following section of this reporl ou taries architecture describes this wetland
comptera.
The Moss Back Member crops est in a narrow belt between White Canyon and
Canyoalands National Park near Moab, Utah (Stewart and others, 1972; Blake5
and Gubitosa, 1983; Dnbiel, 1983, 1987a). The Mess Back consists of brown te
gray, medium-grainS sandstones and caebouate-uednle conglomerates with minor
Architectural-facies analysis of nournarine depositional systems
madstonc lenses. Sedimentary strnclstrvs includo abondant tabular-planar and large- having coarsening-upward laminae and very thin laminations are mdicative of
scale trough crone-beds and minor horizoutat lamications. Sandstone bodies within minor eolias dones and sandsheets that developed during these dry perieds. The
the Mess Back are generally lenticular and reflect stacked complexes that occupy a generally redder coloration el these rocks as compared te the variegated colocs of
large scour eroded into thy andreI ying Monitor Bette Momber. The Moss Back thy andcrlying Chicle Formation reflecls the greater development el thagenetic
represents a regionally extensive lluvial complex that mtcrnally is composed of hematite. The higher ceuceutratious el hematite in this part of the section see
gravelly bedborms, sandy bedferms, dowestrcam-accrcting macreforms, and rare thought to reflect the docreased organic-carbon croIent of the maegival-lacustrinr
lateral-accretion deposits. In parts of White Canyon, the Mess Back sandslonet rocks of the Church Rock Member as compared te lacastrmne and marsh facies in
grade laterally inlo the tine-grained facies of the Meni/or Bulle Member and the the Monitor finne and Petrilied Foresi Members lower in the Chicle. Beth
overlying Petrified Forest Member. Sandstones grade laterally into and interfinger hematite devefopment and the lack of organic carbon reflect deposilion under more
with red, thin-bedded sandstoues, siltstonex, and mndslonvs that grade distally mIo oxygenated lacusirine madflat conditions with lower water tables compared to the
fine-geainrd strata cousainiug abundant, rounded, pedogeuic carbonate oes/ales. generally high water tables characteristic el weiland environments m the lower
The lenticular, coarse-grainS sandstones of the Moss Back Member were Chinte (Duldet, 19ll7a, e).
deposited in tow- te moderato-sinnosity, bedtoad fluvial channels. The laterally
equivalent, red, thin-bedded strata represent levec, crevasse-splay, and overbank FACIES AI5CHITECFUBE
floodplain deposits that distally exhibit carbonate-bearing paleosols. The pateoxols
were the source el the carbonate intraclasts in Moss Back channel-fill sandstones. Litholacies analysis providrs a general depositionol framework loe the
Overlying the Mess Back Member are the purple te red and brown sandstones continental systems of the Chicle Formation, bnl the availability of canyou
and variegated mudstoues of the Petrified Ferret Member. The bentonitic enposures in southeastern Utah provides the opportsasity te reconslonct the Chiale
sandstones and thin lenses of carbonate-nodule conglomerale exhibit argo-scale depositional system in three dimensions. Lines el stratigraphie cress sections were
trough cross-stratification and larger scale lateral.accretion surfaces. Sandy units can constructed both parallel and peepeudiesdar te the trvnd el Chiale fluvial systems
be traced laterally into red-brown mndstones that contain pedogenic carbonate based eu regional lithofacics trends and palrocarrcnl indicators m lluvsal-channel
nodules sinsilar to those dcseribed from the Mess Back Member. Isolated eotcrops sandstones. Four cross sections (Fig. 9) constructed along outcrops in Red and
0f black, organic-carbon- and conchoslracau-bvaeing mudstones locally occur in the
Petrified Forest Member. lit' Ito,
The Petrified Forest Member was deposited wilken fluvial chanuels and m extra-
chacsnet settings. Within the chaeeef s, sandy bedferms and paint bars were
deposited by sinuous, mixed-lead llavial systems. Outside of the channels, levees,
crevasse splays, pedogenically modified fleodptainx, and minor laensteine marshes
characterized the overbank arcas.
Pink and green limestones and tan to red and orange mndstoues, sdtstones, and
fine-grainod saudsloucs of the Owl Reck Member overlie the Petrified Forest 38'
Member. Limestone beds range from 10 cm 102 m in thickness and can be traced
laterally for several tens of kilometres. Thy limestonex generally exhibit a mottled
coloration and a knobby-weathered texture. Locally, the limestoors are finely
laminated where they are not biotarbated. In pfaces, the hmeslonescoutam
Darwinola sp. esteacedes. Interbedded with the limestones are slope-bormmg
mudstones, silcstoncs, and sandstones. These elastic strata of the Owl Rock enhibil
few sedimentary strsscfuros, but locally contain abnndant, small-diameter trace
fossils. Owl Reck carbonatv and elastic facies have brun mtcrpreled as lacnstrsne-
basin and marginal-lacmtrine mudflats and sandflats that were deposited m a large
lake cratered urar the Foso Cornera region of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New
Menico (Dubiel, 1987a, 1989a).
Orange le red and brown sandstones and si/letones of the Church Reck Member
overllc and grade laterally into the nndcelyiog Owl Rock Member. Sandsloucs are
fine to medium geaieed and sec strncturctess er contain taint, large-scale trough
cross-beds having coarsening-upward laminae, very thin horizontal lammauons, and
miner lateral-accretion bedding. Mndstones are straclureless and, locally at the top FIG. 9.t,ocation of lines 0f cross soctinu usad tu caustruct the
of the Chinle Fermution, contain desiccation cracks as mach as 10 cm across thnt slratigraphie panels depicted in subseqncnt fignres. Sao Fi8. 2 for location of
are filled with sandstone ob the overlying Wingate Sandstone. geographic foatures. Four lines of section are shown by A-A' across uppe
The Church Rock Member in this region was deposited on lacustrmov mndllals Red Canyon and apper White Canyon, B-B' across lower Red Canyon and
that were traversed by small fluvial systems during drier episodes when the cocvat lower White Canyon, and C-C'-D-D' from the weslern part of the Teosdale
Owl Rock facuslrine system was reduced in size. The large-scale trongh cress-beds Uplift south to (ho southern and eastern Circle Cliffs.
105
.m_..s.....S.m_. .ø...a
White Canyons, along the Orange Cliffs, oxd aronad the Teatdale and Circle Cliffs
uplifts are presented in this study to demonstrate the complexity and architecture of
Chiele depositional systems.
In order to investigate the small-scale lateral and veetical variation of
interfingeerd litholacics, closely spaced stratigraphie sections of the Chiale
Formation were measared along a coutinuoas outcrop and are depicted as a
detailed portion of section A-A' in White Canyon (Fig. 10). Five sections of the
Chiale were measured at about 1-kie intervals from section TN tu section TB.
Sections were correlated living individaal marsh strata and fluvial-charnel
sandstones that cunld by physically traced between sections. Fluvial systems of the
Shinartonp Member fill the large paleovatley eroded into the underlying Mocuhopi
DETAIL WITHIN SECTION A
Forntatson. Shinarump briol depesits interf luger with, and grade laterally into,
marsh and pend deposits of the Monitor Butte Membre. The marsh and pond
deposits of the Monitor Balle are succeeded by laterally-extensive lacustrine strata
and by deposits el a large crevasse-splay and lacustriur-delta complex. This lake-
tplay complex in overlain by high-sinaosity Monitor Butte fluvial strata and low-
smnosily Mess Back fluvial deposits. The upper part of the Chiale has been eroded
fremdes outcrop in White Canyon.
The detail of lateral changes near section WCM (Fig. 12) demonstrates that fme-
geamed laeuxtrine, marsh, crevanne-sploy, and dettaic strata change facies in
distances less than 0.5 hm; these geometries are comparable fo those of modem
lacustrine and marsh cemplexes (e.g., Foxcb and Dran, 1902). The lateral und
- A'
vertical facies relations depicted in this panel indicate the comples and variable depositional environments for this section arc shown schematically in an
depositiosal voviroumentx represented by fine-grained taries in the lower part of interpretive panel (Fig. 12). The interpretive panel incorporates data from the
the Chiale. The detailed panel also demoustrates the comples interliugeriog of the measured sections shown in the stratigraphie cross section and data from additional
fme-grained facies and their potential as seals for adjacent sandstone reservoirs, a sections, whoxe locations are indicated at the top of the figure. The bose of the
relation not eeadily apparent when simply desigoated as everbanh fines. paleevaltey eroded into the uoderlyxng Morehopi Formation is filled with fluvial
The lateral and vertical facies relations of the Chiale Formation across the upper and marsh deposits of the Shinarnmp and Monitor Butte Members. Palcocuercut
part of Red and White Canyons are depicted in cross section A-A' (Fig. 11), and measurements from Shinarump finvial-chaenel sandssones at the base of the section
B B'
CD MP65 G BLN 4AC LP NW
12.8 km 6.4 km 4.0 km 9.6 km
2.4 kIn 9.6 kw

TN WCM FR YE S3 TB
M stur s
10f-

121

60

EXPLANATION FOR
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

o Flaoial Lacusteer mudtiot

o 1 km
Marsh Floedplalr, patresol

Delta, ereoansr splay Eoliao sand short

Laeuxtrier basin

Fits. 10.Detail nf stratigraphie section of the Chinin Formation within
sectaon A-A' showing relative spacing of all sections measnred rn the vicinity
of WCM fo determine lateral facies relations of the Shiasarump, Monitor
Bufte, and Moss Back Membrrs. Sor Fig. 9 fer location of WCM and
adjacent sections, which are not labeled duc to proximity on the outcrop; see
Fsg. 4 tor enplassatioo of lifholugie symbols. Facies relations dotermiased
from this detailed panel were applied to the entire cross section, as depicted
in Fig. lt.
FIG. 61.Stratigraphie cross section A-A' across the upper parts of Red
and While Canyons. The datnm in this and rn ss.bseqaent panels represents
the top of the Moss Bach Member fluvial saudxtoues and latnrally equivalent
floodplain nsadstoises. Letlers at the top of each section correspond fo the
labelled locations nu Fig. 9 shnwiasg the locations of selected cross sections,
The upper parts of some sections are missing due to erosion in the canyon
system produced by teibs.taries of the Colorado River. For clarity, only
selected measured sections along fhe cross section are depicted heec to
demoustrate lateral tories relations.

Dubiel Archilectural-facies aea(ysis of xoxmarinr deposilional systems 106


indicate northward flow at section MB in Monument Valley and generally
westward flow in the sections tu Red and Wtute Canyons. These diverse
paleoctvrrnuts, coupled with rho lack 0t appreciable Sbmarnmp channel sandstones
on outcrops between Monument Valley and Rod and White Canyons, demonstrate
the presence et two distinct paleodrainages m tIns region. One palnodeamage
flowed north out of northeastern Arizona and a second flowed west throagh the
White Canyon arno, from a presumed source in the ancestral Uncompahgrn
highlands. Lacastcine and marsh strata el the Monitoc Butte Member overlie the
Sbivarump and are overlain by crevasse splays and lacustrine deltas ol the Monster
flatte Member and by flmrviul-chunnol ted floodplain strata of the Moss Back
Membee. This succession portrays the development of lakes and mambos that were
subsequently filled by the progradation et a finvially dominated lacnxtniue-delta
complex. Paleocnrnent measurements ou trough crane-beds within the Mess Bank,
und the trend of the Mese Back determined from snbseqneot cress section B-B',
indicate that Mans Back strcams flowed to tise northwest. Channel sandstones of the
Moss Buck une laterally restricted to a belt about 15 te 20 km wide, and uro encased
in fine-gruiund extra-channel facies. The Petrified Forest Member contams fluvial
und cvasse.spluy sandstone complexes that are about 5 km onde und that uro also
encased within fine-geoined floodplain and mueth furios. The Owl Reck Member
lucusteine limeslones oust murginul-lacuslrine elastic strata ostenti throughout the
line ot cress section, and indicate the development of a large lacustnine system.
Finally, marginal tacustrine and minor cellan deposits of the Church Reck Member
extend theougttont the line of cross malien.
A second stratigraphie paoel el measnrrd snodo us wus constructed across the
tower poet el Red and White Cauyors (section B-B', Ftg. 13). Palcoeuoroxt
indicatons Irom Shinurump, Monilor Butte, and Moss Back Member fluvial und
delta.distributary channels indicate that puleoflow was to the West and northwest
during deposition of the lower pact of the Cbinlo Formation. Thus, panel B-B' is

A A'
A A' MB CH UURC HKM TUES WCM AFFF'
o

Iii
(i) IL 16.0 km 16.6 Km 13.6 Km ' 7.2 km 7.2 km 4 km

Io co Ui

I
o U
La
nfl

I I I I
I
I

- Wt NG AT E
xoNOsTesE

.
Ctv,cv Ruck

Oat
Reck
Mntnrx
lao
_________i i i.
12e
Petroleo
o Member
o o MOSS050k

o tie o
o o
'., Member
Uneltor nutre
o Member
o / svireruer,
/ Member
60
M0rNKOPt

mVÌi
F OR MATt Ql

ui_
m EupLAsATtox FOR tepesITtOsaL ruvtooNMrsTS

5 km
Mertv

erra, crevas sa splat

Lacusl,ine bain
L ace Strier 5 5501 lot

FIovdpIaifl. purrosel

Etti ne saca svoal

I
FIG, b3,Sftatigraphic panni of the Chinin Formation along cross suction je, regard tu Shinanenep, Monitor Botte, nod Moss Back fluvial systems,
FIG, 12,interpretive panni nf lithofurina and dnposittonai nnvironennnts B-B' in the lowne parts of Reel aed Whitn Caxynees, Sue Fig, 4 fur which flowed gnnnrnlly wnst and nonthwent in tien vicinity of Rud and White
in the Chinin Forenetiose along cross section A-A', Sue text fur dincussion, nxplanatine uf symbnln. This panni is constructed Mownstoram from A-A' Canyons.

Dobiel Archilnclural-facies onolysix of nonmarine depositioual systems 107

constructed 'downsteeam" from pane! A-A'. The interpretative section of panel B-
B' (Fig. 14) incorporates dato from the measured sections dopicted in the
stratigraphie ceoss section (Fig. 13) ond dota from additional measured toctious
indicated at tho fop of the pauet. The intrrpretive panel depict s a depositional
history for the Chiede similar to thaf described for panel A-A'. Shitearwup fluviol
sysfems filled a palrovalley aboat 20 km wido. Monitor Butte marshes, crevasse
splays, oud lacoslrine deltas filled the upper parts of the paleovalley. Moreover, the
relation between the fluvial systems of the Monitor Butte and overlying Moss Bark
suggests that the Moss Bach was the distributary.ehaunel system for the underlying
Monitor Butte crevasse-splay and faenstrine-dolta comples. The Petrilirol Forest
Member probably represents the upper delta-plain and alluvial-plain strata
deposited as the channel system continord to progeade to the northwest. Lacustrine-
basin deposits of the Diet Rock Member reflect the expansion of a large lake
throughout the region. Laeuslrinemargiu deposits of ihr Church Reck Member
estend throughout the line of section and represent the subsequent shrinking of this
lake and deposition of lacmtriue mudflal strata during the regoessiou.
The final line of cross section extends from thy western part of the Teasdalr
uplift east and seuils along C-C' (Fig. 15) and is combined with the line of section
D-D' (Fig. 16) along the Circle Cliffs uplift (Fig. 9). The inlerprrfiee panel of
lithofacies and dopositionat ruviroumenis along line C-C'-D-D' (Fig. 17) depicts the
evolution of the Chiale depositioreal system in a setting distal te that shown in
srcliruo A-A' and B-B', as determined from paleewxercnl trends in the bassi fluvial
systems. Pairocurront measurements an Shinarump Membre fluvial eaudslones
indicase that streams flowed generally north, or slighily casi or west of north. These
stream trends suggest that this paleedeninage may have beco relaled to the
northward flowing Shivarump system through Mouomeui Volley. The Shinarump
floviaf system felts pairovalleys al ihr base of the section and is overla'm by
foensieloc, marsh, and floedpiain deposits of the Monitor Bullo Member. Fluvial-
channel sandstones of she Moss Bach Membre are not present, but apparently have
graded distally from the area of White Cauyon into finr-graiued ftredpialn and
larustniur facies of ihr Monitor Botte and Petrified Forest Members. The upper
part of the Petrified Forest Member locally certains a flovial-chaunel sandstone
comptes known informally as the Capitol Reef bed. Pairecuerent measuremoots ou
this fluvial system indicate thai flow within the chounel was to the west and
uorlhwesi; eastward pateocurreuts were measured in thin-bedded saoduloues and
siilslonos interpreled to be levees and cremasse sptays of the moies channel sysiem.
The Dwl Reck lacustrine deposits extend throughout the entire line of section. tu
this area, the Chrerch Roch Member has been eroded or was 001 deposited beneath
the Wiogale Sandstone.
DEPOSITIONAL MODEL
The model for Chiede Formation deposition in seotheastern Utah and the
adjacent Four Cornees region (Fig. 18) depicts the evolution of a complex fluvial-
facustrine system. Shinamneup fluvial deposition, which initially filled the lower parts
of paicovoileys eroded into the Mecukopi Formation, progressed up the valleys in
response te rising base level. As headwnrd drpositiou proceoded op paleomalleys,
erosion continued ai the headwaters of the drainage basin (Fig. t8A). The wetland

B' C C-
H
TOR TORE FR0 CR LUMP PLCK LAMP
z O 4 kin
bk blu 8.8 km
b) 5
5,6 kin
lu 20 her
e)
o of 9.6 kto 4 kur
o C) a, J Z
II

=--
I I III III I III Meters
180
INI OT e
SoNO rose

Oui
rock

120
PetrífiCa

- Member

-o - ,,_

MovuvoFt 60
I COO MoChOs

EXPLANATION FOR OePosirt000L ENOIOOtIMENT5

5 kin
Manc Fiooariar, releorOi

leRa, c,ovasso spray Echa,, sand theol

0-
Lacu si, i,, e baun

FIG, ll5,Stratignaphic crone section C-C' of ihn Chinin Formation 'w order io intnrprnt the dnponiiional nnvironmnnts of Ihn Chiado in this
consisting of snincteef measured snciionn along Ihn northern part of thu region, Note ihn northward palnoflow of Shinaretmp fluvial systems at ihn
FIG. 14,interpretive panni of lithufacins and dnponitiemal nnviromeeeeets Tnasdair Uplift nnar Capitol Reef National Park, Sue Fig. 4 for nnpiauation bann uf the Chinin, and contrast thin with ihn northwnstnrly Shinareemp trend
of the Chinin Formatioir along cross section B-B'. Seo tnnt fur discussion. of symbols, Thin cross nootion is combined with the following section D-D' in Reel and White Cauyoas on sections A-A' and B-B',

Dobiel Architectural-facies analysis of noemarine deposiliooal systrms 108

environments at the baso of the Monitor Butte Member represent duposition at or
nrar thu teert of the regional watur tobte, a water tobte that mas progressivety rising
with the rspansion of the Monitor Butte taenstrine system (Fig. 18B). Seasonal
flooding of ltnvial and floodplain systems is indieated by the gteyed paleosols rn the
tower part of he Munitnr Bntte Member. Thin tucustrine carbonates and
mudstonrs were deposited in the expanding Monitor Butte tacustrine system (Fig.
tOC).
An ineroaso in the rate of elastic sodimontation probabty associated with an
increase in the rate of voteame-ath supply to the Chiale basin (Blakey and
Gnbitoxa, 1983; Onbiet, l987a) canoed thu progradatiou northwestward of Monitor
Batte (Fig. t8C), Moss Back, and Petrified Forest ftnvint-channet complexes (Fig.
tPO) through the stady area. The Monitor Batte represents deposits of lacnsteine
dettas and crevasse splays. The Moss Back flnvial-ohannrl and adjacent floodplain
systum peograded lo the northwest and wax snccrodod by fluvial-chaunel, crevasse-
splay, and floodplain deposits of the Petrified Forest Member (Fig. 18D). Owl Rock
carbnnotes, silts and muds were deposited in an uxpanding laoaslrinr system that
devuloped in response to continued subsidence and a rednetion in the elastic- and
voloanic-sodiment snppty (Fig. 18E). Margiaat-laenstrxne and minor ootian strata of
the Church Rock Member were deposited as the taenstrinu system began to
diminish in size (Fig. 18F). Climatic change from tropical rnonsoonal conditions
with alternating wet and dry seasons in the Late Triassie (Dabiel, t987a, e, 1989a)
lo drier conditions in the latest Triassic and Early Jurassic (Parrish and Peterson,
1988; Dnbiel, 1989a; Parrish and others, 1989) is the probable cause of the
shrinking of the Owl Rock lactssleinc syssorn and the deposition of minor rollan
strata in the Church Rock Membre.
SUMrrtAnY
Archïtectural analysis of thu f'me.geained facies of the Chinlr Formation allows
construction of a dopositional model that depicts small-scale depositional
environments in the lower part ol the Chiale and laterally-extrusive lacnsteine
systems in the upper part of the Chiale, In the Shinaeump and Monitor Butte
Members, flueiat-channrl compleses grade laterally and chango facies across short
distances into lovers and croensue sptayx and distally into wetland compteurs
dominated by lake and marsh deposits. In the Moss Back and Petrified Forest
Members, flnviat-ekannet complexes grade laterally inlo floodplain strata
characlerizod by carbonate nodute-braring calde and eresie pateosots. These
finvial-ohanuel complexos can be noeud in outcrops across eanyou walls, and they
extend to the northwest throughout the study area. Locally, individual palooxols and
weiland deposits sorer as markor beds in three dimensions and provide estimates
on the minimum tizo and lateral extent of the floodplain environments, las the upper
part of the Chiulr, the Owl Rock and Church Rock Members are dominated by

C C' D D,
D D,
w o- c a: > F- a:
LONG HOR
rig
SHOFI WOLV
614
LOST
'la BURR
>1'g
ROM
'I a:
o
a:
O
aa O
-f
zo a:o -J
01 o O
M oto r n
7.2 kur 1.6 km 4 km 8.0 km 15.2 km 7.2 lam
I- I- u O -J
I19km I_.l J ICI) att
loo I I I I I I i P ii I II
'fi Wt NG AT E
SANIISTONE

120
I Oui

Member

IL
i
Furent
Member

Mertrur
usirn
Member
60 z
a' ssirsrarw Mbr
MOENeOPI
FORM SPION

60 w Enplorsnrton Fon Ort'OstTieNOL enotnosmerlrs

P:': C uvost in e r,adtlat

Marsh Floudoisie. pairosol

5 km unta. s,eoassn splay Cuti an sand chart

t.acosl,inr bas,n

FIG. 16.-Stratigraphic crnsn seetinn nf fisc Chinin Fnrmalinu along D-D' mrstward palruflow nf Shinaromp flnvial sondstnnru al Ihr basr of ihr FIG. 17.-interpretive panel of cross neetionn C-C' mesi D-D' showing Capitol Reef bed tu a major fluvial eompinu consisting of slacked channel
depicting Ihn lilbnfacies and dnpoxitinnal cnvirnmnents nf the ChinIn Chinlr in thin regios.. lithofaeies and dcponilional envirnnmnnls of the Chinin Formation from the deposits in the nnetions at TORE and FBi) and levee and splay duposils lo
Formation nonthward und nastward ornmsd Ihn Circin Cliffs Uplift. Note Ihn Teandale uplift south to the Cirein Cliffs Uplift Thn informally named Ihn east through the remainder of the cross scutinu.

Dubiel Arckiteclural-facies analysis of nonmarine depositioeal systems 109

laterally extensive lacnstninr-basrn, laenxtrine-muilftat, and eolian sandsheot strata
that extrnd throughout the study area. The three-dimensional continuity of those
beds indicates that this lacustrine system extended throughout the study region.
Arehitectnral analysis of extra-dianne! facies within the Chirlo Formation of
southeastern Utah provides detailed reeonstracuons of small-scale, fine-graines!
depoxitsonal environments m a tropical fluvial -lacnstrinr system. to addition, the
analysis provides a regional architectural reconstruction of facies that are commonly
lumped as 'overbaak fines" of adjacent flavia! systems. Individual palrosols, marsh
deposits, and lacustrine strata cao provide local marker horizons to establish lotera!
correlations. Although sandstone bodies aro commonly host ranks for varions
energy resources, the encasing fme-graiued facies can influence interconnecttu5
of sandstone bodies, generate minerotiring solutions or hydrocarbons to sandslene
reservoirs, and dictate lateral geometry and distribution of sandstone reservoirs.
Thus, studios that incorporate the architecture of fine-grain-d fades con provide
valuable details on the geometry und distribution of adjacent coarse-gramed fades.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thaak Noel Tyler and Andrew Miall for encouragement te present the resut ts of
this study. This research forms part ola Ph.D. dixuertation done nailer the direction
o! Mary J. Kraus at the Umversity o! Colorado at Boul doe. Frank G. Etheidge,
0 50km
Fies. ll8._Deposilaonal model of the Chinle Formation in sonthrasteru
Utah and surrounding area nf the Four Corners region (shown by cross bairn
in each diagram). A. Aggrading Envia! deposits of the Shinarump Member
filled palnovallnys nradnd into Ihn underlying Monnhopi Formation; B.
Marsh and minar fluvial strata of the Shivarnmp and Monitor Botte
Members flowed northwestward and continue to fill the paleovailnys; C
Crevanne-splap and lacnstrinn-dnh.0 strata of the Monitor Bnttn and Mous
Dubirl
Colorado State University, and John H. Hubert, University of Massachusetts,
provided constructive reviews of the manuscript and suggested several additional
refemoces. An earlier ve-don of this mannscripl beneited from technical reviews
by Jean N. Weaver and Christopher J. Schenk US Geological Survey. t thank eaeh
revirwer for their critical evaluations and suggestions to improve the manuscript.
0EFEOcNCES
Bvxnex, RC., 1974, Stratigraphie and ilepositional analysis of the Moenkopi
Formation, southeastern Utale Utah Geological and Minerotegieat Survey
Bulletin 004, Sip.
oxn Gcnsrxsa, R., 1983, Late Triasxie paleogoography and depositional
history of the Chiale Formation, southeastem Utah rail northeastern Arizona,
ix Reynolds, R.M. and Dolly, ED., nils., Mesozoic paleogeography of the west-
central United Statee Rocky Mountain Section, Rocky Mountain
Puleogeography Symposium 2, Society of Economie Fateontotogists and
Mineralogists, p.57-76.
aux , 1984, Controlo of sandstone body geometry nod
architecture in the Chiale Formation (Upper Triassic), Colorado Ptaleau
Sedimentary Gxotogy, e. 38, p- 51-86.
Back Members pragraded to the northwest ovnr nndrrlying deposita; D.
Fluvial, ernvasun-splap, and floodplain deposits of the Petrified Forest
Member were deposited by north-to northwesterly-trending fluvial systems;
E. The Owt Ronk Member lacusizine spErm eupandnd and oecupird the
entire rnginn; F. Lannutrimc-mndflat and rollan sandshnet strata of Ihn
Church Bark and Rock Point Members were deposited throughont thu Fana
Cnrnrrs rngou.
Architectural-facies analysis of uoxmarine dopos ioeal Systems
Bvnrs, TM., ario Knovs, Mi., 1987, Inlngralion of channel and floodplain salles, t.
Developmental tognenee and lateral relations of alleviai palcosols: Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v.37, p. 587-riOt.
Besune-Srona, Caonv, 1988, Speenlative tectonic model for the early Mesozoic are of
the southwest Cordilleran United States: Geology, e. 16, p- 1121-1125.
Dcacvx, M.W., nov Mosocevos, LT., 1989, There-dimensional reconstruction of on
evolving fluvial system - Chiale Formation - northeastern Arizona: Amvncan
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, y. 73, p. 348-349.
Dsvxrsiox, W.R., 1981, Plate tectonic evolution of the sonthem Cordillera, in
Dickinson, W.R, and Payne, W.D., eds., Relations of tectonics loom deposits in
the southern Cordillera: Arizona Geological Society Digesl, y. 14, p. 103-135.
Denses, R.F., 1953, Sodimealotogy of the lower part of the Upper Trin-de Chiale
Formation, southeastern Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Gpen-File Report 83-
459,48 p.
1987n, Srdimrutology of the Upper Triassie Chinte Formation,
soatheastern Utah: Unpoblished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Colorado at
Boulder, 132 p.
198Th, Scalimentology and new fossil swearrences of the Upper Triassie
Chiale Formation, soulhcaslern Utah, irs Campbell, JA., ed., Geology of
Cataract Canyon and vicini..- Four Corners Geological Society, 10th Field
Conference Guidebook, p. 99-107.
1987e, Sedimentotogy of the Upper Tniassie Chiale Formation,
southeastern Utah - Paleodlimatic implications, io Morales, M., and Elliot,
D.K., eds., Trsasxic continental deposits of the American Southwest: Journal of
the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, v.22, p. 35-45.
t989a, Drpoxitional and climatic setting of the Upper Tniassie Chiale
Formation, Colorado Plateau, ix Lacas, SG., and Hunt, Ai'., eds., The dawn of
the age of dinosaurs in the American Southwest : New Mexico Muxeam of
Natural History, Spring Field Conference Guidebook, p. 171-187.
19896, Sedimeutolegy and revised nomenclature of the Upper Triassie
Chiale Formation and the Lower Jura-de Wingate Sandstone, northwestern
New Meeivo and northeastern Arizona, ist Anderson, 0,1., Lucas, SG., Lave,
D.W., and Lather, SM., eds., Southeastern Colorado Platean: New Mexico
Geological Society, 40th Annual Fall Field Conferonce Guidebook, p. 213-223.
1989v, Architectural fades analysis of nonmarine dvpositioeal systems in
the Upper Triassie Chiale Formatien, southeastern Utah: American Axxeciation
of Petroleum Gvolegisls Bulletin, v.73, p. 350.
Bvrovrre, RH., aros Bvres, T.M., 1987, Lnngfish burrows in the Upper
Triassic Chiale and Dolores Formations, Colorado Plateau: Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v.57, p. 512-520.
cose 1989, Lungfish burrows in the Upper Triassie
Chiale and Dolores Formations, Colorado Plaleau - New evidenec snggvsls
origin by a burrowing decapod crustacean - Reply: Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, v.59, p. 876-878.
Ersunscor. P.O., Javcsex, Ti., aso Yxvsvurnv, AD., 1981, Floedbasin sequence el a
liac-grained meander-belt subsystem - The ceal-braning lower Wasatch and
appen Fort Union Formations, Powder River Basin, Wyomiug, ix Elhridge,
FG., und Flores, R.M., eds., Recent and ancient nonmanion depositioual
environments - Models for exploration: Society of Economic Paleontologists
and Mineralogists, Speeial Pnblication 31, p. 191-209.
Faune,, KM., 1957, Sodii ontology and larx architecture of overbank deposits of
the Mississippi Riser, False River region, Lonixiana, ix Etheidge, FG., Flores,
KM., and Harvey, M.D., eds., Reeenl developments in fluvial sedimenlotogy:
Sovinly of Economic Paleonlulogists and Mineralogists, Special Pnblication 39,
p. 11-120.
Poem, T.D., axe Dears, WE., 1982, t.acostriae and associated elastic eneioomnents,
ix Scholle, PA., and Spearing, D., eds., Sandslone depositional environments:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 31, p. 8f-114.
Hirers,, ST., ario Mssvonu, C.D., 1909, Lungfish burrows in the Upper Triassic
Chile and Dolores Formations - New evidence indicates origin by o burrewing
decapad crustacean - Discussion: Joarnal of Sedimentary Petrology, e. 59, p.
871-875.
Kisses, Mi., 1987, Integration of channel and floodplain suites, lt. Vertical relations
of alluvial paleosols: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v.57, p.602-612.
usc Beses, TM., 1988, Pedofaeies analysis; a new approach to
reconstructing ancient alluvial sequences: Geological Society of America
Special Paper 216, p. 143-152.
Msas.s, A.D., 1985, Arcbiteclueal-vtemeal analysis: A new method of lacies analysis
applied to fluvial deposits: Earth Science Reviews, v.22, p. 261-388.
1987, Reeenl developments in the study of fluvial facies models, in
Ethridge, FG. Flores, BM., and Hareey,M.D., eds., Recent developments in
fluvial sedanentology: Society of Economie Paleontologists and Mineralogists,
Special Publication 39, P. 1-9.
1988, Reservoir heterogeneities in fluvial sandstoors. Lzsxens from
outcrop studies. American Association of Prtroleam Geologists Bulletin, r. 72,
p. 682-697.
Panunu, J.M., Dvums., R.F., use P000nn, J.T., 1989, Triassie tropical monsoonat
climates in Pangaea - Evidence from the Upper Triassie Chiale Formation,
Colorado Plateau: International Geologic Congress, Symposium on giohal
aspects of the Triassic, Washington, D.C., Ip.
aso Gnou, S.C., 1987, Preliminary repart on vertebrate and invertebrale
fossil occorrences, Chiale Formation (Upper Tesassie), southeastern Utah, in
Campbell, JA., ed., The geology of Cataract Canyon and rican... Poni Cornees
Geological Society, 10th Field Conference Guidebook, p. 109-t 15.
ase Perennos, F., 1988, Wmd directions predieled from giobal circulation
models and wind directions determined from talan sandstones of the western
United States - a comparison: Sedimentary Geology, v.56, p.261-282.
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Sandstone to Middie Jurassic formations, southern Utah and northern Arizona:
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1035.B, 43 p.
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Springer.Verlag, 425 p.
Srnusann, J.H., Preen, P.O., uso Wn.nox, R.F., 1972, Steatigraphy and origin of the
Upper Triassie Chiale Formation and related strata in the Colorado Plateau
and vicini... U.S. Geological Survey Professional Popar 690,336 p.
Zwes.nn, A M Sconnun, CR., isv Bannern, S.F., 1983, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
paleogoaphic maps, in Brosche, P., and Sundermaun, J., eile., Tidal friction and
the Earths rotation, U: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p, 245-252.
110
 VARIATIONS IN ALLUVIAL ARCHITECTURE ACROSS REGIONAL SETTING
/ AXIAL ZONI
THE OLIGO-MIOCENE HUESCA FLUVIAL SYSTEM,
EBRO BASIN, SPATN. The Ebro Basin
/
/
/
/
/ .4
/--
'.5-t--
'Ola
Jucunuslsl000ewelaseol

..,\ / / /
J.P.P.HIRST
BP Eitploration Company Limited
The Ebro Basin in northeast Spain (Fig. 1) was an enclosed arar of continental
sodimentalion daring Oligo-Mincene limos (Qoiranlns Pnerlav, 1989; Riba and
others, 1987; Agusli and others, 1988). Thy basin evolved av the sonthven foredeop
"ex n.-,, /--
/ / /
.ospa'<''-'r. f,-,,
\ T'-'. /
/
aaamo_....:'4ifFì4p
SIERRAS
ii
/?
n
Britanaic House, Moor Lane of the Pyrnavan orogvr, u prodnct of the collision between the Iberian and jaca BASIN r
London, England EC2Y 9BU Europarat plasos in mid-Tvrliary times (Boiles, 1984; Desegauls and Mvrvlli,
1988). The anta! 000v of the Pyrenean chain became an arm of nphft and erotica FU!VtAI. - E5'pg no'.
and, on the southern Souk of this vvolving moanlain chain, sevorul thrust sheets t s' / /S'tigTM 'n
br 1fidL SIERRAS
,TnEMP.
flu ttarsu Syon, n imopssssd s smtii. dussba,i,n ttnsul syaur,. Pion, were displavod sonlhward (Pnigdefabeegax and Sonquel, 1986; Maties and others, i q "n-
Assessor: / lt 'wnu, /GRA5S
th,s tlanthl tan' s&5 tsegdy thrghnr5b of ,s,ll-avfovd ,h,00,ls ma Ihn dsposiu typosile 1986). The pevsont Enteetsal Sierras (F'sg. 2) ars the emergent fronls el these major f \ I BASIN endoso
of ,h,n,rl-s.sdstuls dimvlos,d ,xtho, flo'ndpl.in ros,. Awtg.nr0ion nf 'br ssrsdssons aria
,uri,sdsprnd,ngo,drslonainsnnsainthssyswn bws.lp fil .,nossdm,flonthslth,eesn
thrasl sheets. Thin frental thrnst complex began to form dneing Evwene lime bot did
nul fully develop as au emergent babee anti! the Oligovenv. Once vmergvnt, the
'tn_sn LIma
\J I Hasura

,ysw,nmv sed brnsdly q sfisble nres is, len slIsnisi ntsioaao sonos, the syso,n
A prsv,ss seen lv, d,srñbol,se sysnssn eaw,vl 5, dearnxinsd, sed thossaarose kshss bren
wrsssmard nuüs, Ib, pr'n°"0 engins. Th,s du,au, rs, snsblud plus o by vnssnmvod shonog r,udul w
dissi ',sessvns fly r,snlasdioso I. An propesms 01 o-vhu,n,l sedes,r,L dsorsnssd dually; 2, as
ssndsony bed,,, 0,5 d,sfllly sed rho, the pslnnvssnn,ls es, bsvnsno,g shnllorsn,; rd 3. sheet
prsn.tsns nr,djslly. she,s ero,, subis
ss,ustnnss dspes,Lsd by lsLvesltynn,r,blvvhssesls
vlu,enels,,ediv.sedbyebbon ssrdstorys, enrers,nrevonnnv.rauufly.Th,dvnrnsseeohsrmsldspthsnd
inwhuo,sl ansporns se, perbsbiy as usais of s,'spnssixs eso, loss, ,hsenei bdarvsOon sed nudism
d,eenssr, fly Aesed sssbiluy duully is in,yep,sed to he Its si esdaesd sbslüy W
rl,, bsrs5s, mes, frsqosss s,vluon rd rplmm,,l lion,.
Thsslismsevhioolos,nfthr'poñphrutsnnus'ofthssysrnn,sdjsvnnitothethrntsfernsthssdsSoss
rl,, nein,,, usrgth nl Ss 55,0,. diffrn slighrly finns the r,,.,, pse nf ths seseas. Ths essA, duffremm is
thshigfls,lrsqu,vvyotvbbvn ssndssnthspoeipasr.lseess.Thssrvsybedorrnthsrsetnnuo
o,stsbihsy of lw Sn, v,se the thrust Ssno sed psnndss innndslion by th, nsseginsl sli,m,si tse,. Also,
thesr,ns,gin,slte,seuddbsessnnnassdtheflnrnpsthsefsne.srsnrmthspeuplresstpstnefthrne&in
The rsody hss spplivslinns hydsnnulben espinrstive in seslngnasssqorxvrs. Rsdisl n.nasurs 0,
prEnnEnt su nrd,vstsd sed rl,, essen of s.edstese bed,ss r, the sabstrisvn n.y br ,ssin,s,nd
leoen hr nidth.shinkurs, esislinsuhip d,onn,n,d fsv,n thn pse el 'br syssne.
eenuosvciicrc
Lateral profiles from several localises have been studied lo assess the spatial
variations of alluvial architecture within a sirgle system, lo attempt lo quantify these
variations, and to ansens their potential applications is, hydrocaeben exploration. Several
well-exposed sections from various paese of the Huesca fluvial nyntem in the Ebeo Basas,
northern Spain, ave enantined (Einst and Nichols, 1986; Hirns, 1983). Flew across this
disthbutive system wan mainly theottgh a nelenerk of well.defmed channels within which
the bulk of the sandy bedload material was deposited. The tequence typically consists of
chaanel-sandstone badine variably enclosed by flondplain deposits. Amalgamation of the
sandstone units varies depending on their position (presimal-dislal) within the System.
Is is an aim of this slady lo demomnule that them are systematic and broadly quantifiable
variations in the alluvial archileclure across a thslnibntive fluvial system.
thrust front formed a topographic high along the nertheen margin o! the Ebro
Basin. To the north, the Jasa and Tremp-Graav butins became largely separated
from the Ebro Bositt. These small 'piggyback' basins (Ori and Friend, 1984)
continued to accumulate allnvial sedimenl following thn emergence el the thrust
front (Pssigdnfabrvgas, 1975) and deposition mas in part vontemperoneens with
sedimentation in Ihn Ebro Baum.
nue ny
Bissas
lmkm
Fm. 1.Map nhow'mg the lonotion of the Ebro Bon'm, oorthnont Sporn.
,,-- OOESCAFLOVSAL /
I SYSTÜI
//
//
/ HUESCA SYSTEM
Nutrantine s
's
S' / ntos,ayaedneoses
EBRO BASIN 'n_sn,
20km
Psa, 2,The 'mfnrred early Mineenn palnodroitsogn poftnrn (oreonu) along
the enntral port nf the northern Ebro Bosio and witisiss the odjocnnt sns.th
Pyrnnnnn (after }tirnt and Nichols, 1986).
A elastic tringe of largnly llnnial sedimnels was deposited aeonnd the margins of
the basin (Hirst and Nichols, 1986; Allen and others, 1983) with the thickest
sequences deposited along the northern margin (v3SAO m; Riba, 1971; Agnssli and
others, 1988). Thnuc fluvial deposits interfinger with lacusteine deposits in the basin
centnr (Cabrora und Suez, 1987). The late Oligoertte to Miocvne llnvial sediments,
which are thy snb jest ol this paper, were mosdy deposited alter 1kv mdjoe opinados
of thrnst emplacement. The snbseqnnnl minee movements of the thrnsts caused
lindo deformation within thr seqnnnce of 'mlereul.
Pol seed coinage Potrete. Nues barn Ebro Basin
Sludy of the sediments in th, northern Ebro Basin, and the strncfuee of the
adjacent vomIra! southern Pyrenros, enabled First and Nichols (1986) to recostslenet
the paleodrainage pailera atong part of the northern margin of the basin (F'sg. 2).
Two terminal, thsleibntive flavia! systems. the Huesca and the Lotta, have bertt
inlorpryled. The beodee channels o! these iwo major systems were appronimatnly
100 km apart. Along the basin margin between those two points of input, the
cmergenl brouta! ramp formed o topogeaphic high thaI restricted houdwaed
migration ob major rieerv. A serios of relatively srnal alovial fans formed along thin
parI of the basin margin in response lo the timilnd drainage area available (F'tg. 3;
Hient and Nichols, 1986). Thons small alnvial faro inserfsngered with the peripheral
arcas of both the Lnata and the Huesca Systems.
_.,..
fluaislscenm,
A
Pto. 3.The morn Oligo-Miocene alluvial fans along Ihn northern margin
nf the Ebro Basin. These small fasss 'mtnrfiasgernd with the pnniphnral arnas
of Ihn mneh larger Honnea and Lana dinteibn.tivn fluvial systems (odapted
from Hirut and Nichols, 0986).
The Huesca Syatem
The Hoesca System is the larger of the two distribativ, systems inlerpref ed as
being adjacent lo thn northern margin of the basin (Ftgs. 2 and 4) und it belongs
largely te the Saeiñeua Formation of earlier workers (RibA, 197f). !l has not bnvn
possible In sendy div entire syslem for Iwo main masons:
the pronirna! sedimeuls have been leclonically disrupted, the mess prominent
sfeuctnre being the Barbastro Anticline (Ftg. 4; Martinez Peña and Pocovi, 1988).
Eoeene gypsam ix prvwol al the uortavc willtio thin d'tapiric anticline. Thus the
morn pronirnal sedimeuls are no tonger voulignons with the rest of thy system and
this study bus vancenlrated ou the medial so divlal deposits.
Regional correlation ix impreciso. The agv of the sequence has bese
determined from a few vertebrate horizons that indicate an early Mioceno age
(Crmtafont and others, 1966; Cmnsafonl und Pons, 1889; Daams, pers. corn.). A site
at St Cilia (Ftg. 3) has been placed immediately above the Oligo-Miocene boandasy
(Crnno!onl and othnrv. 1966; Agnsti and others, 1988) and is appears lIraI the
Huesca System developed in the arca from late Oligneene 'mio Miocenc limes.
Paleomagnetic sludies within the Huesca System have so fue failed fo improve
regional correlation (Turner and others, 1984). tn thy absence of deluded
correlation, the sledy cannel be enfended confidently455
over a large area. Thus, work
has focnncd on the medial te dista! deposits within a seotor west sed southwest

Hies! Vllriafions je ullevial archi!eclaro Ill


4.
u'\
i
uarsa
s " cut.nnnuet
IIIIii
"i
nu,
a Comptes umts are those which are divisible into more than one componrnt ou the
Fm. 4.Palnoe.srrest distribs.tionu at roch of the studied locations i.. the
Huesca System. The center of eaeh rose marks the center of the localion;
abbreviated names arc esp is. Table 1. The apex and eonfideuee
regions were determined statistically from the paleocareent data by Jupp
sod others (1987). The dashed lise withias the pronimal regios of the system
has been used as the datum from which the relative radial position of each
location is measured toward the distal limit of the fluvial system. Thr datum
is eoostruetesl tobe approximately 'concentric' with the distal teeruinatino.
of the Barbastro Antielisse (Fig. 4). le this aree fauttieg is eiaimal, with only two
faults noted, both with throws of less than 1 m. The regional dip is very low,
typically between 03' aed 2' toward the west or southwest, and il is possible to
trace llthologic horizoss over several kilometers where Ike exposure allows.
The plan morphology of the Hsrsca System has been delrrmioed from paleoftow
patterns and facies analysis (Fig. 4). However, rather than a smooth radial pattern,
the patcocurorul means fall approximately bite three groups. Locatioss closest so
the basin margm trend toward the northwest. Further away from the margin, a
westerly palroftow is indicated (MA, G and C on Fig. 4) whereas the southerly
lacadous trend toward the southwest. This observation may reflect the limitations
of collecting data from o few loealious within o large area, although, with the
limited eorrrlation, the questiou arises as le whether the three domines represent
different stages is the development of the fluvial system. However, the data loan a
roughly radial pattern aed there is little apparent stratigraphie difference horteras
certain locations with dittereat pateceurrrnt means. For example, the Cinca Canal
scellons, althoagh down regiossal dip from La Serreta (C aud LS on Fig. 4), are
topographically lower. The mean dip between the two locations of about 1' toward
Ihr west places the canal tedious laleraily equivoleal lo the top of the La Serreta
saqueare. Also, the exposures al Monte Aragon (MA ou Fig. 4) are opproximatety
along strike from La Serreta.
I'tirst
k. the abseuce of precise time fines, it is not possible to be categorie about
correlalsons, and the sequruces ascribed to the Huesca System in Ibis stady
probably occupy nu interval of the order of 300.500 m. Within this interval the
system may have varied its lorm slightly thrnagh time. However, exposed
sequences m excess of 100 w thick show ro apparent vertical change in sedimentary
style. Than, the atloibctcs and spatial variations noted in this study are cousidrrrd te
he the producta of a ftnvial system that evolved only slowly in the regiou during
latest Oligoeruc and early Mioeese times
Sasefrroxc.hody Trrrsivatogy
Dislinelive eampouruts uf the Huesca System deposits arc the channel
saudstourn (palreehauuel infills), Ihr primary architectural element of Miall (1985).
They vary from being isolated, geometrically distinct forms lo amalgamated
complexes. The enclosing floodplain sediments are largely fine.grained but also
inclndr coarser, extra-chaunrl uuil.s deposited by flood esests.
Thr sandstone bodies may be differentiated into simple er complex forms.
basis el erosional disconlinnitirs. story scours. These multistory/multilateral mils
lypreally have irregular basal scours in contrast to the simple, sieglr.stary
saudbedies. The stozys are separated from rack other by the seeoud.erder surfaces
of ÁlIca (1983) as opposed to the basal seaters whieb are the third.order suelaces.
The lerminotegy that has been applied te the various saudstouc bodies is
summarized as follows mid in Figure 5. Examples of these various saudsloae
geometries are illuslrated by the lateral profiles (Figs. ti 109).
Ribbon aarnietonrr formed when paleochanucts became plugged wilk seclimeut
prior to any siguificaut laIeraI migration el the origivat scour (Figs. 5A and 6A).
The resulting elougale saudslouc bodies range from being straight to variably
sinuous in plan form (Riba and others, 1967; Friend and others 1986). Ribbons
have bees defined as having width/thickness (W/T) ratios >15 (Fricad and others,
1979) and observations in the Huesca System iudicate typical W/T values for
ribbons are between 5 and 10. More complex mcllislory units arc occasionally
preserved.
Short aarclofonzo hace width/thickness ratios >15 and often >100 (Fig. 5B).
They may be subdivided into three main types depending ou the form el the basal
erosion sarfaee and the development uf catbanks.
f) Shrrt aandrtoxro . chaxxolizad flair. Well.drveloped culbanks characterize
these sheet sandstones and indicate they were deposited by chanuelized ibm (Fig.
SB). Is contrast to the laleraily stable palcoehannels that became plugged lo form
ribbos sandstones, other channels in the system were laterally sustablr and
deposited these broader units. Internat structures commonly support an origin by
lateral migration (e.g., Fig. 6B), although in.ehannrt bars are also interpreted in
places ansI seme braided reaches were probable. The sheet sandstone in Figure 6B
is the product of a sinoje sweep of channel migration. Other mils have mure
complex hislories with the channel migrating back oasI forth a cress the ehannvlbcll
several timet, producing a multistory and/or a multilateral sheet sandstone (Fig.
5C).
2) Short oaudotanzo . poorly chasxelizrd fleo. Poorly chanuelizeal flow is defined
as flew within a course with poorly defiued banks. The sandstone bodies are
distinctive in that they wedge ouI laterally in the obscure of clear eutbanks (Fig.
50; Fig. 6C, uniI 4). Internally they vary from being tcalureless to horizontally
Varialioes io alluvial arch educe
bedded. Low bar forms arc seme times evident. Poorly coufined chanuel courses
RIBBON SANDSTONE Wft<1 5 have bren described toward the distal ends of terminal channels (Higgins, 1983).
The definition of the channels, although variable, diminishes downstream and may
continue toward a terminal splay (Ward, 1988). The poorly chanoeliaed low
A Wing
Laterally slable flow
interpreted in the Huesca Syslem may also have been associated milk termival
splays.
3) Short Sandrronen - uurou/ixzd ovrrbank floss< The fmal type of sheet drposil
to uate is that produred by uneoufined, overbank firm (Fig. 5E). The unifying
SHEET SANDSTONES W/T>i 5 aspects of these deposits are their large width relative co their thickness and the
absence of eulbauks. Thicknesses arc typically <1.5 m and may be <0.5 m. They
ieclndc the wings (levees) seen attached Io the lops of masy channel sandstones
(Fig. SA), the distal parts of terminal splay. and crevasse spbays. The lull eslrnl of
these sheetr is rarely seen duc Io the constrainls of exposure or because of erosion
channelized flow
by laler pa]eocbanurls. Internally they are variable but arc often horizontally
bedded with alleruatioes of sandstone, sillstoon and mudslouc. Component beds
Iced to be discontinuous laterally. The wings of chanucl-sandutouc bodies, in
particular, arc observed lo thin, splil, tine and eveutually disappear away from the
Multistory/Multilaleral polcoehannel. Sharp bases are characteristic and the external geometry varies Irom
near tabular units, which thiu gradually laterally, to amalgamations of several brood
scour forms. These latter mils have comptes inlernal slroclurec and irregular botes
D and are sudar Ir the modern crevasse deposits described by Smith and others
Poorly channelized flow (1989). They are probably the product cf small channels scouring into the lop of the
initial flood-slage shod depotil as the overhauls flew waned.
Amalgamated eontpf rozo. Io sequences milk high saedslonr-Io-mudrock ratios,
E the closely spaced sandstone bodies will interfere and amalgamale Ir the entent that
Unconfined flow the component sandstone bodies cannot be discerned (Fig. 5F).
The genas naodbedy geometries discuasod above emery cnnaiderable informatioe, bal
il should br berne in mind Ural the various genetic frocs arr gradatioral in both procest
and product.
AMALGAMATED COMPLEX ALLUVIAL AIIcH1TecTUnE
F
The laIeraI profiles have been drawn from pholomoatages. All significad
saadstoec bodies ea the profiles have been numbered and these numbers arr usad
in Ihr test to eder lo specific units. The locations arc indicated on Figure 4. For
each location, Ike paleocurrent data, saudstonc-body thickness, sandstone-body typo
(ribbon versas sheet) and the proportion at the sequruco deposited in-channel are
Fie. 5.Range of distinctive sandstonr.bndy geometries rerognized in the summarized in Table 1.
Hnesea System (turminology as summarized in Ihirst, 1983 und Friend and In-ehasuzt component. This isa significant variable acron the system. As applied
others, 1986). A. ribbon sandstone resulting from the plugging n a ehausel in this study, it refers only lo that proportion of the scdimeel deposited within the
scour prior tu any significant channel migroliun. Width/thickness ratios
(W/T) measured perpeudienlar to paleoflow are commonly between 5 and network of well-defined channels (i.e., channels with deer catbanks) that flowed
across the system. The channel fills are predominantly sandstone or sillstonc with
11). The wings attached to each side of the central body are the coarse
overbauk deposits (levees). B tu E. sheet sandstone bottine deposited by i. subordinate clay plugs and lenses. Conversely, sorno sandslouc was deposited on
Ihr floodplain by poorly channelized and overbauk flaw. These deposits are
laterally unstable channels (B and C), ii. poorly ehaimelized flow (D), amI
excluded from the in-channel component.
iii. uncoufised overbunk flaw (E). Single sweeps of laterally unstable
channels produce sinsple units (B) whereas migeatinu of the channel back
and forth results ii. more eompins multintury/multilaterul units (C). Sequences With Liso In-channel Component
Unconfined overbask flow deposited nuits with very high W/T ratios asid
range from simple parallel.bedded tabular busies lo amalgamations nf Sequences with a low in-channel component aro disccsxed first, lu these sections,
Bornerons small senne forms. F. as amalgamated complen of closely spaced sandbody amalgamation is minimal and the units are generally simple. Profiles from
sheet- and ribbon-sandstone bodies. three areas arc represented on the figures.
112
 4m
CINCA CANAL SECTIONS

A Sm.

36
RIO FLaMEN
23
38
22 35 35

7 IO
27
11km 26 39
IO-

le
50m
16 42
IT
14
MEAN
5 299i
NORTH

RIO FLUMEN SECTION PAL EOCURRENT

SOUTH
Flu. 6Prof ¡les from the Cinca Canal and Rio Finmen sections iinstrating
the simple geometry of finvial-channel sandstone bodies in areas with low
proportions of in-channel deposits. Sandstone bodies ore indicated by stipple
(with the exception of the smgle unit in 6B). A. a ribbon sandstone (grid ref.
060520). B. u simple sheet sandstone deposited by a single sweep of a
migrating channel (grid ref. 073520). The flat top is the result of plaisalion
of the alluvial ridge. C. mcdroch-dominated alluvial architeetitre in the
distai parte of the system (gild ref. 083535) illustrating channel sandstone
bodies (1 and 5) and other units that are the products of poorly confined (4)
and tmconfined flow. D. ribbon-dominated alluvial architecture of a north-
south section along the cast side of the Rio Flumen approximately 3 has
south of the basin margin. Sandstone bodies are indicated by stipple.
ROSE fl44
Deposits of the marginal Roldan allnvial fan (Fig. 3) interfinger with the
north md of the section although, they typically constitute lese than 5% of
the sequence.

FI jest Variations in alleviai architecture 113

 MONTE ARAGON

0
G
n
0 2

o
L G

90 -
-.....................
33

-5 o 22
G
p p o
3b Is

b160 Inc

A B C
100m
o 45
o 45 MONTE
N ARAGON

w'.
44 645m
56
6 50
G
uro
2 - 49
-_
546 MEAN LINE OF
G SEC TtO N
48 263.5
O NAST E RIO

.47
52
PAL EO CUR R EN T I
6c ROSE 0=44

D o
69
17

Fss. 7.The alluvial rechitectt.re of o 1600m.1ong section on the

southwest side of Monte Aragon. Sandstone bodies are stippled. The circle
and arrow symbol may be envisaged as a compass with north at the top and
the paleoflow at Ihn specified point of the sandstone body indicated by the

Hirst Variations in alluvial architecture 114

 LA SERRETA

- .----- -
i-:' 3 - --
I
O

--
20m

10

K Io N N
S
o PAL EOCURRENT
ROSE n-40

57

58

62
4

8A.Lo Serreto profiles. See neot toge for roption. s

Variations in alluvial architecture 115

L
*Wsas*ssse*.s$sm.....a asm s..a...a
LA SERRETA
Er
LINE OF SECTION
)MJ o
55.----
500
15m
B is indicated by Ihr nirele plus arrow (north al Ihr top). B. La Serreta -
Curca Coral Srefiorre (Figs. SA, B and C): These profiles ore from three separate
maa-made cuts along the Cinca irrigation cono]. They illustrate the simple
sandstone-body geometry and high proportion of floodplain fines in the distal part
of the system. Internal frotares of the simple ribbon (Fig. 6A) iuelrtde isreipiorst
lateral migration and soft-sediment deformation, although the dominant features are
the concentric fills as the chaaael plugged. Plant debris was drposited in the bottom
of this paleochannel.
Fignre 6B is a simple laterally acvreted sheet sandstone with a partially clay-
plttgged paleochannel adjacent ro 000 of the cutbanks. The sandbody was deposited
by a single sweep of the migrating channel. lt is fairly mriform in thickness,
atthongb this is partly a result of the top having been planed off by lacustrine or
possibly eollan proeesses.
Larger sections in the fines-dominated poet of the system are iotreqoent doe to
rapid weatherrng of the fines. The voodoo sIsasen in Figure 6C iavtndes several
sandstone amts bot the two larger channel sandstones, both of which euhibit lateral
acorctiou, ore incompletely esposed. Units 2 and 4 are the products of poorly
first
C
Fie. 8.Cnntinned from grevions page. A. La Serreta - profllrs of
three separate serrons from around the valley nf La Serreta. They are
alt from the same honinon (appros. 500 m contoar) and arr laterally
eqaivalrnt. Sandstone bodies are indicated by stipple and the paleofluw
confined (tending toward nnconfined) flow. The latter neil is incised into the
nnderlying floodplain and thins steadily toward a small, very low.angle cntbonk.
Internally, the poorly preserved bodding is sub-horizoutal with the exception of a
small bar toward its midpoint.
Rio Ftorrtzu Sootiou (Fig. 6D): This profile is a north-south section in the Rio
Flamen valley about 3 hrn south of the basin margin. Thin shoots of
petrographically distinct sandstone derivrd from one of the small marginal ullnviot
fans (Fig. 3; Hiest and Nichols, 0986), are present at the north end of the profile.
These marginal Ian sandstones do uot exceed 5% of the sequence. An in-channel
component el 13% has boon determined. However, exposure is incomplete
between thr main sandstone bodies.
The sandstone bodies arr predominantly ribbons. Sevrral appear shoot-like on
the profile bol in reallty they are ribbons exposed along their length (1 and 17)
whereas others are oblique (32). Most of the ribbons are simple, but some show
minor lateral accretion associated with incipient lateral migration (6 and 29). Unit 7
is maltistoryod. The only shoot sandstone that is the product of laterally unstable
Variations in alluvial architecture
D
location of the profllrs in Fig. SA. C and D, Photographs nf parts of
Ihr La Serreta profiles (Fig. SA) nnvrring intervals between H and I,
and L and M, respectively. Sandstone bodies are numbered as in Ihr
profiles. For scale, sandbody 20 (on SC) is aboat y m thick and
xandbody 29 (on 8D) is abont 6.5 m thick.
flow, and euhibits lateraf.accretion sets, is sandstone-body 4. Unconfined flow
deposited oeils 24 and 35. Tho latter sandstone has a highly irregular boso and is
the product of a network of small, possibly anaxtomosing, overbauk channels.
Morte Arugoo (Fig. 7): The latoral prof il e covers approximately 1600 m of this
5-km-long xoothwrst-facing scoep. lt is about 1011 m high along much of its length.
Because of tho there-dimensional nature of the exposure, same sandstone bodies
with palvoflows along the scarp appear several times (e.g.. 8, 16, 54). The in-
channel component is 15%. Two minor tocustrine limestone beds arr present
(beneath units 14 and 16) and isolated pea-size gypsum nodules are also developed
within both hmestone and elastic lithologios.
Ribbon sandstone bodies predominate and many of them arr well loomed.
Examples inclode simple (50), multistory (46) and multilateral (48) forms as well as
onits showing incipient lateral migration (40). Unit 6 is an excolleut example of a
deposit from poorly chounelized flow, each side of the rail fhiuuirf gently away
teem the paleoflow axis. Other sandstone bodies were the products of near
uuconfmed flow and range from simpte sheets (17 and 56) to amalgamations of
mary small scours (3 and 5). The former are products of sheet flow, whereas the
latter were probably deposited by a complex of small, anastomosing overbank
channels (Smith oud others, 1989). Body 25 was possibly deposited at o channel
bltnreation. lt thins markedly toward its middle and the cutbanks at each orsi are
slightly divergent. Sheets resulting from laterally unstable channels are trw la
number but volumetrically importaut, the best developed being 03,24 and 45. Each
exhibits some esidence of lateral accretion and unit 35 is further complicated by
internal soeur surfaces.
Srqurrrceo with Mrdisrn Ix-clrauuzt Corvportzrrt
The following profiles are from areas with meitiom in-channel component (25-
65%). The higher proportion el channel-sandstone bodies results in o greater
degree of sandbody amalgamation compared to the motions above, and complex
units arc more frequent. Profiles from two locations are discussed.
116
 Table t Quantitative data for the studied locations in the western part of the Huesca System. The more pronimal there is considerable variation in the palcoflow and il muy be an amalgamation of Variatione acroee the Hurona Syotem
locations are tabulated at the top, roost distal at the boSom. The abbreviations for each location in column 1 are as used mere than one channel bell. Sandstone body lt is more easily interpreted. lt has
in Figures 4,10,12 & 13. accreted as several loll- to right-dipping slorys, each leading to thicken into a Peripheral locnaiexs in the Huesca Syslem aro those adjacent te the thrust fronl.
channel secan toward the right. Clay layers separato some of the storys. This rather In this area, the basin margin is likely te hace inflaenced deposition in the Huesca
episodic form of lateral aceretien is nota common feature of the system. System. Specilieatly, this incIdes the ureus in which the small alluvial fans along thr
iocot,rn' taon 'RADIUS PALAEOCURRENTS SANDSTONE 000V ThICKNESS ml %RI000N IN-CHANNEL Ribbon sandslunes are present but infrequent (15, 23 and 24). Unit 23 has a basin margin (Fig. 5) interfmgcr with the main system. Of the studied toealions,
u REF. (ion lost) SMIDST00E CO1A'ONENT
largely fine-grained till. Sandstone body 15 is in excess of 11 m thick. No internal those ai Monle Aragon, Rio Humen and Yequoda (MA, Fand You Fig. 4) are the
AO0RESIA1]ON km. MEAN e0 r ThICKEST MEAN 0F r 0001ES
UNII ALL 06115 storys can be recogmized and it may be the product of a deep, laterally stable nearest to the basin margin, lu thc following sections, graphs plotted to assess the
channel. nature el any radial variations are compiled, first to include all dala poinIs, and
Overhauls sandstoue and siltstone threts are preacot between the mien sandstone bodies second lo esc lude these three peripheral data points. la this way il is possible to see
909am (A) 352635 25 294 33.1 lO lO 5.1 10 10 62%
(e.g., 13 und bnunath 1) but are cidre imperfecily rxpoxed or Inuncated by channel whether the alluvial arebitectare in peripheral areas differs from other parto of the
Ponssalp( 390543 32 0240 75.1 37 11.5 5.1 31 21 55% deposits, syslem.
2203 53 4.65 25 33%
In-channel componeui. The values for in-channel component have been
Sao Lorenan luLl 345395 43 16
RADIAL AND LATERAL VARIATIONS ACROSS THE HUESCA SYSTEM determined (rom the lateral profiles nsiug sectioas at teasl 40 m thick and USO m
LoOnrInuILSI 220550 45 221 54,2 40 10 30 63 21 37% wide (und lypically msch larger). The radial eariation of the component (Fig. 10)
177695 45 263.9 50.3 44 5.4 2.01 39 05 15% Ps'eoinuat-Dirtnl Position within the Hurona Syutnrs indicates thaI there was a slrady deerease in the proportion of material deposited
Mnnlothngon(MA(
within paleoehannels dowmystem. Overbank sandstone and silislone were
qoflannnprF) 1107eS 40 299 41 44 5.4 2_ea 43 94 13% Variations in the alluvial arehileceure across the distributive Hurtes System are deposited by poorly confined to unconfined flew and include the wings (levees) ob
103547 52 214 520 14 7.3 2.99 12 readily apparent from the preliles. lei order le quaalify these variations, a measure the channel units. Because the coarse oveebanks are related lo channel deposits, it is
Albnseqo(Ael -
el the relative radial position (proximul-distal position) of the vaeiose studiod tebe expected that the oveebanks aise deorcase dislally (Fig. 11). There is also an
Vomlodnl'lS 135750 52 292.6 37.2 31 5.1 2.59 33 94 10% localities is reqaired. Ideally, thin should be the distance of each location from the overall reduction in the moaimnm und mean grain size of the sandstone distally. Al
SorJmnlJl 315280 53 2193 37 9 3.7 209 9 70 n1O% apes ef the system. Unlike the Lana Syslem lathe west (Fig. 2; Nichels, 0987), an Pertasa (F on Fig. 4), medium. to very course-graines] sandstone, olIn pebbly, is
apes caunet be defmed 1er the Huesca System by mapping laeies distributions. This typicaL In the Cinca Canal exposures (C on Fig. 4), fine' ro very fme-goainod
C90uCnrl(C) Vosiabh 54 274.9 32.6 26 4 1.76 17 64 n5% is due te tectonic deformation und povere euposare within the pronimal area. Also, sandstone 'o prevalent. Comptemenling this diminishing grain size is a change in
Gaedmldil 068614 57 275.6 24.5 11 3.8 2.19 12 70 05% facies patterns suggesl that the most preximat facies lay in a broad region across the dominant sedimentary slructuee from trough cross-bedding, which is common in the
basin margin and that inpst wasv is mere than one river. This inference lx medial locations, le ripple cross-lamivalion and concentric channel fills dislalty.
Mnnamoobh(M) 9400O 69 - 0% supported by work in the adjacent External Sierras where several potential feeder At approximately 65km, the in-channel cemponeul lends lo ocre and the chanmel
paleovalleys hace been interpreted (Reynolds, 0989). system would hace essentially terminated. Sued and silt, bal dominantly clay, were
The position ol the apes in a distributive system can also be assexood statistically deposited by shenl flew beyond this limit, although the transition to the more
L.a Serreta (Figs. AA-D) The profile consists of three separate seotions (A-J; K- confirmed and il is eqaally possible that they are an amalgamation ol several using the paleocurrent dala, which should converge proximally (Jupp und others, frequent tacusrnine liuneslonex und gypoum of the Alcubieree Formation (Riba,
F; R-S) esleeding over 2km around die valley of La Serreta. They are all from the chaauels separaled in time. 1987). By this method, the apes lies lo north el the present basin margin and the 1971) indicates the increasing importanee of ephemeral lakes,
same horizon and are tatrrally equivalent (seo Fig. AB (vr locations). The rn-channel Amalgamations el sandstone bodies that are clearly aol the products of the same candide neo cuvelopos are elongate and areally large (Fig. 4). This low degree of Sanalotorrr-body type. Sandstone bodies deponited by channelized flew (as
nom ponent of 35-40% iu best exhibited on section R-S, whereas the detail nf the channel belt are le be seen elsewhere. Units t 10 7 form an amalgamated comptes confidence will be partly due lo the palnocurrent dola being derived mostly from opposed lo overbonk flow) have been described in terms of two main geometric
sandstone bodirs is shown better by the other ewe larger seale sectiens. and it is not possible lo distinguish the separate channel belts that deposited these one sector of the syslem. However, the results support the inference thaI the fnrmx - ribbena asti sheets. Ribbons are the products of liable ehaenets, whereas
Sheet units domiaate io both acechen usd usw and only a low ribbons are evident sandstone bodies. Huesca System was supplied by more than a singly neer with a 'broad apical urea' sheets are the resull ob channels thaI were laterally unstable. The proportion of
(e.g., 30, 33 and 59). Some ribbons show minor lateral accretion (54). Severa) Several sheet sandstones are the products of uncoofined flew &ad range frem rather than a poinl source. The statistically determined apon wstl be a u aver ribbons as a percentage of the toed number ob sandstone bodies dcposiled by
simple, tabular shrntu with eutbanks are esposad (e3., 25, 26). Some units lack flat-based forms (45)lo units involving localized scour (41,44). position foe the input with ao pateegeogeaphical significance (Jupp and others, ehaunelizod flow is plotled in Figure 12. Ribbon sandslones become more prevalent
internat structure but others of these simpte sheets show evidence of latera) PerSono (Ftg. 9) the lateral prefite A lo c ir a continuons section extending 1907). It is of Stde ose in the preseat study. distally. The proportion of ribbon units in the three peripheral locations ix markedly
avoretioo (e.g., SO, 3t, 55). More cemplex lateral aecrelioo is shown by Imit 13 in aeound dr couler bend of the Rio Alcanadre opposite the village of Perlasa. The In thc absence el a suitably debed apes, the relative radial positions of the higher than in any of the other locations.
which thr accretion sets have a stepped profile (Ehrst, 1989). In contrast to the second profile (D lo E) ix of the opposiee bank farther downstream and on this locations have been estimated by reference to the distal letmination of the system. Sandstone-bedy lhickrteee. The maximum und mean sandstenebody thickness
point bars, muer foresets in unit 29 recerd the develepmenl el a large ia-chased senilen, the male varies uniformly along its length. Exposure is variable and the Dislally, the proportion of sediment deposited within channelx lends to eero. The shows a steady distal decrease (Fig. 13). The thicknenncx of channel sandstones,
bottom part of the cliff is obscured in places. ternsieatiou appresimates thy mapped boundary between the Envia) to lluvia- both ribboas sed sheets, ace plolted. Multistoryed and amalgamated complexes are
Evidence of the stacking of channel belts iu thema by units 15 and 21, Deposition The in-channel camponesl is 53-57%. Many of the paloochanuels eroded isle lacusteine Surmena Formativo and the corval lacustrine Alcubieree Formatiou not included. For simple saudbodies, the thickness wilt approximale the
ef the younger unit (15) bas largely eroded the tosdeelying uandslone (21). lt is earlier units and consequently lend lebe amalgamaeed. However, in mosteases it is (Riba, 1971; Fig. 4). le the proximal part of the system, a datum line has been paleochannel depth and a deerease in mean depth downsystem may be infereed.
possible they were beth the product nl the same channel sweeping back und forth. possible te separate the individual channel belts and thus avoid cuico the tess constructed upprouimaeety conceotoic with this distal termination. This dalum is in
Other multisteiy/mnllilatcrat sandutone complexeu may be interpreted. Sandstone informative term amalgamated complex (Fig. 5F). The sequence is dominated by the region el coarsest sedimest and has added significance in that il is largely INTERPRETATIONS OF VARIATIONS ACROSS TISE HUESCA SYSTEM
bedies 16a, 16h, 19 und 20 are all at a similar horizon with a similar ovnrall sheet sandstones that are the prodsets el channelizod flow. Several ace siorple coincident with the 99% confidence envelope determined tram the paleocurrene
paleoflow and may be the products el the same channel belt. The largest complex tabular units in which accretion surfaces indicate deposition was by a single sweep data. Although this datum is noI coud, ir provides a rational framework enabling Medial lo dictai yar-iutione
inferred inclades units 25, 23, 32, 34 and 35. The varions slerys/cempenent of a migrating chameel (e.g., 3, 9 and 10). Culbanks (2,4 and 8) and clay plugs (9) the dala Irom different parts el the system tebe plotted relative te each other. The
sandutene bedies have similar paleoflews, with the possible escepliou et 25. The are also evident. More cemples internal geometry ix exhibited by units 1, Sand Il. radial distances lo each of thc studied locations une measured ateug paleoflew The Hnnsca Syslem was a terminal fluvial system. This has been deduced from
depositien of these varions nails by the same paleochannel belt cannel be The first of these is possibly a mnitislery/ multilateral sandstone body. However, toward the distal teonination cf the system (Table 1). the dislat deerease of beth mean channel depth and in-channel component until u
co caed no page Ido

lient Varia OtIS in altuvial archileclare

*a..ø..**.e.*SSM*aaSS ..... a......

117
 PERTUSA-RIO ALCANADRE SECTIONS
e

VF VC R ¡O ¡ALO A NAD FIE

N
vo
3 t 2Dm

54
MEAN B C
224.8
000
PA L E OCUR R EN T
ROSE n37
53
36 39

50m
p o
e e e - 35m
o- 6 e
o
o
e e e e o
F=F e
-
LOG o

F15 9Profiles illnsluating tite shoot sandstone domissated alinvial

arehitecture of sections in the Rio Alcanadre gorge where the river loops
around the village of Perlosa. Profile A-C is from the coter bond opposite
the village, and profile D-E is from the opposite bank fus-tber downstream.
Note the scale of this second profile varies slightly along its length.
Sandstone is stippled. Along the base of the section, debris has obscnred
some of lite sandstone bodies

first Variations in alluvial architecture 118

 Variation In the proportion 01 sediment
deposited in-channel
c-Chu,cul%
50 40 50
Mostri R.di.I P0.0100 (Kr,) DeMi
Fra. tOE--Graph demonstrating the steady distal deerease ir. the proportion
of sediment that was deposited within the paleoeham.ols. Dato from the
'peripheral' locations (dashed lien) show little deviation from the trend
prodaced from the other dato points. The locations are indicated on the
graph by their initial letters (as in Fig 4 and Table 1).
point is reached where so channel deposits are present. The decrease m the size
and frequency et chassets across Ills 'fluvial fan' was accompanied by a distal
tining of the sandstone fill and a change is the dominant current structure. This
indicates a distal reduction of stream power. The system was distributive and there
is no indication thai the main channels were asastomosmg.
Modern distributive systems ht which flow is laegely within channels include
examples from the Sooth Himalayas (Muherji, 1976; Parkash and others, 1983) and
Bottwana (Shaw, 1988), althosgh details of the sandstone bodies being deposited
are limited. Of these modern systems, the Okavango 'delta' in Botswana is similar
in several respects. It is a distributive, largety terminal system which flows
seasonally toward epbemeeal tahes. In the sppee Ian, meandering chunsels aro
reported and these are likely lo deposit shoot sandstose bodies. Downsystem, the
chanecit become smaller, more stable and appear to be accreting vertically. Il is
ssggested thai those channels will result in ribbons similar lo those in the Huesca
System (Stanistreot and others, 1989). The climate is semi-odd and over 93% of the
inflow is lost theongh evaporation (Shaw, 1988). Despite the distal channels being
doy loe port of the year, the syslem supports a varied tanna and llora. An important
influence on the salare of the Ohavango appears to be the climate and an
Hirsl
VartaltOn st the lithologlnal components across
the Huesca System
Ftc, 11,-The medial to distal variation of the floodplam components
across Ihn Huesca System. Thn 1jan dividing the in-channel component from
the nverbanks is based on Fig. 10. The in-channel component and thn coarse
overbank deposits constitute Ihn maximum reservoir potential of the
snqunnen.
assessment ol die palvoclimate of the Huesca System will be important to its
isteepertation.
Palcoctirvato. The climate in the Ebro Basis was probably soon-and durmg
Oligo-Mioceno timos. A variety ol factors indicale elevated temperatures and
evaporative loss from the system. Nodular gypsum and veiy localized calerete are
found in parts el the Huesca System and halite was deposited in the basin center
(Qsirustes Puertas, 1889). Desiccation features within some of the more distal
channels indicato they occasionally dried ont between poriods ol Sow (Hirst, 1983).
Other features in the channel sandstones suggest unsteady, ephemeral flow. These
include clny drupes, episodic lateral accretion and occasional erosion ol the laIeraI
accretion surfaces (Hiest, 1989). Ao arid climate is considered unlihely us beth plant
and vcrtcbrate debris have bren recovered from the channel und overbank
deposits. The varied launa identified includes crocodiles, beavers und tagomorphs
(Crusalrut and others, 1966; Agusti, pers.commun.).
Inflow to the Huesca Syslem was probably seasonal with periods when channels
dried up, particularly in the distal areas. Waler loss throngh evaporation uod
porcotutios is lihely lo hare exceeded rainfall in the basin foe much el tho tame.
This would have caused u decrease io paleochunnet depth. These inferences are
Variations io alluvial architecture
ProportIon 01 ribbon sandstones sotol the
total number st channel sandstone bodies
Pro. 12.Graph showing the radial increase in the proportion of ribbon
sandstones expressed us a percentage of the total number of sandstone
bodies deposited by channels. The thron 'peripheral' locations are
represented by the open squares and plot well above the line through the
other data points, suggesting that their marginal positron may have
influenced the sandstone-body geometry.
similar lo observations from the modern Ohavango (Shaw, 1988). In addition,
channels in modern dispersive systems tend io bifurcate (Msher1t, 1976; Parhash
and others, 1983). tf division of flow occurred, this would have further reduced
channel depth. With u broader urca distally Io accommodate the dinnmvh,ng
outflow, u radial decrease of the in.ehanuel componeot was un messtable result.
Ribbon auodstorieo. A distal increase in the proportion of ribbon sandstones is
recorded. This is contrary to that concluded foe the adjacent Luna System (Fig. 2;
Nichols, 1987). Howevee, Nichols (1987) included both sheet sandstones of channel
und ovoebnnk origin in his ratio of ribbons to sheets for the Luna System. In the
Huesca Syslem compilation, the oveebanh sheets hove buen excluded. The aim here
is to determine changes in ihr larger, volumetrically moro important channel
sandstone bodies und hence ausrss any changes in channel behavior.
The greater proportion of ribbon sandstones distally indicales un increase in
channel slnbilily dowexystem (Fig. 12), which o likely lo be the result of a
combination of the following ladees.
Decreasing stream power down.syvtrm has bees inferred from facies analysis.
Coupled with the higher proportion of cloy in the distal parts of the system (Fig.
lt) and hence more cohesive banks, channel migrulicn is likely to have been u
Variation In Ihn maximum and mean
sandstone body thickness
--ih----- Iratrax ans t'si
M. Ttistzmn rn)
n
ax su
Modla Dula
Radl.i Pn.iiinn (Kmi
Fiu, 13,Plot illnstraling the distal decrease of tho maximnm and mean
thickness of channel-sandstone bodies across the Hnenea System. The
'peripheral Incatinni'(dashed lines) show a varying degree of deviation
from the plot derived from the other data points. In pnrlicnlar Ihn thickest
sandstone bodies al Mante Aragon and the Rio Fluaxen scellons are about
hallas think as those at La Serreta.
dower process. In the modern Ghavungo, a major reason loe channel slabthty u
considered to be confinement by durable bunks (Stamsteret und others, 1989). A
second aspect is lite longevity of the channels. Ifa channel was short-lived, uvnlsion
muy have occurred before any significant lateral migration. The life spun el a
channel sviti be linked io the Irequency of avrdsion und, with the ubeeisle wtdth ol
Ihr floodplain increasing distally, there was u gyrator area to accomodate arnlsion.
The repeated bifurcation of channels noted on modern termivat systems (e.g.,
Muherji, 1976; Shaw, 1988) was probably a feature et the Huesca System. Thus,
channels in the mediaf parts ol the system urn likely to have existed toe longer
periods relative to the successive newly uvaivod channels downstream.
Unsteady diectsarge would be more extreme distally where the effects of waIve
toss would be more significant. Periodic drying ont of some distal Huesca System
channels, mentioned earlier, is also a feature of the modem Okavango (Shaw,
1988). Allow-flow or dry periods, bedioud would be dumped und the channel muy
bogin to backfill with vodimeol. Subsoqaont high-stoge flow will be mare likely to
exceed the capacity el the partly Sllrd channel. This would have componnded the
tendency to avulso.
119
aeaa.._...e__..._. ..aasaee.a.m
In the south and east Ebro Basin, entrenchment of the paleochaunets into the
floodplain duo to falling take level has been cited as an additional reason for
chaaael stability (Friend and others, 1986; Anadoa and others, 1989). Multistory
rtbbons have also been mteepretrd as products of lake level variations. Maltistoty
anits are moro common on the soath side of the basin than they are in the Huesca
Systom (Anadon and others, 1989; Allen and others, 1983). The paacity of sach
units may indicate lake levol variations were fest of an influence on chanuef stability
in the Ifoesca System, possibly as a result of thy higher rates of subsidence ned
sediweutatiou on the north side of the basin, as indicated by the much thleher
sequence.
In summary, the greater proportiou of ribbon sandstones distally indicates
channcf s were more stable dowasystem. The reduced ability to erode the banks,
more frequent avulsion and ephemeral flow ace each considered to have been
factors leading to greater channel stability. Channel entrenchment due to variations
in lake level may also have limited the rate of chanacl migration and possibly
resulted in multistory ribbons.
Peripheral locationo
lu order to assess the affects of the basin margin an the alluvial architecture, the
line plots were produced with and withoat the peripheral data points (Figs, tO to
13). It is observed that data from the Monte Aragon, Rio Ftumea and, to a lessor
entent, Yequeda locations (Fig. 4) variably plot adrift of the simple trends obtained
from the other lovations. This is particularly noticeable in thy plot illastrating the
variatiou in sandstone-body geometry (Fig. 12). Markedly different data are
recorded at La Serreta and Mante Aragon, oven though these two locations are
considered tobe at simiar radial positions and stratigraphie levels within the system
(Table 1). A possible argument is that the method used to estimate thy colativo
radial positions is in error. The method, while approximate, produces consistent
plots from all the locations situated away from the basin margin (Figs. 10, 12 and
t3). More ssgeiticautly, revising the radial posilious by a specified amount will not
account for all the differences observed and the separate treatment al the
peripheral locations is considered ta bu justified. Other factors, pertaining to the
adjacent thrust front, may be invoked to account for the differences noted in the
peripheral parts of the system.
The basin margia was uot straighl and was further complicated by the presence
of several small alluvial fans (Fig. 3). Thus, flow into the maoginat areas of the
Huesca Systrm would have been deflected around the break of slope of these
alluvial funs. The straight-line distance that bas been measures] to the peripheral
locations (Table I) will therefore be au underestimate of this more circuitous flow
path. If the flow paths in Table 1 are increased to account for a longer toute, then
the data foe sandstoue.body thickness and the in-chaneel component will lie near
the plots derived from the other locations (Figs. 10 and t3).
lssceeasmg the flow path dons not explain the large praportios of ribbon
sandstone bodies observed in the peripheral arras. One of the reasous suggested
earlier for the formatiou of ribbon saadstones was that the palecirhaanel avulted
early in its existence before any significant channel migration. Situated adjacent to
the thrust front, avulsion could have been caused by tectonic instability associated
with the thrust. Syusodintentary tectonic deformation of the most proximal deposits
of the small basin-margin alluvial fans (Ftgi 3) has been observed (Hurst, 1903).
Thus, there was a degrro of synchronous leotouism adjacent to the thrust front,
Hiest
which would have variably tilted the immediate floodplain, possibly promoting
channel avalsion. Inuedation of the Huesca System palcoehanocts during majar
outflows from the smalt alluvial fans may also have increased the probability of
channel avulsion occurring upstream of the area of inundation.
la summary, the ribbon-dominated architecture in the peripheral areas of the
Huesca System was probably inflaenerd by the locat thrust-front tectouism and the
miner alluvial fans that entered the basis along its noethere margin.
Ai'PLtCATIONs TO HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION
Studies of alluvial architecture have important industrial applications, particularly
w hydrocarbon euplaration, where fluvial sandstones are common reservoir facies.
In sequences where the potential reservoir sandstones are laterally discontinueas,
but variably interconnected bodies, as in the Haesca System, qaautitatiee dala und
empirical relationships are important tools for predicting reservoir size and
continuity (Fielding and Crane, 1907). The present study of a termiaal, distributive
fluvial system provides an indication of the spatial variation of reservoir potential,
the dimensions of the channel-sandstone bodies and the geometry of the sandstones.
The results trom the Huesca System may be applicable to aaalogous subsarfaco
sequences.
Reservoir Potential. The net reservoir potential within the gross fluvial sequrece
(netJgeoss) comprises the predominantly study in-chanuel component pias the coarse
overhauls depotilo. The radial variatior of both dieto coarse fructious is shown in Figure
Il. Thit plot presides an idea of the maximum reservoir poteutial; diageertic effects,
clay seams md other eon-reservoir hetreogeneiûrx wilt reduce the reservoir quality. The
salient point is dio mdisl decrease in the peopottiou of coarto sodiwcut, Coupled with the
downnyutrm fining of the sandstone, the distal parts of dir system are poorly prospective
in teens of reservoir.
Sandstone Body Geometry. Sheet sandstones have bceu shown tobe prevalent in
the medial parts of the system with ribbon sandstones increasing in importance
(Fig. 12) and peripherally. From a reservoir aspect, eutensive shret
distally
sandstones are preferable to ribbou units. Distinguishing ribbons from sheet
sandstones, on the basis of their vertical sequence (i.e. core), is equivocal. However,
an inverse relationship is noted between in-channel component and the proportion
of nbbon sandstones (Table t). Thus, whereas the geometry of a specific sandstone
body may be difficult to predict, a greater proportion of ribbon sandstones may be
inferred in arras with low in-channel componeuts.
Sundstone Body Dirnenoiosro. A recurrent problem in reservoir studics is the
prediction of sandstone-body entent in the subsurface. Using measurements from
well-exposed channel sandstones at La Serreta, a width versus thickness plot has
bren compiled (Ftg. 14). The fit through the data is moderate und suggests the
empirical retatiouship may provide an estimate of sandstone-body width in
analogous sequences. For cemparisou, the data from a ribbon-dominated area
(Monte Aragon) are also plotted. The scatter of points suggests width peediction in
ribbon-dominated amas will br problematic.
Flots of sandstone-body dimensions elsewhere have tendrd to correlate
paleochannel depth against channolbelt width (e.g., Fielding and Crane, li987( or
include relationships based on chaunrt depth (e.g., Coliman, 1978). Thus, the plot
in Figster 14 is nut dinectiy comparable te these other studies. Sandstone-body
thickness has boca used here to assess whether there is any relationship between
width and thickness. Also, the thickness of sandbodies is readily determined,
Variations in alluvial architecture
Huesca System channel sandstone bodies
Width versus thickness
r,
lt 100 ceoe
llandtu000 Bady W)drh Im)
Fix. 14.Plot illnstrating the width-thickness relatiunship (W/T) nf
channel-sandstone bodies at La Snreeta (shoot dominated) and Maule
Aragon (ribbon dominated). The steeper line ennneets pninli with a ll5t
width/thickness ratio, which has boce defined us the ratio separating ribbon
from shoot sandstones (Friend and others, 1979). The widths af the nnita are
measured pnrpesdieular ta paleoflow. The eqnatian of the line thoongh the
La Serreta data ¡si thickness 1.017 u width°-°. Alternatively, width 3.85
o thicknms2-3 (R2 ll.694; R enerelatian conf unmut). At Mnnte Aragon,
many of the sandstone bodies are ribbons and the data show a considerable
snatter. A best-fit line is nnt significant (R2 e 0.1) and s therefore not
inclndod.
whereas estimates of paleochannet depth vary io their degree of confidence, to
many simple sandbodies, the channel depth would have been similar to saadstene-
body thickness. However, in more comples, malticomponent units, the best
estimate of chaanet depth in some instauees is coosiderably less than sand-body
thickness. Difficulties may also be encountered when estimating pateochannel depth
from cored Rencos. Figure 14 peovides a relationship that enables sandstone-
body width tobe estimated in the subsurface and may prove easier lo apply than a
routine which requires the palrochannel depth tobe determined.
SUMMARY
The Huesca System has beco interpreted as a terminal, distributive fluvial
system. The attributes und spatial variations noted in the studird sequence are
considered to br the products of a fluvial system that evolved ouly slowly in the
region. Flow across this 'fluvial fan' was largely through u nelworh of well-defined
channels within which the bulk of the sandy bedload material was deposited. As a
result, the sequence typical) y cousists of chuanel-saudstone bodies that have
variably amalgamated depending on the location within the system. Laterat profiles
have been drawn to illustrate the range uf din sandstone-body geometry und the
alluvial architecture.
lt is observed that the alluvtat architecture varies across the system. In arder to
quantify these changes, a measure of the relative position of each location within
the system rs required. A precise upon cannot he determined and thus, a datum liar,
based on the shape of the distal termination of the system, has been constractod
within the proximal region. Measurement uf the relative positions of each tocatiun
has enabled graphs tobe drawn showing radial transitions. The resalte indicate that
li. thr proportion of sediment deposited within channels decreased distally; 2. the
sandstone bodies thin distally und thus the paleochannelu were bceoming shallower;
und 3. sheet sandstones deposited by la tora fly unstable channels uro prevalent
medially, whereas more stable channels, as indicated by ribbon sandstones, were
more commou distally.
The decorase in channel depth and in-channel component are probably a result
of evaporative water loss and channel bifurcation. The increased channel stabthty
distally is interpreted lobe the result of reduced abdity te erede the more cohesive
bauks, more frequent avulsiun and ephemeral flow. Channel entrenehmeut due lu
variations in lake level may also havc influenced ehaonet stability.
Differences were alus noted between the peripheral areas of the system relative
te locations farther away loom the basin margin. Little variation was noted
regarding the in-channel component and saodstone-body thickness. Howvver,
considerably mure ribbon sandstones are peeseul in the peripheral areas. This may
be dur lo tite tectonic instability of the area and periodic inundation by the
marginal alluvial fans causing more frequeul avulsions. Also, the maogival fans
would have increased the flow paths into these peripheral parts of the system.
The study has applications lo hydeocarbon exploration in analogem sequences. In
the Huesca System, u radial decrease in reservoir potential is indicated by both the
decrease in mean sand-grain size and the dimimshing proportion of sandstone
deposited domnsyxtew. In addition, there is a change from bread sheet units in the
medial arras toward predominanlly ribbon sandstonrs in the distal regions, and
connectivity betwecu dic sandstones will be poorer distally. The empirical plot of
sandstone-body dimensions derived from amts in the medial parts of the system
may have applications indie prediction uf sandstone body entent elsewhere.
ADINOWLEDOEMENTS
This paper is largrly abstracted from the author's doctoral thesis, completed at
die University of Cambridge in 1983 with the sopport uf a Shell research
studentship. The helpful comments of Peter Frirud and Gary Nichols are gratefully
acknowledged. Also important was the cucouragcmcnl to publish received frum
Jahn Alten and Nigel Woodcock folluwing their examination of the thesis. The
reviews by Sam Johnson and Mike Leedor also helped to improve the manuscript.
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121
_m*ss__*......_...s_..a R._s_....._..a..
FACIES ARCHITECTURE OF A DEVONIAN SOFT- Rpgioeaf geology
SEDIMENT-DEFORMED ALLUVIAL SEQUENCE, BROKEN S + N kunesdavAy 0000e
RIVER PROVINCE, NORTHEASTERN AUSTRALIA The Broken Rivee Province is a northeast.trenslisig, fault-bounded remuant of a °
lightly folded Pate000io extensional basin, 150 to 300 km Weht of Towusville, + + oy0010conri
northeastorn Australia. The study area lies at the wostem end of the Broken Rivor 5 L e '
0100V rInce roomovon
° oO
SIMON C. LANG Province, Sn an area refereed to as the Graveyard Crook Subprovince. The area uoostiyomargoi
Geok,gkal Snnsy of Qarriolaad, contams a 10-km-thick succession of Oedovician to Carboniferons classic and ivDoVnm,ar FOwSefnOs
Drp'ourro ofR harboSsafe scdiunentaiy rocks (Figs. 1, 2). A mojoe ftsndameetal fossil, the Clarke

Auoiy>42a 4000
1, 42100)00,
61 Moy Si., B,iobaao, Qornaload. RiVer Fault Zone, was toctouieafly active along the southern margin of the basin
teem at teost the ?Laf e Gedoriclan to the Laie Carbonifeeous. The fault pone Figure lo lfmavcysyowofos *
considerably inflnencod depositionaf pafteenx, especially during depositson of tho n
AND Laie Devoniau-Eoely Canboniforoux Bsmdoek Creek Group. The Geoop was B I siceeusooun
BULGERI n
depositedm a 3- 006-km-thick wedge, the thichcst poet being adjacent to the fault
zoue (Fig. 2). Although fault activity was dominantly normal, a compostcnf of
E1 Se Sicraesevisne n FORMATION
CHRISTOPHER R. FIELDING b
desleal strike-slip was probably invo) ved (Withnall and others, 1988). 0o
n
-
Drpie'OnriO of Geology aadMirirroalogy,
The Uoivrrsiiy of Q,io0rid, A llerar belt of Oedovician qnaesz-arenites, cberls, matie TotcaRics and
Qislaid, Aosiralia 4072 carbonafessteetchos from the Hodgkinson Peovince in the north to the Broken
River Province is the south (Fig. t). The boll is sepaeatod along the Cloche River
ABSTRACT: The Loe DeABrAIB RBBTÑr1OS Ma,be, Bi the B40r,a FSS,SSSS je eeOheaaS QB,BSIISSd. Fasdt feom litlsologicafly similae Ordovician rocks southwest of the Lolworfh- EJ uTyforvowiovon
AAaOnIA, depoSited n, iSoloeo.flyaeSiee MIABiSI bIRB. Dea 50500e i'&S SB Bph1 iseran Raveuswood Province, Substautiat uplift, associated with dentral movemeut along
the fault oRno, probably completely removed the portioss of the Ordovician belt that WBSDO 01,0 SilBO 0W
Sod eri5oso,pbi; io the SSRIh of. n.jo, obiiqoe-SIip OSAiS SBSB. f000og the baSiC eawo,. The 5
oteebreiathar50leñBedbySelthoelyBeif000,oe,y)A,e-!o,nedj,no.g,a,ord,Soft.S,dASeo.defA,,ned may have overlain the Lolworth-Ravenswood Province. This explains why the posi'
-
SABdoAraS, i000edded psedoseoSsedy .hghhiy ,edde,,Sd SArROSOS. ReSaIS) otlppAg of aedi,oeol
Todo IeASRSSieS od meSSa! SO,OOIB,eS h.S ,r.B!Srd o the reoogeeoBr oS Aghi aediieomosl elee,eoLS.
Drdovician srdinsenfasy rocks of the Graveyard Creek Subprovince contain
eecycled, eelatively fine-grained sandstones, arid conglomerates with cherl and :siiU les,B'uaSS "Oes cAARaR POSI O

ChSeer!.SSII rle,ee,Aa BlAde ISRA,Red a.od ShellS, dACe -oo,Spleeea. fill,, SSSeeSAy-a,d volcanic clasts. Eveutually, the metamorphics and geauitoids of the Lofwoeth- I d,t :fn'm socio CnvOe r0000'crl
doorRv.,S..,o,SA05 ,O&eS000SBa, sed liegooid b&SSBTSS. FIOOdPAA Averes, SillA), iSOrSS.
Saya, Sod B',elbnl,k fsee,.
The aboedaBI SBfiOSSdABrOi defO,ee,&bOe ARaBerS (BrASSy 00000IBIT S.S,RSRSRal)
hqAr0000 of saedy badi
pe0000ed by
, OAS,eg o, AenediMely sfiar espiO dSpei,fion. La0e Se.SS ,S,eA>iAvS
Ravenswood Province became unroofod aud formed the predominant source during
deposition of most of the Bunduck Creek Group.
The locus of this paper is thc Late Devonian (Frasnian) Rockfïetds Member. The
member comprises the lower 700 m of thc Bulgeri Formation, which in turn
o-
hoRCo,,. defoen e,SIBple 5055m SRO&OTS. The,e ray be dar io hqAri.eiioa of aaioeaod BS,eOriaO!AdSlSd represouts the lower 3,600 m of thy Bmsdock Creek Group (Figs. lo, 2). The NCb
S.S), 0000g SBOhqASke, of 50.5005505 >5, OSfeS,Sd CPiOSBRB 2)osSg the OSAiS SABEr 20 kAS io ib, Rockfietds Member forms the lower half of a t,500-m-thick, coarsening-upwurd, Figure lb
leotonicatly-inflneuced regressive scqaeece (Lang und Fielding, 1989). The a B n n "t_
The PSBPASSI 0SpAS,iiCSEsI Bode! SB,opiSaeS b,o.d. SSiSdy br.idplsie eeth erseked diaob,egs regrrssion began with deposition overa coastal plain around the margin of a tidally- H_BARR S moot ge rosaenos N
OSSSSUAS. enSAISASa 0 Rtdeapses) 505.05.1 Boodreg. Chn,osel-.eSIaioS SORSI., OB,,,b,ned rAth influenoed shalow see, followed by rapid cuceoachmrnt of enteusSvv allUvia) plaiss
eeiSI,ee!y 00gb SobRdeooe 5.iS .SS000ed rAth IeOIBSBB SiSiSOY, eeRdod n,Tbv .00ASBB!REOo of loriOT and eventually aluvial fous (Fsgs. 3-5). The Bulgeri Formution has much in
550001e, ,heO.like, ohn,eei ,eAdbothes sed fioe-ge.iSed 000dp!.io deposiA. A Sode,,, sB.log is the comme, with other Dvvonian continental facies such as the 'Old Red Sandstone Hrseeneaassne0
.nasoSsAy isoodsad IOBE-SRBOSi,y ehotsei SysR,, of the .BBsÙI pisABa .od f.os StseeoeSdieg tha GSIS OS magnafacies' of Europe (Alten, 1974), and the 'Catskill magnafacirn' of North
Ls,peei.o., QBSBOSIRCS. 'USAS e,RdeI beso s,nee ee.enbl.soe io pSbhShed oodei. fo, loe,. America (Gordon and Bridge, 1987).

SBSB0SjSY ReaBRAS, TAS SofficiB, diltrS,eors Bario! 000SSAUB .5 d!OioB Rosis) SQIR
The ASAS eSpenaSlU SB eesetpis of Relagly fsfe,ed SS5ASBOS BOth IRseally eeiee,SieS (TIBiO ei)
thiSBel S.SdRoae botra S-SOm thiSk. aspss.Rd by Sloodphie depoari 0.3-2 C SIBIlA oS oonpnblr
lASTed SaiSi (1.5)0 So >4, R). Hyd,AR&ATRrS .Te,o!,,, 5051E aRRil., .SOhiiSOSA,S, 0040e., geAt suo,
sndsSmees)SsokoSAEofiepamogaoosi!dbeoosrede,ediobeb.ormsoBopiesAyo!th,eapeoio
Bad nos ,riihie mnd!eSdB.l tedieS,
_47-
The Roykfioldn Member contains four distinct sequences, informally labeled
anits A, B, C, and D (Figs. 3, 5). This paper will discuss selected aatceopn from
units B and C, which comprise predominantly sandstone intervals interbedded with
finc-grained intervals. Thin intraformational cougfomeraten occur throughout the
o p

INTRODUCTION

Previous studlos of thin sequence (La.sg, 1985, 1986, 1988; Wjthrioll and othees,
1980) rolied mAinly on vertical seiaeno aSSalysit foe facies iuterpretalion. The
purpose of this paper, however, is to illustrate the value of lateral-profile studies So
facIes mferprctatioe, leading to more peecise iuterpeetations of dopositionut
esviromnenfs than is possible with eerúoal profites alone.
Fhe saedstone intervals are mostly 3-ti) m thick and laterally extensive (>1,500
m). They comprise gray, lithofeldspathic, fine. to medinm-geained sandstones, with
lesser coarse-geained bands. Mast are flat-laminated, with wefl.developed parting
Isneafion, or cross-bedded (planae, trough, or low-angle trough lypes). Convolute
Pio. 1.a, General lucatiun m northeastern Queensland. b. Rngiunat
guology of the fonit-boondnsf Bruknn Rivnr Pruvmnne showing f onation ut the
Graveyard Cenni Snbprovincu (CC), u, Gnolugy ut the GC, ubowing
location of study area, Figure le
'
Fto. 2.a. Snnenary chart uf the stratigraphy of Ihn Graveyard Creek
Snbprovisscn (OC). b. An nnfnldnd nectiun from sonOs tu nurtb across part of
Ihn basin (une Fig. in). Note Ihn wedge-like cunfign.ration of Ihn Bnlgnni
Formation, thickest along tim Clarke River Fault Zone and thinning overa
baum high, unggnsts fanif nontrol dnsring depo&sliun.

Lang ond Fielding Fogies archilectarr of soft-sedimeul deformed alluvial deposits 122
tamioation is a pervasive featoer of the fisse- to medinm-grumed sandstones, with The locution of n feature is sperified rust by the height in the section, then by the srnoctlnns. FOSSILS, eren.. p. vanneurs
overtonned cross-beds being less common. Attboogh most structures are small scaf e distance to the northeast or sonthwcst of a central baseline (e.g., 80, 15NE means
aod Ioeatizod, some are large-scale (up to 5 n os usuptitude), and clearly deform 80m in section, i in northeast of baseline). The outcrop profdrn were mapped on
erosive contaCts between several beds for at least haodreds of meters laterally. u bed-by-bed basis ut 1:100 soute, und druwu dirceily onto large sheets of graph
I,
Rare tyropod-tog casts and plaeodersn fish remains occur at the base of sandstone paper film taped to u portably drawing board. The areas steeled as profiles t-3
beds. took hundreds of hours to muy, and eepreseui a coverage of 2,400 m, 1,625 m, and
Thr fine-geamed intervals are mestI y 03-2 m think, bot eombmed with some of 1,625 mu rrsprvtively. The drawings were theo chrcked for accuracy in the field,
the thinner sandstone intervats they range up to 10 w Ouch. Apart from miner where they were thowat to represent a faithful accorant of alt sedimentary strrictrires
discontinuous tenses, the main intervals are taterally estenssve, some bemg mapped with an effcetive resolution of 5-to cm. The profiles were subdivided into mappable
op to f500 in and othersopto >4,000 m along strike. The tme-gramed intervals 'units' bused on distinctive erosion surfaces or facies changes. Therefore, the nulls
comprise a mix of variegated gray, green and grayish-red sit,stonex, with silty, very represeut beds or groaps of beds. They are us follows: units la to 22 (profite t),
fine- and fine-grained sandstones. Roottct casts, plant fragments, fish remains, units 23-49 (between profdes 1 und 2), omis SOa-60d (profile 2). Profdes I and 2
occasiouat desiccation cracks, und wave und current ripples characterize those finn-
nR
grained intervals. Sandstone dykes are common, and conoofate fammation is
relatively rare.
LOCATION OF FOSSILS
PROFILE
Numeroos, thin, 1mo- to coarse-grainS reworked soifs occnr thronghout the
lnoonlormfy Ripple a-lavi
Im Fists renlass
sequencc, ospeeiafty in the fine-gramed intervals. These toits are laterally extensive
(op to 15 km strike length) ned contain a persistent array of soft-sediment
Abordort Rippir wadis Biusloes
deformation structures, inctuding cross-cutting clastic dykes, convolute lamination
associated with dewatering pipes, stnmp folds, semibrittte breonias and detached
Cummee Larrisuted 51115105e Plant bugvorrts
blocks of luff floutingmundertying finer grained layers.
The Rockficlds Member was previonsly interpreted as bring of lluviatile and Dmiccul,on/syvurrrns Biolortalov
Raro
beach origin by Wyatt and Jell (1900), or alluvial plain with miner shallow-marlee crocks
deposits by Lung (1985, 1986, f988; Withealt and others, f980). These initial GrossIes & pebblrs
attempts to interpret the sequence were only partially sncccssfut becanse they relied ¿ RuìnpAels
on vertical profites. Alter further examination it became clear that the compilation Cobblos ptart 159/5100
of latrrnl pierdes could feud to mace rigorous inteepretatious. The level of detail C Rip-up vodolasts
achieved in Outwork has been made possible by prense outcrop mapping. This bao Romorked taft CHEMICAL
Fio. 3.Geotogy of Ihn slndp orno alnog Ihn Broken Rivnrr showing thu Vector noms plonrd
enabled os io reinterpret the mcwbve us u thick succession of rapidly-deposited,
low-sinnosity stream deposits separated by partially.osidizod floodplain und semi-
neatians nf the generalized stratigraphie section (Fig. 5), and the three
profilen. 'Units A-N' ore informal snbdivision nf the Bntgnn Formation; J And aspri dusts / obere r6=flO of rrudirigs
Crlcrrlr rrodolm
permanent floodplain Icho deposits (Figs. 4, 5). t'uteosots are poorly developed colcosroon
thin paper in concerned with nulls B and C, in the Rmrkfieldn Member. SEDIMENTARY 500-sedirrorl detorrr000e 8 co strisciO hsl
compared lo the overlying sequence, which comprises u Ouch stank of reddened )conoolulo lampnuliov.
STRUCTURES
alluvial-fan and course-geaineal, tow-sinuosity channel doposits (Stopom Blockem g ilutdalce pipes,
ist Reworked cilerele
Conglomerate Member, amts G, t-J, L-M), interleaved with grny, coarse-grainS, Acorrtroeury lapilli 000rlcr500 a-bets,
low-sinnosity channel sandstones (Bulgeri Formation, oeils E-F, H, K und N), both retativety simple, layered architecture. A view of the outcrop at profite 3 is nvrotnults}
interbeddod with reddened floodplain deposits displaying catcic pedegenic features Plnoar-tobolor clods pg Pyile
illustrated in Ftgnre ita. ZL
(Lang ucd Fielding, 1989). Most pnblithrd laierai-profile studies, for example cliff, open-cut mine or roudcnt Lmil carts
On Hnrsotte
esposares, arr bused on tracings of bed boundaries direcily from photographic Trough u-beds
Methode mosaics. This approach is only traitable for photographically accessible rooks, and Sandstone dIios
Flut luerivotnd M MogeelIr
with u few notable exceptions (e.g., Allen, t903; Misil, 1988u; but see papers by
sandrtore
The Rockfietds Member is well exposed in the Broken River, which has carved Miall, Cowan and Bromley, this votano), the internal detail of most beds is only Si Silcrticaliov
Ont an almost continuons esposnre 2f0-3to) in wide across strike (Fig. 3). The vagriety illnstruted. The steeply dipping rooks of this study (75-80') presented u pl Parlirg 1000110e
steeply dipping rooks form polished rocky burr across the riverbed, enabling close photographie problem, which was resolved by using a helicopter to take a sot of
inspection of most of the sedimentary structures, to places, cliff s are developed approximately 1:200-acate aerial photographs ever the profiles. The resolution of
Fax. 4.Legund for generalized ntroligraphin nention (Fig. 5).
allowing three-dimensional views, and many intervals can be traced for kilomoters the photography allowed the major sediment body boundaries tobe delineated, but
aloeg strike wish good reliability. Figure 3 shows the locution nl a generalized rarely could internat bedding details be traced reliably.
section (Fig. 5) theough the lower Butgeei Formation along the Broken River. There Since it was also necessary to document the wealth of internal detail in these
representative outcrops of the t0ockfields Member were setecteaf for detailed exposures, it was decided to sureey un esteasive grid system ever the outcrops to Pro. 5.Gnnnrolizxd ntealigraphin sevtion through the lower port of the
mapping and furies analysis, and these are referred teas 'profites' 1, 2 and 3 (Figr. enable drawings to be prepared. The grid wax surveyed by tapo und compass, and Bulgeri Formation ('nulls A-N'), showing the ovnralt eoorneninag-npward
3,5). spat-painted over the oneerop. The lines were spaced 5 os apart parallel to dip sequence reflecting the massive, tnnlnnieally controlled rngrossion rn the
Profiles 1 and 2 und associated composite sections are illustrated in Figures 6-9. direction (315') and strike dineotion (045'). The grid enabled recording of the Late Dwvonian. The otratigeophin punitions nf the three profilen ano
Profile 3 is illnstratrd as a composite motion only (Fig. 10), the profile being of coordinate position of any feature on the profites with respect to nominal baselines. indicated.

Coriixurit espace 126

Lang arid Fielding Facies architecture of soft-sedieceut deformed alloviol deposits 123
 40 35 30 25 25 iS ib s i S iO 15 20 as 40 ab 40
00555450 54505005055
43 DU
3° DU as - - - 4°

LS

---- -----as u Cs

-!-r
_,t_tj
03
-
_-
-
s
:-
._--
- - -_
OF ois CS n
__ uuosasossissaso - -.__ LE
0-
LE is
----
-
A
- --a- -- -- cs
LE
CS

JITTET
----
° LE
Y - o
-i-- -- -A s 1LE

LS
_L0
,-
KEY 10 PROFILE i

=
-

..
40200 ISa LS
/1/ . -iTTf- o SF__
E
s: OF ' U
DU

[
DU oL -- - Os DU io

LS,o
-or
- -
-- -
''d - LS

---
S
---_-

OF SECTiON UNE PROFILE I FIlos 8

35 30 25 20 iS iO S 0
O S 15 20 25 ss FIGURE 0

Pse. 6.Profilo t, uppor port of unit B, Rockliolsls Mornbor Skotch basosl 2,400 4
Effrctivs ocsolution is approsimotoly 5-10 cm Sods dip 78° to
on dotniod mopping od logging using o snevcyod grid covoring on oreo of 3t5° usimuth.

Lang and Fielding Facies architecture of soft-sediment deformed alluvial deposits 124
 20
5545 KEY TO 40 PROFILE 2 30
-
30 25 20 15 to 5 o 5 1'O 1'5
65
dJDU
------ - - - -
Z
LiLO 66J LS

80 _____ __ DU

LS

66
DU

Du -

7o
0Ff 56

iiiT--'
- !: - nL
-
;--
_Jcw JLDß

-
OF

LB
70

LB[ L
DU
DU-[ 0' - J LDA
LDA -
65
OF
LS 52
- - -----
-
-
, -
.. -- -. -
-- .- 0F
LS

i
______
-
,- -.. ------ -. -
--- _

- ---L
- ee - - - _- !
0gr=.__
D - --- - 60

o. SECTION LINE. PROFILE 2 (Fig. 9) - ' NE

SW
45 ap ap 30 25 20 15 15 FIGURE 7 20
I',c. 7Profile 2, busc of msit C, Rockliolds Member. Sketch based oo
detailed meppusg aod Iogghg t.sbsg a sorvoyrd grid eovcria 1,625 m'

.... u...._
Effective rcsolutioo is approoimatcly 20cm. Buds dip 78 50313 azimt,th.

Lang and Fielding Facies architecture of soft-sediment deformed alluvial deposits 125
...__.*__a._._._.._._....... ...__ .a.a_..a..
u ' y{N5 n is 5N
share tIse same vertical and horizontal baselines, but prnfite 3 is affsnt 700 m
n u _-
-
r
s
,-..' i% L no
sonthwnst of the peofitn t/2 basetiae (Fig. 3), and is snbdividnd iota a difteennt set
of amts, t-20h.
- n

I :::
unnun Palooneeont rnadmgs on the profiles me corrected for dip, and oriented with Tvao 1. Uthofacies schmo (after Miall, t978; Massari, t983).
u rospent to tho outcrop to pnrnut nosier sisoat intorpentation.
$2
u nou s
o , _

°
- Iithnfaries md aerhitoctu,ul doeeontn Lithofncinn Sndimn..tnny h.tnrprntfio.. ° j °°
nPn
o
-=T: ca

2
_:
: urur The three pnofdos are dominated by soudstone and siltstonn, with raen
mo f ren t erraI rngt m t F th purpuro f d scopa de se oak h
been split mto vanous tithotacies, then grnupnd together to form arctntectnrat
G rolty t tho/ (G)
n eu o

o - _q , iinr n
noLeomewnun elements. Lithefacies and architectural elements bave both been organized into
Ge avnt, massive
esionat sconr,
crude -
stratiijeaden
scour fitta '
f1
_, t mev-ny
nasa cumsesav ceded schemes. The tnlhofacies att ha vecharacten stic sedimentary structures, and intractast rich °
,a
omevemea nearly all can be equated w,th the litteofacins scheme el Mmli (a978). The
: f rm t on t ugt m t d treat t hth t G f M sun (a983) S rely I thof (S)
-
gar-.
--r----..
' rea,1
no- n,

sue
::naeuoo
rani OxeO
TIns standardized scheme has mdespeead ose as it facilitates comparisons with
other fluvial systems. Therefore, we have adopted a combination of the Miall
(1978) and M sari (t983) suh na (T ht t) Lang (t985 t986) carried a
hthofaeiei analysis of the tower Badgeri Formation, and concluded that the vertical
Sh nd, very-fine
te vnry-coarse,
na yb pebbty
horizontat taminatiea
or stratification,
rtung
ration
treamang
plame-brai flow
(tower and upper
5 w egun)
O
r
'''_ na. u
n

am
m

sor

d lt ti
- use ca resssaesacx ut distrib li f hth t ci
bd vsding th Bntg n F emuli mt
ssembtag w useful rit ria f s sa d ry Im sot tary gr post don (t w
a iaoiC o.

ca, en sc saumo,sisnr m mt maul t lige phi amt ou h

ix uiavss sua 'r mtrrpreted as the result et particular depnsitianal environments, arid mappable at
t ry na se
may be pebbly
t ugh
stratification
fi w regnai) t
a
*ieeeu nr ana.o cena
,a
ncc ososa, eu basm acate (airnts 'A-M' are indicated ou Figs. 3,5). W
naOmi Sp sand, vervfme solitary or gron
etemi an be reco' od b cha leristi se Ihefucies, gaiu size, banding ossebomas,
tie mirai sss w
rl ces, gr m try
moat ti tat al tali ship dpat maire Is F b city fi w egim
()
115 ,, tI h b ge od , g ally pa bI t f MuaIt (1985, 1988b)
Lu
1h
- 11,Oc, 'i
cca)))oc
schemes. The elements can be differentiated into Iwo groups, five honig SI
.
saad, 1mo- to tow-angle arough
i
scone fdts,
phiya
Ct
-.--_ ., ririe us
components nl sheet-like channel-fill complexes arid three bring components of the
Eserar' a sheet 5k bank floodplam mpl Th t m t od omm razed s sa d, ry im eappl eu
8 cc
)°° Channel-fill elements arid ripple marks s ,_, oca.

rom,
soc
cuca
LS
DU
Laminated sand shrots
Dune compteurs
of att types
e,
cc
/' men a. a
r
Sr sand, erosional cred e crass- scour fills z ' usan eu
LOA Lateral- lo downsteeam-uccretion macroforms sconrs with o

.rc u
/, a
tu
ri

,n,
oc
eux
.5nx° an LB
SF
La g scat tuign ti b ri aun
Sc er fill
Floodplain elements
Cs Crevasse sptuys
mIr I t
Foaz-gr-nsaza lIbe/ arsen (F)
xx
/ un-an
°)2ie
aros
Sao

rene,
° -'u Ft line- to very- fine lumination, ovrebank nr
u
a, a airman
,,na,xs(n, i.
nc
sa 000 mmmc
uu.ax.sezn.oco,
LE
OF
Levees
Overbank tanes
fine sand, silt
and mnd
ripple cross-
lamination,
waning fined
deposits ,, 0 uev,Ssi/r nu, a
o Th veil ra for coogmti t 1h co un hxtectase I 1 m t re omm razed in tippt ma k
o fiy re/ en
.. Table 2.
Fm very-fine saud, mustien ovvrbank
Our element scheme equases with Miall's schemes as follows. All our channel-fill tilt and mad desiccat)on cracks, channel-fill nr r'
'°
encira acuso elements could be included indie 'CH' element. Laminated sand shoots (LS) und nemw,, au
O
a
cc
sanco,
canerao
cvnnnie,c
overbauk fines (OF) are identical to Miall's (1985) elements of the same names.
mudcruchs drape deposits
mbeO'ni /i
our

The dune complexes element (DU) is comparable with Miall's 'SB' element, but we

'iic
'° innS en us

/a
ricco, 9 have extracted crevasse splays (CS), the large-scale planar cram-beds et lingnnid
a°- sii»
/ sac n- ucenoac Fao, &_Dacnptiun and mtnrprntation uf nnmpauitn unction thrnngh Fin. 9Description and infnrprntation of compesite section naugi. o,
t, i.e ace
au

n- maroc
p fd I (une F.g 6 f local, f aocI. Im ) ppn part f mut B of 1h p faI 2 (sen Fig 7 f local f senta Im ) t w pa t f rimO C uf 1h cocu,. onoacux russ eeeatr ca
500m Lcrormu.a Bannes rmuna,ism Runkfinlijs Mnmber.
nenni cnn,w sar Ronkfinlds Mnmbnr.
pg 128
Lang and Fielding Facies architecture of soft-sediment deformed alluvial deposits 126
 M
A . RN Tsm 2. Arehiteetmot elemRtN - CRiteRiO br rcengRCitROM
NM

A
- A

R
M
LjtbofCiCN deciptio. iz GoOmetMy LOÜOnN .d rhtiohip DformLio toctums Bodh.g nfc

- u
I
MMMNRA
RNM
ARRM
Lamh,td d hCMtN (LS)
Sb osd SI, minor Sp, St ad Sr Grey flat-lammated vI-m; RMRM e-gl, Shmt-likM bedim RxteNd >1500 m taterolly, profile L emits le,2b 4,Th, PervasisA SURgIR AOflVntUtM lanamat-
tott 5Mtt wtth ssoetatcd dewatermg
Ernsvely ptarnr to stightt eoneuvo
basal surfaces with ornded irrMgular,
RN sandstoNe with ubqmtos partiNg ImoutioR, whieh mudelasts to ami 4-10 m thick. Individual sbmt-lilm ha,12,14a,4024; protilM 2
adm laterally into very 1ow-ntgt plattur- Ar trottgh- small pebble or IMMtiettlur elements gettorally ratte units SOb,52,55a3,55i,5&, ptpes 0.3-1 m hgb attd syufetms 0.5- AOttAaVR nr planar tnp. 11 tu ttot
A ' RIICSCMS
n like IAmittMtiOtRS. Solitaty uttd gcouped Sp attd St sets RiZR. trAm 50-200 m loctg, 20- s tOO m wIde, and 59a,b; profd 3 tCMitN 20n-d; 4 m witk; mttltipbMse defotmation wOk MROdCd tItAR plRMr to shptly
O 0.t-0.4 m thick, ripple traitts rn places (Sr). 0.t-2 m thick. Eroxivoly ovorlies OF, DU rntd dowotermg ptpes 85-5m bigit retti cortvcs. btterssal lammataotts trmscote
LE, red overloirt by DU, LE, synforms OS-6m wide. eoeh other at very low anglos.
attdOF.
is
1 Orme eompleuee (DU)
St, SI rod Sp, mittor So, Sb ottd Sr Grey xaodstotte f-m; mirror o, Shmt-hke breites of umalgumatod drnte profilo t amts ld,2a,4b,5, As for LS, bot also ovorttrrrted Erostvely trrogular C000aVO lowor
complex et solitary orti grouped St, SI rod Sp sots from ortd pebble complexes esteod o t500 m laterally oeil t- 7a,8b,9,aodl3; profilo 2 trotts cross-Sods. tunare, w places chomselizod.
0.1-0.8 m thick with plortor to AOttAOVR botos, climbirsg or sxudclastx. tOm thick. Individual olrmottts rouge from 50a,Sl,54b,55a1,55j,57c-f,50a-b, Upper sttrf roe erostvely plattar
f,)
E-
Is

,,
.

-
. la, l'ARAvI I ua°,xn
Nomos >na °1
stacked over each othor, tops mostly eroded. Usually form
part of multistory saudstone bodies,
5 N 100m long, 5- >100 rn wide osod 05-5m
thick. Rare single channel fdts «40m
d-b,60a-d. profde 3I noits
20e-h; Emotively overties all,
or gently cotscavo-oouvex. lutertsal
rrosive surfaces concave, gently
'n' wide rod up to3m thick (unit 55)). overlain by all except LDA convex, or mohoed planar.
z rod CS.
Nwlea>l O
- OAI C
5>5
E Muasaro, 00
flemme filin (SF)
Ge aud So; Grey sandstone und introformatioual mudclosts 0.1- Looses entend t-4m latneolly rod 0.1-0.4 m profile F nuits lo,2r,lOe, red Nil. Erosive, sreegnlar to concave basal
5errl s cl
conglomerate lags comprising mainly grey rod grey-red mud- 0.3 m; groins thich, sheets ostend «20m laterally and Il. OvnnSes OF, DU and LS, sorber, wtth gradallonal lo erostve
Ii clasts,miuor gnanitoid pebbles, and rare logs and fish bones, gl-pebble; 0.1-0.6 m throb. ovnrtose by LB md LS. planar to gently concavo lop smf ace.
ta matare m-c.
'1 ,, m.woYtnl timen
w
w '
.f-- cx Awonn oses vouns
,>,=o= 00 Liargr.nid budformu (LB)
Sp mm Sc il Sh Grey sa d t wtth ssno) Rot f w.v mm gl Amalgam ted Sp umt mprsnn sta bed pm Id 1 amtl p fil 2 C I t lammats dmtunb f Eenss sis np onca t ge ily
Q ÇT
and small pobble theot-liloe macnoforw « l-3 w thick and units 54o2,SSb-g. Overlles DU Rot lamsnne at top of sets. Motu- convex boxai surface. Enroco,
-s norris largo planar-tabular cross-bed sets 05-15 w thick,
E ' .« aselas> sin a 20- «60 w wide and «00m long. Severol largo Sp sets in nl bose wilts «120m long in down-dip dieoctiou (nuit and minor OF. Oeerlaio by 01> photo deformation of eeossve base sharp, nndntoting upper sstofrce xsub
climbing or interlockistg foshiou, forming a sheet- mndclasts. 55e). Thick rets of clemoot depends on red DU. near 70,ISNE, profilo 2. DU. Also non-eeossve, sharp rodal-
SCI like mreroform l-3m Ibick, entending «120m laterally. eombmed tbtckoosx of mdsv.duat Sp sets rtsng lop smrfrce with OF.
>

n'ire es Cx
5POE,ili)aG Latnrul-duwaanteoum-uerrntisaa.muerufurms(LDA)
- SI, Sb and Sp Grey sandstone with low-angle planar cross- vf-e; small pobblo, Sheet-like on tapered wedge-like elements profile 2 units 54r,57r attd b; Convolute lamtnattou 01100cl Planar to dio)tsty concasn base, tu
e bed sets 05-15m thick, «60 m wide amid «05m long. incloding extending «200m long in down-dip direct- Overlies OF only. Oveeloin only master foresets. places slepptng down-dip. Upper
ion, and 05-2m thick, by DU. surface emossvely oregxstlsn, planar
s
';a sers> s
,scscnsevso,n
Parting lincotinu rod mmnr Sp sots 0.1-05w thick,
t il obbq ly st ma I formol
wudelasts «0.3 m.
tj ped

r
s c>asnoi nasorn.o areas
n ,
1
roars Lovnns (LE)
Fm, minor Sr, St and Sh Moltled brown- ny te grey-red
siltstone ond sattdstotse. Massive or wrakfy laminated with
st-vf; minor f
sand,
Sbeot-likn bodios «1500m laterally, rl
of reildeaed floodplain deposits tracell
prof'de t units 14b,llS,l7 arad 19,
Stab and il. Conformobly over-
Wnaldy developed convolute lawso-
lion in unit 19, profilo t.
Sharp, planan, ap rend nom-
enossouol bases. Íutemnafmclmed
sein> inclined low-auglr, thin xaudy layons. Ripple cross- «4km laterally (profile 1, units 14-22) lles, rod erosivnly overlain by LS sandy layers pass down-slap mto
a a with LE elements 1-4m thick; inclined mud CS. Comptntety encloses seme laminated ssttstoue rod sandstone.
if'f> °e'O
5
lamivation, small-scale lrongh cross-beds and desiooatiou
cracks disrunbed by ronilot casts and biotssnboliro. aceretionany loyerv extend at least 20w
down-dip, orolatwug proximal CS.
erevasxo splay deposits
(e.g., omet 16).
lop nsaally tessnooled by flat to
cnuoave erosive surfaces.
1
0011Mev nasa u vansnnaeay
5>5
ianwn -o)Oli'
si alo
'$ .5'>
ci N lt,,Ol Fm. tO.Deseniplimn s.tad mtrrpretalimn uf ermposile snntior. thmuugh
'
i .--- loso-re profile 3 (nec Fag. Slur lueation of section line), r.ppttr part rl 'matt C' nf ihn
Colon iinCxOrt rosare nisarsr,iv, Roeklinidu Membttr.
MC AN GRAIN S

Lang and Fielding Facies architecture of soft-sediment deformed alluvial deposits 127

_............ø.._.R*_......._._
bedforms (LB), arid the larger scour fIls (SF), and assigned them elemeitt status. TABLE 2Continued,
Element LB n comparable with Alien's (1983) cross-bedded simple bnrs. The
lateral- to dowitstre.um-aeeretion element (LDA) is n combination of the DA' and LitbniBciim dernription Grain man Gunmetry l,nnatinns and nnlnliunshipx Dnformatinn strunturen Bounding sonsees
'LA' elements of Miall (1988a, b). The lrvre element (LE) has been dislingnishesl
from the otherwize undifferentiated overbaak foses.
Crnvnnnn splays (CS)
Wtth ties scheme it is possible to describe and interpret the facies architectsre of Sb, SI, St, Sp and Sr, minor Sn Grey to slightly reddened Proximal CV Sheel-like distal CS (profile 3)20- profilo L units 14e,16,1O,21e;
roch prolile, before developing depositional models. Convolute lamination and overlssened Share, planar erosive bases, with
sandstone. Plat lamination willi parting location, m-c; pebbly in s-198m long, 10-30m wide and 0.11-20m prolie A units 2,3,5,7,9,12, cross-beds common in distal CS, andtllatmg lo planar to s in distal
followed by Iroagh plaaar-labatar sed low-angle cress- thick. Loaouge er lenticular proximal l4b,t5 and 17. Proximal CS inler- bol almost absout in coarscr-grained faciox; proximal furies fias-e sharp,
FACIES ARCHITECTURE beds 0.1-0.5 w Uncís and 0.5 os- >15 w bog, topped Distal CV vf- CS (profile f) s-13m wide and 0.1-1.3 os bedded with LE in profile 2; proximal CS. Minar mulliphuse irregularly shaped concaee bases,
by lingeaid and straight-crested csrrent ripples, f with minor thick. Distal CS inlerbedc[ed with OF, deformation in unit Il, profile 3. sharp lo transitional taps. luter-
Fbojitr I (Figs. 6,8, 13a) bmg npples os paces, aad dcsicealiou cracks. Erosively overlain by LS und CS. bedded with CS and LS,

Doorripsiae of unito 1-14a. The tenir half of profilo 1 is an 10-m-tkick taud.
stono body, including rare siltstoue beds, that can be mapped laterally cccli beyond
the entent of the grid (s-280 m). Units t-14a comprise al basI seers fining-upward
sequences, averaging 13 te 3 m in thickness (locally up lo 5 m). Each sequence
begins with a sheet-likv or lenticular LS clemens, erosively overlying the earlier
sequence (usually OF). The bounding surlace is planar to gentiy inclined in the
upesorent directson. Locally, the sequence may begin with a wedge-shaped or
Iculcelar SF, DU or LB element. The LS is m turn topped by a sheet-like Or
Ivusoidal DU demonI (in one case au LS). The erosive base is either scalloped, or
more tonally, gently concave to conves. The bnlk of the comples is therefore
couslrttclvd of amalgamated LS/DU elements. The nppermesl part of die complrs
is almost eitttrely DU, with thin, flat tamination.
le most cases the paleocurrents el the LS and DU elements are approsimately
the Mmc, teendmg aromid 020', and exposed as slightly obliqac, downcarreal
sections on the profile. Some of tIte Sp sets, however, diverge at high angles lo this
mean bend. Sets of St and Sp typically climb over the back of roch other (units 4,8,
9). Althoagh these elements are arranged io a multistory fashion, in the
dowucueernt direction, there is seme suggeslicu that they may also be multilateral
in strike section (e.g., unit n).
Both the LS and DU elements contain couvolale lamination. The coavolelions
can be described nsa series of steep, tall (82-1.3 m) auliformal structures soparalcd
by broad (0.2-4 os), flat, synfonnal zones, mnally with smaller, parasitic auliforms.
Most of the convolutions are single phase, that is, they do oat include previously
deformed aminar or cross-beds, and these inclade antiforms slightly overturued in
a downcxerent direction. The larger scaly, generally tsprigkt, multiphase
deformaltonal structures comprise several convoluted beds, each truncated by the
overlying bed, but with the erosion surfaces being deformed into aeliforms and
synforms (ett., units 2e and 4 between 5SW and 2OSW; unit 8h, e; unit Ou, b).
Draprng a planar or gently convex te concave bounding sarface, tonally al the
top of roch DU element, is a thin sheet-like or discontinuous OF element. The OF
elements are usually gray, but become slightly reddened and mottled upward.
Vague erotIcI casts destratify the bedding in places, but gently inclined sandier
layers can be discerned, occasionally with poorly preserved ripples und desiccation
cracks. Pososblc rootlel casts occuo in the grayish siltstones. Olivegray lull acoono
(silly) sandstones occur as units 10e-d, and the reworked counterparts of the
overlying intraclast conglomerate and sandstone, occur as units tOe-f, 11 and 1.2.
These contain paleocurreet directions mainly indie opposite direction to the bulk of
the complex.
Intrrprelalion of anile I-14a. This sequence comprises at least seven north- to
northeast-trending sandy channel-fill deposits, probably deposited under flood
Ovnrbank fines (0F)
Fm, FI, minor Sb, Sr, Sl, Sp and SE Grey to slightly grey- sl-vI; lesser f;
red sdtstonc and sandstone with lamination, rnudcracks and reworked luff s
synarrests cracks, rondel casts associated with colos cy-sI, with eure
moltltug, ripple cross-lamination, small wave ripples,
Iinguoiif and straight crested current ripples. pebble-sized
Rare burrows, plauls and fish bones. Pythie in places. rhyolile casts.
Gruin.size abbevviationv cy=clay- sl=silt vf f m c=very-fme. fine, medium, coarse sand; glgrunule
conditions, with minor channel-abandonment phases (Ftg. 13a). The top of the
comples represents a majar avulsion event terminating the channel belt at tkis
location. The channel fdi contains narrow belts of pebble lag, mainly composed of
mudclasts, surrounded by low, ?gcntly conves-np, mid-channel (and 7lateral) sand
lab transgressed by straight la sinuous dune fields during waning flow. t.acally,
dunes migrated at high anglo ta thc moan Sow direction, probably en the flanks of
the sand flats, building ouI into die droper parts of die channeL Dann fields
probubly migrated down the deeper ports al the channel during wauing flaw und
low stage.
Comparisons can be made with die 'plane-braided simple bars', or possibly the
'composite- compound bars' al Allen (1983). These flats became 'islands' al low
stage, und aceumttlatod overbank deposits, that were later exponed long enough to
be partly vegetated, causmg mdd pedogenesis. The main channels nero broad
(s-200 m), relatively shallow (15-5 m), and of low siunosity, judging from the low
variance of the paleacuereuls. Minar channels, between the flats, were tous of
metres across, and formed the multilateral component of these sheet-like channel-
fill sandstone complexes.
Coarse debris os the basal scour fill (SF), parting lincation, and the abundant
convolute lamsuation indicate that flow conditions were rapid, if oat flashy. The
abondant parting linration in fine-medium sand (Sb) indicates plane-bed formation
ondee high-flow-regime, terbnlent conditions, willi velocities probably in oseess of 1
m/sco (Harms and others, 1975; Allen und Lauder, 1980; Allen, 1983,1984).
The majority of the rouvololc-laminatiun slrneluens were formed during
hquefaclton of loosely consolidated sand, die steep-sided anlifarms being cross
sections through water-escape pipes. The slightly overinrned pipes, in a
downeurrenl direction, and seme of the minor deformed erosion snefuces, are
evidence of Iquefuction dueto fluid shear.
.Drarriprion of unite 14h-22. This interval is a laterally-extensive, predorninundy
reddened sdtslone sequence canlaining shed-like LE, LS und OF elements, and
lozenge-shaped lo lenticular CS elements. The sequence has been mapped up lo
Sheet-like bodies extend s-1500m laleraly profile L units 3,6b,7e,lOb-d,
within reddened floodplain deposits 22; profile 2 units 53,SSh,56;
extending s-4 km laterally (profile 1, uniI profile A units 1,4,6,8,10,13,
22) with individual elements OS-2m thick. 14a,16; Transitionally ovorlies
Disconti000us lenses 1-20m wide and 0.05- LS, DU, LB, LE and CS.
I m thick. Tuffs extend t-15 1cm laterally. Erosively overlain by LS,
DU, LDA und CS.
1,500 in along strike, and is dearly visible ou the airpholograpks extending foe
upprosimalely 4km.
The LE elements are characterized by the gently inclined sandy layers dipping
toward a mean of 050' (Fig. 12, v.g., units 15, 17 and 10). Desiccation cracks,
rondel casts und grayish-red to brownish-gray mottling occur throagftoal. Crude
couvalule laminatiou occurs 'muait 19, immediately anderlying the ruffaceous unit.
The LE elements eneapxulale CS elements (Fig. 8). II is inlerestiug thaI ali the
CS elements flowed toward the northeast, except nuit 16, which liowed in nearly
the oppoxile direction (233' mean azimuth), giving a very oblique, southwesl-
trending exposure. This CS element shows a clear, sleep, 0.9-m-kigls colback on its
nertheasl side, with a 'wiug' extending discoutinuously on either side. The
maximum channel fill is 1.3 m deck und s-123 m 'wide', not indeding the wings.
Given that the channel ix trending nearly 40' ont of the profile face, this would give
a net channel width of 8m.
Unit 20 is a sheet-like LS clement composed entirely of yellowish-green,
silicified, citric und lithic-vitric reworked tuff. The uniI has been mapped OlmasI
continuously fan 1,500 m along strike. Large (up to 3 cm) elasts of rhyolite und
pumice occur in dissocIe bands, some of which are graded. The bulk of the rock is
flat-laminated, with minor low-angle crass-bedding. Most of the rock is composed
of very fine- so finc-grainod glass shards, although mined partially with micaceoux,
litholeldspathic sand. Small-scale seft'sedimnnt deformation occurs throughout. The
reworked luff is overtain by additional LE elements.
The uppermost part of the sequence, unit 22, is a laterally-extensive, sheet-like
OF elomeol with a transitional baso, bot deeply scoured top. Tuff fragments occur
near the buse of the uniI. Thaogh predominantly bluish-gray und pynilic, the
siltulones da become mottled in places. Caler banding, with discrete layers of
grayish-red versus gray siltxtone can be observed around 3ONE. Desiccation cracks
and ripple cross-lamination occur near the lop of uniI 22. A similar sequence occurs
higher in the sequence, besseren profile 1 and 2 (51.7, ONE) although il contains
microfuolls and small asymmetrical wave ripples (Figs. 11f, g).
Convolute lumination in saudstonos. Planar or gently concave-convex,
Syndepesitional miceofaulls und transitional to sharp, base.
sandstone dykes common, especially Rises over eonvrs surfaces such us
in the reworked tuffs. above LB elements, lop usually
erosively irregular.
losrrprrsalion of unito 14h-22. This interval represents u majar floodplain
sequence greater than 4kw in lateral extent, which developed following avulsion of
die earlier channel compbes. Much of Ike area would have been covered with
vegetated levees up to at least 2 os high, judging by the relief of the inclined sandy
beds.
The laleruily-restricted shapes, and relatively coarse grain.sizo of the crevasse
spbays suggest that they were probably of prosimul type, similar lo the small,
bobole, slage I crevasse splays described by Smith and others (1909). The distance
from the main ehaunel caanot be determined from those exposures. The luffaceaus
unit cao be interpreted in several ways. The well-preserved nature of the shards
and lateral exloul of the anit suggest that it was deposiled mare or less is nilo,
probably as an ash fall. The flat lamination und soft-sediment deformation, olong
with the mixing of micaceons and lithofeldspathie sediment, suggest sorno reworking
and redeposition as sand fiaIs. An ashlall falling onto u floodplain would be washed
inlo the lowest-ama during the next flood. Perhaps the luff was washed into u
laterally-extensive floodplain lake before being covered by u thin levee sequence.
The uppermost DF elemeul is interpreted as a floodplain-lake sequence. The
initially shallow and partially oxidized lake was gradually inundated, bus then
exposed near the top al the sequence, betore being traneabed by an aveldou event.
A cartoon summarizing the depositionul setting of profile 1 is shown in Figure
llSn
Profile 2 (Figo. 7,9, 13u-f)
Droes'ipsion of ostile SOu-53. The base of prof'de 2 (Fig. 7) is marked by a laterally
ostensive (s-200 m) sheet-like saudsbone complex from 3.5 lo 5 m thick, overlying
an DF and LS element with an erosion surface. A scour channel aboul 2 os deep
occurs between 0-5NE. A 0.3- to 2m-tdack, slightly mottled, but otherwize poorly
preserved siltslone sheel oeeeiex the sandstone complex with gradational contact,
Co,s-jne.ed on pAce 130

Lang and Fielding Facies architecture of sefl-sediment deformed alluvial deposits 120
 Fus. 11.u. Cliff esposare ut profilo 3, looking northaast. Noto the thinly
mterbedded character of sequence, and the internal deformation in Ihr thick
crevasse splay (unit, 11, Cs). Width of cliff oeposaro 11 m. b. Overtaraed
cross.bcd foresots, at far southwestern rad of the profile 2 goid, so
equivalent of unit 57 (72,100SW). Pon 15cm. e. Large dewutering pipo >1.3
m high in maltiphase doformed unit, in thick LS element. Above profilo 2,
from opprouimatrly 350 m in Ihr Rockfields type section (Fig. 5). Hommer
33cm. d. Sund volcano ut Ike lop of thick LS clearest. Immediately overlain
by thin OF element. From approximntely 500 w in the Roekfields Member
type section (Fig. 5). Lens capS em. e. Moltiphase deformation of deformed
cross.bedding. Convolute lumination at the top of the lower set (1)
trancated by surface (orrow) below next set (2). but later deformed. Profile
3, unit 20, 19.4.21 m. Hammer 30 cm. f. Syndepositionat mierofutalfu in
ovcrbank association (OF). The fault does not penetrate the thin extension
of a crevasse-splay (CS) unit, yet the sandstone is deflected, und slightly
thicker on the hanging wall, indicating movement dune0 deposition. Note
alce banded layers with asad craehs. From goidded area between profiles 1
and 2, nuit 42e, 52.52Ä,15SW. Hammer 33 cm. g. Small asymmetricolwavo
ripples overlying laminated and ripple cross-laminated siltetone in overbunk
association (OF) of interbedded gray and grayed. red FI and Fm. From
goidded area between profiles I and 2, smit 42b, 51.4.51.5.

s..ass.s*a.*aaCø* ..aa.*..
Lang and Fielding Facies architeclure of soft-sediment deformed alluvial deposits 129
 m=rnnOisr
Laminated Sand
sheets (LS)
Lateral-downstream
accretion ntaeroforms (LDA)
Drscr'ipiiox o) nnito 54a-56. This interval is charactnrizod by a 7-m-thick, sheet-
like sandstone complex nslnnding ai least 200 w latnrally, bnl coolaining several
non-sheet-like nlements. Thn comptes comprises LOA, DU, LB, DF and LS
elements arranged in a eoaetnning.npward, thon fining-upward sequence, (coupled
with an mercase m cress-bed set-size), topped by a sheet-like OF element apte 2m
Drocs-rytresi of noire 57a-mbld. The upper third of profile 2 comprises a 9-to 10-m-
thick, laterally-extensive (>200 in) sheet-like sandstone complex comprising
amalgamated LOA, DU and LS elements.
The master foresels of the band LOA element (units 57a, b) dip ta the south, but
thn minor cross-beds trend al a high angle to the snntheast. A major trough-like DU
Ì
fi-
Lo'zedbaOcw LS

Lauralid
Laterul-dourgseasr n
ri_c''frdt'c'eevnI

hoetiLlit
retes naerotevr LIO
--
v-.nti4_ L
l)L
l.-'--'--'--=- -

thick.
-'
.
element, internally deformed in places (unit 57f) truncates the LDA from 3OSW. A
Thn interval brgins with a thin (0.5 w) LDA rlrmnnt (unit 55a) dipping toward senys of smallnr iroogh-likn DU nlnmnnts (rending northwest (units 57d, e, g, SCia, -
Dane complexes (DU)
Lingnoid
barforms (LB) Crevasse spfays )CS)
223 , ovrn an ernsten, sodalartug lewer bounding surface. Most of the component
Sp sets mignote down the master fonesels, forming a dowestream-aecretion
b), and ne LS elemeut (nuit 57e) wedgn-ont lathe uortheast under a thick wedge of
extensively deformed LS (units 50e, d). The bounding surface between the DU and a°eew f
maenofonm (Miall, t908b). This is overlaio by a sheet-like DU/LS cnmpins (units the LS elements is extensively deformed including a 2-rn-high actif orm belwren il-
54b and 55m, 55as, SSaa) trending westerly. The upper LS clement is dnformed, Mmnor Flow .'
SSW. Thy LI etrmnnt (units 58e, d) ecnlainx many sisar large scaly autiformal
with the arts) nems overcaaned in thr direction of the overlying LB element. structures np lo 5 m thick, and extending foe hundeeds of metees along its strike -m's' mSi. min LOs Inusetycbirsulsiet) leases reunIte Slays
und turriank timan Unti t-33 (Ou-53)
A gently connavo-cenves erosion snnfacc marks the base of a comptes of LB length, of which appeesiwately 50 w is illustrated between 3OSW and 2ONE. Most

Levees (LE) Orerbonk (OF) Att elements

Pin. 12.Paleocurront data for seven of the architectural elements, and a
plot of all the data, from profites t-3. Parting Imeations have been ptotted
with a preferred direction based ou the flow direction of associated cross.
bedding.
marking the top of a broadly fining-upward sequence. A low-angle faint ests the
tequeoce.
The saodslono complex comprises two polos of awalgomoted wedge/sheet-like
DU and LS elemonts. The palooccereal directions aro northerly, bot minor cross-
beds trend ola high ang(c to this. The comptes is there) ore exposed almost as strike
mettes. Both single aed molliphase convelole laminations are abundont thronghoot
the complex, and io the lower LS e(emenl (oeil SOb, 1O-t5SW) the mxltipttate
ceovolulions are almosi ball-like. Nearty symmetrical scone fills e) low-angle trough
eross-slratsfieal000 (SI), wish wavy base cod lop, swear between 0-lONE io the
cpper porte) oint St.
!nrerprrtarion o! noirs SCia-53. This inlervat records at least ono, if not two,
rapidly-deposited sandy channel-fill sequences, each composed of donc fields (DU)
and saod (Fats (I,S) ma low-sincosily channel. The main chance) was at (nani 200w
wide and 2m deep, and mended in a norlherly direction. The symmetrical scour fills
bear close resemblance to the 'symmrinical complrses' or 'send shoals' of Allen
(1983), wInch were mlerprctrd as evidecec nl 'mid-dianoel sand islands'. The upper
port of the sequence reprrsents overbank drpesils laid down during channel
abandonment following a major avulsion. This is rssentiaily the seme conclusion as
was drawo for the saedstoec comptes of profile I, bui the channel-fill rtemruts are
arranged m reverse order, with LS overlying DU. A cartaou of this depositionat
setting is shown in Figure 13a.
elements each lrnnding in a sliejitty different azimuth from northeast around to the
soathwesl (unils 55as, 55b-g)(Ftg. 12). The large 5p sets apparendy climb over and
around each other, forming a macreform-type stouetuec. The plauae-tabnlan forests
range np to 1.5 min thickness, and are mostly deformed in the upper part. The LB
elemcnls arr abruptly ovorlain by a thin OF otnmenl (unii 5Sh) which rises up aud
oven what was a conves-np upper surface between 25SW and 5NE. Ovnrlying thn
OF etnmnnt is a lenticular LS elemnul (null SIi) with pervasive small-scale
convolute lamination.
A distinctly channehaed DU elrmnnt (unit SSj) with 'wings', treuds wrstnrly, culs
down deeply (3 w) into thy nndnrlying elements, and is nslensicely internally
dof ormed. lt is covered with a sheet-like OF elemeut containing thin cross-bedded
sandy beds, that also overlap onu SSi. Several sendsloun dykes apparently
emanating from unit SSs locally disrupt the sequence around 3OSW. Those dykes
clearly pest-dale the deposition of al least hail ihn OF clnmrnl.
Isierpreiniios of nuits 54a-56. Thn intnrval represents another chavorl-fill
seqeence, beginuiug with a downstream-accretion macreform dipping te the
southwrsl, penbabty forming a mid-channel bar (Miall, 1988b). Thn macreform was
then covnred by a dann finid and sand flats trending westerly (Fig. 13b). The LB
elnmnetc are mlerpeeted as liegnoid bedforms )Collinson, 1970; Miall, 1977). Tho
radial dsslrtbucon o) palnocanneots (Fig. 12) suggrsts a lobale shape for the whole
macrofonsu, but the high anglo with respect to the underlying DU compins suggests
they emneated from another channel dircctioe, perhaps dne te au avulsioe med
along a chute or subsidiary channel (Fig. 13e).
Studies ne thn Gilbert River fan della by Jones and ethers (1988) have shown a
remarkably sandar sequence wbnre a secondary channel rejoins the main channel
dueiug a flood episode, generating cross-bed sets np lo3m thick. Outing Ihn waning
fiend, the hngumd-bed(orm complex blocks most of thn exil of the secoudany
channel, resnlling io ubaadonmeul (Fig. 13d) and deposition of ovenbank fines. Thy
main channel, on another avxlsinn channel, broke through daring another fleed
episode giving tise to miii SS) (Fig. 13d). The flat boundary belwecu unit SSj and
sect 56 appears te Inuncamr convolutions, whereas the nrosive base of nnit 55)
appears undeformed. This suggests that the convolatious in uniI 55) were
syndepectional w origin, formed by liqunfaction during rapid depositen, and
predating unit SO. Unit SO monks another floodplain-deminaled phase following an
avulsion event, terminating the unit 54-55 cumples (Fig. 13e). The sandstone dyhes
m unit SO indicate that dnwalcring nl unit 5Si occurred after at least 1 w of
overbank finrs were draped ovee both unit S5i and j. This is clearly nel
syndeposilionni defermaxon, and may be earthquake related (see discxssion Inter).
of these are simiiae to that iltnxtnaled in Figuee 11e from another sandstone interval
fnghnr in the sequcnce. UmIn 58e and d are truncated by a DU element trending
northerly (nnit 58e-b), which in turo is deeply mended by an LS and DU complex
srrndmg sonthmesl-northwext (units 59u, b and 60a-d). Several of the cross-beds are
hL ik -
deformed, with overturned forests (Fig. t ib).
interpretaiion of axila 57a-óOd. Thy interval reprnsents a thick ehanecl-fill
sequence. The LOA element was deposited as a laternlly-accreled mid-channel
maceofonru, with the ricer Bowing to the northeast (Fig. 13f). This was overtain by
's
LSo-'
't,-_______
ti
a comptes of scene (dis and dune fields (DU), followed by laminated sand flats. The
iudividnal sets of eonvolntn lamination were developed in these flats during - -.
liquefaction, resulting from a gravitationally-unstable gradicut of bulk density or Stint t) natte armintr ruent nOn Ir) 53, ilettestaty thnnnd nwtntneunnt
fluid shear during rapid deposition. The larger scale, laterally-nxleesivn, wultiphase esgarre lt LDA ng-cintrel e 69811 tens at peak lind lUnes 556-ql
drlormatsoes so clearty pest-date numerous coevolnle-laminatiou sels that a
seismic-shock origin is possible (see discussion later). The deformed flats were later
trtmcated prior lo deposition of another send flat, though thmre is some suggestion
of a strike sectioe through a LOA macnoform around 82, 2ONE. The upper part of
thn complex represents a bnaad, dowucutting channel filled with dunes.
Pmo/le 3 (Fige. IO, Ifa, I3g)
The seqnence exposed in profde 3 (Fig. to) is n relatively simply, layered
succession, and is noi illustrated here; bol this type of faeics warrants a brief
mention in order Incomplete the picture of the Roekficlds alluvial system.
Thm main featunc of profile Sis the skeet-like, deformed, Cli clemenis (Fig. tin), Pattai aiardcrtnent i) nmtnthry dintel untO Atutthee005) trugt aemitmsn tient
tanises titrf teacyoted ehunnei (IntO 55)-m 55/ rrtmrn lt ouen5)nk tapesttin lIten 56)
which arc probably more distal than thase encountered in profile t. Several
coarseumg-upward crevasse-splay progeadalion cycles can be rncagnizcd, suggesting
that they built out into standing-water floodplain lakes a 1mw wnters deep, until thmy
were abandoned. The best nsample of this progradatioc/ubaudcnmnol cycle is
reprnsented by uuils 6-12, with mud cracks at the top of unit 11, followed by wave-
rippled and cross-bedded saedstoue as the top of thy crevasse splay was inuedaled
befoen the next cycle (Fig. 10, 2-8 w). Mmm of thy ceevasse-splays flowed northeast,
Pio 13.Cartnnu maps illoufoating 'snapshots' uf the evulatiou uf the
Rnckfictds alluvial system. a. A geueraliaed picturn eumbirnug informafiun
from profile 1 und thc lower part uf prufiic 2, b-f. A mure detailed, bed-by- Statt of next nage trism eemt nOv luttO OseriorktuluNsnth urtasse u/nyu
bed intcrprntatiun fur nuits 53-60 uf pralle 2. g. A generaliaed picture metO 1.50 vt'e)annei It inteni tars und fittthiam like iPntfiie Si
intorpreting profilc 3.

Lang and Fielding Facies architecture of soft-sediment deformed alluvial deposits

f30
and are typified by rapidly-dcpositcd Sb owl St (usually deformed by single-phase
coevolule lamination), topped by Sr during waning flow.
A thick, throt.like channel-fill sandstone complex occars at tile lop of profile 3,
similar to profile I (oeil 20). Muttiphoon convolute lamination. involvmg at leant two
phonos of deformation, occurs in this complex (Ftg. tir).
A cocInen summarizing thu deposilional netting of profile 3 is shown in Figure
13g.
INTERPRETATION OF SOFF-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION STRUCTURES
The most striking feature ei the Rockfinlds Membre is tbe pervasiveness of soil-
sediment detormation. Various workers have investigated entena by winch srf t-
sediment deformation structures may be attributed to specific causes. These causes
have burn subdivided by Lender (1907) into unlokinetic (produced by purely
sedimentary peocosnes) and altokinclic (produced by earthquakes).
The bulk nl the convolute lamination in profiler 1-3 is undoubtedly aulokinndc in
origin. Allen (1984) entres lu these as mela- and syndepositional convolute
lamination. Ho interprets them as primarily au inslabthty phenomenon, arising
during or aller rapid sediment accumulation, the Iquel action proenss dnven by a
gravitationally-unstable gradient rl bulk density.
Sorne of the larger, multiphase deformutional slencturos (especially or nmts SOc
und d in profile 2, and unit 20 in profde 3) deform several nonvoluted beds at a
time, saggesliug a latee phase of liquefaction. Positive identification of these as
bemg of seismic origin iv difficult though Lender (1987) contends that large-
amplitude duwatering pipes and recumbent eross-strutified beds are "likely to be
predomiaaulty ailohinetic in origin'. This must br considered a povsible canse, m
view of the proximity lou major active fault zone.
Several tines of evidence snpperl the idea that the area was subjected so frequent
seismic shanks: 1. large-scale, dewatening stmctseen (np to S m) foldmg several
convoluted beds in laterally enlunuive sots distributed throughout the seqnence
around the basin (Figs. 7, 11e); 2. abuudauce of mnlliphose soft-sediment
deformation structureS in comparison with other descnibnd flnvlal soqueneen; 3.
syudepositioual faulting, especially in the fine-grained floodplain associations (Fig.
11f); 4. ubuedauve of reworked mils (must contain seft-sediment deformation)
wllhiu the sequence, indicative nf local volcanic activity; und 5. major activo
busemnol faults in close prosimity, especially the Clarke River Faull Zone 20 hrn tu
the sooth.
The predominant paleocuernul direction for Ike Ruchfields Member, and ilse
Balgen Formation in general, is from the south, indicating the major upklted source
area was te the south. A component of destral strike-slip mnvemeut occurred
during the early history of the basin, but the degero of slnike.slip movement daring
the Lele Devonian has nut been deteernined. The northeastern trend of fold ones
for the whole basin sequence, however, is consistent with desleal stnilce-skp
movement along the fault zone during the main mid-Carbonifeeonv fold event
(Withuutt aud others, 1988). These folds were latee truncated by further
reactivation of the fault zone (Fig. le).
Rapid snbsidenee during the Late Devnniau along the Clarke River Fault Zone
resulted in the accnmsdation of over 4,030 m of maudy uenmarme sediments m less
than 10 my. Subsidence raten are ,irtibrly to have bonn uniform, und jndging by the
relative abondance of well-developed calde paleosols in the upper Iwo-thirds uf the
Bulgeni Formation, compared tu the relative lack of such palemols in the Roekfinlds
Member (Lang, 1985, 1986, 1988; Withuall and others, 1988), it can be inferred that
Lang and Fielding
net subsidence rates during deposition of the Rochfields Member were tugher than
a crudo average 0.4 m/ha. The lack of any detailed biostralrgraphic dala for the
sequence precludes accurate determination of subsidencc rate, but a rate of the
ondee of al least I es/ku is not unreasonable. Since most chaunel sandstone
elemnuts are 0.1.03 m thick it is therelorn eeusenable lu suggest that hundeeds or
as the most a few theosand years would have elapsed between llood-avulsion
recoIn. This rate nf subsidence would mean thaI the fine- to medium-gramed
sandstones would have beeu vufficienily buried and saturnled (but still
unconsolidated) so hove been conducive to liquefaction by seismic sbeck. Sund
fountains (also known as 'sand boils' or 'sand volcanos') formed by the dewatreing
of shallowly-buried, salnealed, und unconsolidated sands doming earthquakes are
wril documented (Richter, 1958; Idriss, 1985; Committee ou Earthquake
Engiuooeing, 1985).
It is impossible to pendici precisely the source of the earthquakes that may have
caused these deformations, but some crude relationships can be drawn from
published works on liquefaction during earthquakes. Rynn and others (1984) und
Idriss (1985) indicate that for liquefaction to occur m loose, saturated, fme- te
mediuni'geained sands, un earthquake with a magnitude greater than 5 renoM be
necessary. Typical values for the required peak ground acceleration needed for
liquefaction are between 0.1 und 0.3 g. Using these assumptions, the epicenter of a
magnitude S earthquake must hove been winhin 20 km, or np 1040 km away il the
magnilude was greater thao 7. The Clarke River Faull Zone (Fig. 1) i5 within this
runge, ullowing for folding.
Numeroas earthquakes with a magnitude greater than 5 could hove oenurend
every 1,000 years (based on the active strike-slip fault system of present-day
California; Ryun and others, 1904; Idriss, 1985). Whalever the magnitude of the
earthquakes, il eau be seen thaI, provided the material was susceptible lo
liquefaction, the chance of an earthquake sInking before consohdation of the sands,
and cansiug liquefaction, must hove been very high.
DEPOSITIONAL MODEL
The lower part ef the Rockfieldn Member is interpreted as the deposits of broad,
low-enuesity channel complexes that drained a trctonicalty-active highland lo the
tooth of the study area. A seasonal climate with rearked discharge variations is
nsvisaged, allowing pewonial drainage with marked flood peaks. Floodplain rust-
ronmeslx were periodically (?neaneually( inundated, judging by the sunegalod nalure
of overbank faciea and the immalnee nature of paleosols. Paleomagretic ioeesliga-
tiens (Ls and others, 1991) suggest au equitorial petition fer northeast Ausiralia
daring the Late Devenian.
During flood periods, sand-size sediment was deposited as sand flats and us
various styles of dune, en or adjaceul lo lalerul- to downstream-accretion
mueraI orms, migrating as mid-nhannel nr lateral bars. A considnrable amount of
sand depositino appears le hove taken place ut the downstream cud of subsidiary
chuuuels. Cament directions were highly variable ana local scale despite the overall
(appareul) low sinuosity of river systems, giving rise lo the widely-dispersed
puleoeuerenl distribution. From the thichnens of LB sots and rehef on channelized
erosion surfaces, the depth of channels probably rouged up Io at least 3 ni.
ludividnal channels varied in width from 20 to several hundred meleen, and indeed
prebabty changed ebaracler oua seasonal basis.
Thn style of channel activity envisaged fee the Rochfiekfs Member in very similar
to that of modern river systems in north Ooeonslaud draining into thu Gulf of
Facies archileciure of sofi-sedimenl deformed al luvial deposits
Carpenloria (Grimes and Doutch, 1978; Jones and others, 1908). The Carpenlaria
Plains and associated alluvial fans are crossed by several low-smuosily chuonet
complesos, which flood inlermittentl y to produce a waterlogged alluvial and coastal
ptaia. Channel styles and pnocesses in these rivers are closely analogom to one
interpretation of the Rocklields Member. Established models fee low-sinuosily
rivers such as the Platte, loath Saskatchewan and Bioo Creek models (McKee and
others, 1007; Smith 1970, 1971; Cant und Walker 1978; Miall, 1977) bear some
resemblauce lo the depesils described bere, but differ considerably in detail. This is
particularly so with respect to the talerai extent of sediment bodies, because
published models mainly rehile lo valley-confined systems. Rather, we envisage a
bread braidplain. We therefore suggest that Ibis sequence wurrauls recognition una
dislinel slyly ef fluvial mtheu.
Seme similarity has been noted betwecu the Rockfields Member oasi the Early
Devenian rocks dewribed by Allen (1903), and Io seme extent the "sheet
sandstones" in thu Tertiary of Spain (Atkinson, 1983; Friend and others, 1886;
Marzo and others, 1988). Marzo and others (1980) inlerprel three stylos of alluvial
architecture within the Eoceno Cnsiisnenl Formation in terms of paleotopographic
position. Shed-like sandstones with Smiled intercouneeleduess are ascnbod lo a
distal "distributive" roue on the alluvial drainage network, characterized by frequcut
avulsions, and high rates of floodplain aggrudatiou und basin subsidence. A similar
situation is envisaged for the Rochfields Member in the area of stody, which is clone
lo the basin dcpacenloe and same 20 km feom the interpreted source front. Lateral
relationships, as established by Marzo und others (1988) have noi yet been
dotonuined,
Thu Rochfields Member therefore represents on example of a rapidly-deposiled
alluvial sequence thai formed under highly unstable leetomc conditions, probably m
au oblique-slip settiug.
ItESERVOin IMPLICATIONS
The Rockfields Member itself cannot be considered as a potential hydrocarbon
reservoir owing io its highly compactod und cemoatod nature, ond the thermally
over-mature eharacler of the sequence. Nonetheless, Ihis study has impbcatreus for
the development of geometric reservoir models in fluvial sequences of the kind
described. These implications are developed in the followmg poeageaphs.
The sequence described in this paper is inlerpreted lo comprise u stack of
lalerally extensive (several kilometers) tabular sandstone bodies separated from
nach other by thinner inlervals of siltstone and interbedded siltstonr/sandsteur.
Saudsloue bodies are loe the most part flat-based, with rare channel incisions and
stepped margins. In very few canes arr verticalty-adjaceul sandstone bodies m direct
fu gross terms, therefore, the Rocklields Mernber would behave as a highly
stratified reservoir sequence with regular, effective permeabdity barriers soparaliag
individual reservoir sandstones. Because of the lateral continmly of these burners,
individual sandstono bodies would net be espected lo those pressure
communication, but rathnr would act as isolated units. Producing hydrocarbons
frem a reservoic such as this would theref ore require perferahen at nanrerom
intervals within the section.
Internally, the sandstones may be regarded as virtually isotropic, despite their
eomplrs inlernul architecture, because ol their uniform gram size and lack el fmvs.
Internal erosion surfaces are net likely te impede finid flew and the rane internal
fme-grained partiugs aro laterally discontinuons. The combination of undorm grain
size and the cumples internat slrnelure of the saulenes would ensure eflective
lateral flmd permeability.
Constructing a reservoir model from the Rochfields Member would neqsoee
lateral cell dimensions of or least 1,500 m for multistory cbaunet-saodstone
intervals, with thicknessos cl 3-10 m. These dimensions are feasible because of the
interpeeted internal isotropy of the sandstones. Fme-grained overbank intervals
would require lateral cell dimensions of al least 1,500 ni for thicknesses of 03-2 ni,
or >4,000 m for thicknesses op lo 10 w (if the thinner crevasse splays are
included).
lt seems likely that other fluvial sequences, displaying sionilar ebaracterotics, hut
perhaps less well espesed, also hove shoe architecture and hvnce similar reservoir
properties. We propose that formations showing the vertical sequence characlerof
the Rockficfds Member (flat-bounded sandstone bodies dominated by flat
lamination, lose-angle cross-bedding) are the product of broad, low-sivaosrty
ehaunels thaI peehups become braided at times of low discharge. Where such a
sequence character can be ideulilied in other formations, therefore, a sinislar
geometry and hence reservoir geometry could be inferred.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work arisen from deeloed studios by li. Lang, and we arr grateful for the
support of this research by the Geological lltovey of Queensland, Deporunmt of
Resource Indusnim. Queensland, Auveaha. This paper in publithed with the ap-
provaI of the Chief Groemmeul Grologisi, Dr. R.W. Day. Support wax also pro-
vided by Ihe Dopaenmeol of Geology aed Mineralogy, The Unisertily of
Queouslasd. We thank all field niaff (especially P. Garrad. J. Heebrew, and D.
Henderson) for their assistance in collecting data. Special thanks also go to R. Hill,
D. Throssel mrd 3. Denn for drafting, M. Sayers for printing photographs, and B.
Nevitte, D. Fair, R. Rnedul and C. Lang for typing parts of tir mnouwript. Useful
comments on the waeuwnipl were givra by the reviewers, Dr. B. Turner and Dr. G.
Ptini, red aleo I. Widinall, J. Draper, M. Thomios, B. Jobo, D. Carmichael and W.
G. Winlaker and PJ.G. firmino.
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132
THREE-DIMENSIONAL RESERVOIR ARCHITECrURE OF
A VALLEY-FILL SEQUENCE AND A DELTAIC
AGGRADATIONAL SEQUENCE: INFLUENCES OF MINOR
RELATIVE SEA-LEVEL VARIATIONS (SCALBY
FORMATION, ENGLAND).
R. ESCHARLS, C. RAVENNE
Justiz ut Frtatrçaiu du ¡'Gruje B.P. 311,
92506 Buril Malrudioor, Fraruie
P. HOUEL
Bureau dEludes Industrielles et de Coopération de l'institut Françats du Petrote,
232 Ac. Nsspoléorr Bonaparte,
92506 Rueil Malsraaison, Frartrae.
R. KNOX
Britiais Oeufugical Ssir'cey,
Keysrstrth, Nettinghsrns, NGI2 5GO,
England.
Ararrare- I,, the Middle Jarassit ar,i uf the Cleurlaed basi,, (Nunheasreeu ErgIasdi. the Sualby
Forraron cutepnsta reru usai,, members. ,nterpreted ealley.fdl cuurpleu enedarn by a artiste
aggrsdatrusal scales. The raltry usas ,nessd lotie1 a ,rlatiue ara-leur! drap aud ,ufjllrd dories a
stepped ,elauue ata-kurt eau by a reuugradariosal lIsura! tu estuante cumplen The rallry till a
tempesta ut three auperçeaud ssertsbret prisms shunñecg. resptut,tely. I tlsnislly dussnartd 505,505
aSsurais. 2. sdally utluerma measles hein, and 3. s mitI tlunral.tidal stander belt The dultaic
aggradatrusal member rurreapundu lu hcu)ratand Oepsu,ra. Small ribbur.s sr sreandeutg channels arr
isulsmud s Italy tluedplsuc arI lacaslune taries
A precut rlrreu-dueesuuaal reseruet eecurrulenclruu bss beer ,.ssrred Out ora lku5t arca ,aluj 515ff
stthuss. drill rates. erurelrse legs sud pestupbyaivat mearurerseula. Aurasalo reste-ruth eecusattnCtiuss
arr preaenlud here sa large crust aertrusa n tarata uf bIbeln10. putuaily sad perearabrbsy Ar
Cluagbrue, the rstlry-hll member runnisla uts tearer and upper p515w F.arh rurreapueds lu srhseusl-
fill sagt errth a basal aagradasiursal Oual assI uuedaiu by an estarme ut parabu uasagreaslue neat
ma hal pram diaplays s pastal stauked.ehauutl nets arde bars and sand earthy piaga. tIre ruja
ut mhtch ate uurrared by s teasagreasrue strtfare. The suit is uerrlatt by ata rasusrirr asad-fiat
cumplas. 'lire spprr pram rurrrysumds lu tidnlly-isrfisrnred meander belts erub heusumestie pulsi boss
uumfunrd uf argrllareucn aaadntuse 551 sittsluar. ¡l'a rapprd by shaty msanb depraia. uuatsspuadiag
odre petted uf manraum SoutIf uf the ralley fia. Tire sgradativaal dellaiu member suaasnaa macuIy
uf delta-plant abatra beth mslliatuay ubbur rhauseta sad aide meander bella,
The bear puOrrral rvareeess arr Iceated r she basal Sual arancel charnela at the uslley fat.
Rraeruuo qsatrues dectrat mare essrariarr aaed-flat rumples sad ate urry punte lathe muted CannaI-
Irdal mearcdrt tulsa. The snaIl eibbu,r cfiarrsrela geaeeatlf cussttttrt gtI but ssaall discuaarsstd
The aeqaearr seatrgrapfly uf the Sualby Fuamauur sheets that reaeeuusr geuneary sad
archilertnar ruolI be runtuelled by striant reIssue aca-leuel
INTROOUCFION METHODOLOGY
Tt impeubn the hydeucaebun reuuvery it oil and gas fields, erneevoit essgatsuers
mord tu kuow resue-cuir gmumetry dad aecfsitecttste. Foe this P5ITP0SCr l'le lnststut
Frutsçais da Pétrole aetd the Ceettu du Gtostatistiqmu de l'Euule das Mmus havt
deuelupud a methodulugy cumbiniug bath geulogiaal stradies and gmuslatistiral
Eschard, Raveooe, HourI, and Knox
R 0V ENS CO R
C LO UGH T ON
LONG-NAB
SCARBOR000u
SOUTH CLIFF
PONS- NAB
CLOUGHTON SITE
SCARBOROUGH
0 300km
FIG. 1.Loeatio.. nf 11am Clo.aghto.a site na. tise Yorkshire esanart.
sjnsalativas. It includes: 1. lheue-dimunsiunal resurvoie-aruhituctaeerecunslrssutiun
based ta euteasivt unlceups and drill hures in Iuu'iu-dtltair ensiroatanents; 2.
qoautilivalioe of thu geolugical aud pmteuphysival paramuters ah laapsat lu a dala.
base; and 3. iaaaprtvernent aud tesliug uf a getstatisfival methudulugy (Matherun
and others, 1987; Ranemsu and others, 1986, 1988; not discussud in this papee).
In this papee, we sisan mairdy fusas un the three-disasensiomal reservoir
eecoaslnsctioa and we shad eaplain the general geometry uf the resurvoir as a
consegneatce of miaur relative sea-levul varsataans.
Thu selected ouluesps but omg tu the Aalenian lo Bathuesia.ts Ravenscar Geuap,
inclading the Sualby Foraasaliun uf the Cleveland basin (aoetfaeasturm Fngland, Fig.
1). Thesu beds, very wed exposed un large uliff s along the Yutkshire cuasI, haue
bean deposited in fine-ial to deltaiu environments alteenluiasg with shallow-marine
nails )Humiugsvay aad Knun, 1973; Fig. 2). Moreover, the depositioaal
Architecture of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradational sequence
rnvnronmunfs of these series present many sianilariiles with those of the Brent
RAVENSCAR GROUP Group (Archer and Hanuuckr lago; Haucoak atad Fishrr, 1981) depesiled daring
the same period im the Viking Geabun where thu morn North Sua hydrouaebon
holds are louated (Ziegler, 1982).
A site was selected at Cloaghtun, along Ihn Yorkshitu boast betweun Whitby and
ENYINOIEIT FORMATION
Suaeboeoagh, where the Scalby Formation ix exposed on a cliff 600 m lung atad 30
m high. Al thin situ, peer.iounly described by Nami (1976), Narni and Loeafee (1978),
MARIE COR INN ASK
Funker atad Hancock (1985) and Alexaodur (0986), the flrr,sal tu dut talc Scalby
Formation overhies a regional unconformity (Leuder and Nami, 1979) metaling the
marine facies of thu Soatburomgb Formaioo, The lop of the Soalby Formation is
eroded at Clongbton by Pliounnn te Qnatemaay glacial deposits.
DELTAIC PLAIN
The twu-dimensional suservoia guumnlry srudy was based uno pholomosaic cliff
S CAIN Y piurmsee taken from a helicuptee and connoted by a000rale tupugraphical
measarements, and sa seueral vtelical muasueed sections.
The three-dimensional reservoir guomutry was based to 36 boenholes drilled al
ESTUAR IN E MIII GRIT depth of 30 to 50 m iast behind the cliff. The well spacing varied from 20 as near
thu cliff, lo 300 m (Hg. 3). The situ corresponds to an area of ¡ kml. Gamma-ray
LITTORAL. and dipmelre lupa were recorded, und porosity and permeability were measseed an
plugs spaced every 25cm in the rexoevoir uasits. All thuse dala permis a very precise
MARIE SCARBORDI.IAK eeconslestution of the reservoir geometry and architncturr in Irems uf Sthofacies,
lithology, porosity and permeability.
LITTORAL r
aC
PALEOGEOGIt0SrPHIC SETrING
BTAR PLAIN
111018086E During Middle Jurassic time, the Clnunland basin was a mamginal northern
'Buí 4 euluosioas of thu Sole Pit Troagh (Ftg. 4). tImar limited northwaed atad westward by
uplifted areas, the Mid-Cealoal North Sua High and the Penrnnes High (Ziegler,
UTIORAL BED 1982, 1988), which supplied Ihn terrigeneens material (Leedor und Nami, 1979;
Aluxandur, 1986). Sonthward, a stable tuctoniu unit. the Market Wuighlon Block,
uoastitrtled a slewly snbsiding (Kent, 1980) und ciastiu-slarved area. The westward
OELTAfl PLAIN
limit of the boxai and the steactnoal relation with thu Sohn Pit Trutzgh are auknown.
At the samu ¡insu, an upon-ma carbonate plutfoens, thu East Midlands Shell,
3 CLOIIBHTON eutended southward to the Market Weighton Block. Drsning the Aalenian lo
Bathonian, a dullaic system progended seathward or nooth.weslward ints the
Cleveland Basin. lt deposited a 200-na-thick si'ctclaslic member around the
dnpocsntor (Rauensear area), rapidly thinning over thu Market Weigkton Block
UU ELLEN BEC
(Copo and others, 1980; Daunt atad othnrs, 1980). Soveral shallow-marine mils are
DELTAR PLAIN
SALTIICK
FIG. 2.General sectian al the Raegnsear Group and its depositiunnl and
LABOON
sequential intmrprul.atinn deaf nead trom core analynix at Ratenscar. Sia
deposilionat soqnences haue been distinguished. Oequeneu i corrosponds ta
UTTORAL a uomplun littoral sandwndgn, snqaences 2, 3 and 4 are intnrprntnd as
asymmetric traa.sgeessave-regrnsaive cycles with thin transgeessiee systems
LITTORAL
BOSSER ¡santo ovgrtaiaz by thick aggradatioseal nr progradatioaeal deltaic systems
dnrnng highstand stages. Snqnunce 5 morrnspoads toasymmetne
trnnsgressavo-regressive cynlm with a think traeasgeessiee systnms tract
MW negrlaias by a pragradia.g littoral system. Seqnenmm 6, dnse,ibed in this paper,
starts wath a majnr subaerial erosional snrfaem related loa relative sea-levet
Sh= sEni , gag. sdi. = urgilinoeoos sotdstoyv , SEt = Sdadstove. drop. The valley wns then iasfillral by an ustnariaae camphnu dnaiaag a relative
sca-lmvgl risc and overlain by an aggradational dgltaie snqatenew dnoiazg a
highstand stage.
133
 ietorusngered with the deltaic series, resulting from marine transgressions comiug
from the south (Livera, 1981). Because ot tow sreliment supply and subsidence rate, IJTHOLOGES
minor relative sea-level variations are strongly recorded io the doltaic system.
We wilt soccessivety describe the grnerat geometry ot Ilse sedimentary bodies in
the Seatby Formation, OrsI on a regional scale, then using Ilse dota collected at the
Ctoaghton site. t: Sand
GENERAL GEOMETRY AND INTERPRETATION Shale
OF TISE SCALOY FORMATION
.20 The Scalby Forutatioo represents the end ot Middle Jurassic dellaic
.25 sedimentation in the Cleveland Basin. Ir the studied area, this 50-rn-thick
formation, appronimalety dated as Bathonian (Loodee and Nami, 1979), mas
deposited successively in fluvial, estuaeiee, then deltaic environments. It averties a
major regional unconlormity dropty eroding the marine facies of the Scarborough
Formation (Nomi aod Loeder, 1978) and il is capped with a condensed level al the
21 base of the Coenbeash Formation. The Scalby Formation cao be divided hilo two
main members, each showing very distinctive patterns ot sedimentation aod
13
geometry. The tower member is interpreted as a valley-ftll comples asid
corees ponds te u t5-m-thick sand shoot that is laterally extensive. lt was deposiled
.30 in fluvial (Nami und 1,ocstrr, 1978; Alexander, 1986)10 estnaeine environments.
10.
.19 'j The upper member is an aggradulional detta plain. These 40-rn-thick delta-plain
.23 deposits contain small sandstone channels isolated in flood-plain and lacusteine
shuly facies.
.27 Long-
.Nub Gcorrtetry o) the colby-Jill rrscsrstrcr.
.31
On a regional scalo, the vulley-fifi member is composed ot three superposed
.24 elastic prismi separated by relatively flat erosional surfaces (Fig. 5). Each prism
extends laterally foe sevoeal kilometres und kas u maximum Ikickeess of abeal 10
.20
The lower prism, t, in muda up of tine- to mediurageuioed, clean sandstone
.32 deposited in straight, stacked channels showing large-scale acceelionary b ars or
trough erase-bedded channel tills. Fluvial processes arr dominanl in the lower part
ot tho pr um. whereas tidal processes influence ils upper poet (seo luter discussion). E. MIULAN
Tho middle prism, ti, consists at fine- so medium-grained, clean or argillaceous SM LF
sandstone. The prism is composed of wide meaudee belts with large, stacked point
Ç,,d ,e5mrr. bars and clay plugs. The srdimrntary enrironmeet is still flnviatty dominated, but
biolurbation, abondant clay drupes and roverse-cnent ripples on the point bars
eotdd indicate a discrete tidal influenco toward the top ot the prism.
FIG. 3.Loration map of the drill coron ut the Cloeghtoo nito. Thirty-nix The upper prism. Ill, is composed of highly argillaceous sandstones und siltstones
wells (30 to 50 m deep) are loextnd behmd the semtiett cliff Well t.nmbnrs deposited in large meander belts (Nomi, 1976; Nami and Larder, 1978; Alexander,
refer to thono oseti m Figs. 7 and 9 to 19. 1989). This meander bell is locally incised into the two tower prisms and siso
evolves laterally into shaty marsh or della-plain facies. The prism displays a strong
tidal influence (discussed later) superimposed on the fluvial processes (Eschard,
1989). FIG. 4.Paleegeographic setting,
A continuons black shale layer, deposited in a marsh environment, ends the infili
ot the valley in the Cloughton area.
Geometry o) the deltoic aggradarionut member
The dollaic aggoadational member conformably averties the valley-till member.
Eschard, Ravener, Hood, aod Knox Architecture of a valley-fill soquenco and a deltuic aggeadational sequence
Small ribbons or meandering channels or wide meander belts are interbedded with
floodplain or lacasleine deposits (Nanti and Leedor, 1978). The low sued/skate ratio
in this member suggests that the drltaplain is highly aegradatsonaf
Dynamic interpretation: in)fnerrce o/a otepped retalier tea-leed nue
-- Carbonate on a )luviul tyotem.
Curbonate and shale The internal complexity of the volley-flu member is interpreted as a cousequeace
of there successive scour-and-fdi evenls. The theer elastic prisms are laterally-
extensive, bounded by erosional uneonformifies, and themtore Ihr infili of the
valley could not have rrsulted from a simple lateral migration of the fluvial
depositionut system. From prism Ito prism III, observed variations ot depostlional
environments, channel styles and grain-size distribution may be related to ao
evolution in the stream equilibrium prorde. The dynamic evolution of such fluvial to
estuarine systems can be directly linked lo relative ma-level variations (Allen and
others, 1970; Baum und Vail, 1989; Esehard, 1989; Mareo und others, 1988;
Posamentier and others, 198tr, Posumentier and Vail, t98'j Reioson und others,
1988; Vail and others, 1977). Ga these bases, the valley-fdt member of the Sealby
Formation could have bren formed in tone phases.
First, a relative ma-level drop started the subaerial incision ola valley aud during
thin relative towstaud period, the urea was eroded und bypassed by elastic material.
Secondly, a stepped relative ma-level rise preducod the infili ot the valley. As
suggested by Nami and Loeder (1978), this relativo ma-level rise caused a reduction
of the valley topographie profile dope. Consequently, the fluvial system evolved
from straight, fluvialiy dominated chauurls (prism I) to a meandering (prism ti),
thee to an esfuarine system (prism itt). The grain size and the saed/shatr ratio
decreased from prism Ito prism Ill us the tidal influence increased (Ashley and
Reewick, 1986). On the scale of the valley-tilt comptes, the whole system
retrograded because the aceonunodalion rate enceoded the sediment-supply rate,
but the fact that each sedimentary prism is incised info the one below it proves that
the relative me-level rise mus discontinuons. Minor relative sea-level drops induced
Ihr reactivation of erosional processes and consequently, the three elastic prisms
could be considered as chanuel-fdi stages corresponding to threo successive steps in
u general relative seu-trvrl rise. Each step starts with u minor ma-level tall followed
by u relative ma-level nse. The importance of these minor sea-level vaniatiann on
the reservoir geometry will be described below. Thirdly, the maximum flaruSieg
interval of the system was recorded by the sedimentatiou ot marsh shale capping
O4
the valley fill. The marine influences were mostly drveloped at this level (Fisher
and Hancock, 1985). Lastly, during o relative highntaud period, the sediment-supply
rutr balancod the accommodation rufo and the delta.ptain series shows a high
4: uggradational component.
nEsEnvem ARCHITEC'ELIItE AT THE CLOUGHTON SITE
Several Sthcsteatigraphie units have boon dofwed in the valley-till and in the
deltaic aggeadaSonat successions (Fig. b). The general reservoir geomoloy is
estabhshed on a fence diagram (Fig. 7), and deluded three-dimensional reservoir
reconstructions am shown in large sections (Ftgs. 8 to 12) in terms of lithology,
porosity aud permeability, using bosh interpreted outcrop pictures, cores und
wimme logs. The architretsee ot Ike valley-fill basal nuit in detailed on interpreled
cliff pictures in Fsgrtrex 13 and 14.
134
 Detailed architecture of the valley-/ill member and its interpretation.

At the Cloughtor site, the valley litt is andy compasad of peism I (tluvially
dominated stacked chaanels) und peism 11f (mixed fluvial-tidat meander belt).
previously described (Figs. Saud tI). They are separated by an extensive erosional
stirface corresponding to the middle prism, II.
2km Prism t is a contienoux shevt sandstone at the site. Thickness variations (5 to 8
m) depend mainly on the basal erosionat surf ace of tIse valley bet also focally on
s N the basat incision of the overlying meander bvlI. Three snperposrd units separated
by flat erosional surf sors are distinguished in the prism. Each cart, when not vended
SOUTH by the overlying meander belt, is laterally continuous on the site.
MIXED FLIJVIAL-TIDAL The basal nail, i-t, is made up al clean, fme- to medium-grainrd sandstone. The
YONS-NAB CLIFF FLUVIAL-DOMINATED LONG-NAB T RAVENSCAR ont lorms o continuons sand sheet (Fig. 7) with a highly complex internat
architecture (Figs. 13, 14). The sand sheet represents the slacking of severat
chaxovts. Each channel deeply erodes the ondeelying channel fill and reworks Its
material and, vonseqoendy, the morphology of sodimentary bodies at the time of
deposition is raeety peeserved. Nevertheless, n single channel is less than 100 m
wide and 8 m thick. Lateral accretionary burs interpretrd at side bues (Allen and
others, 1979), trough ceoss-bedded sand plugs or clay plugs constitotr the main iolill
features of the single channel. The large side bues (150 m long, 60 m onde und 8 m
thick) display giant tubular cross-bedding with a very constant ucceetsonary
- pill direction. The bar grows obliqaely from the eroded bunk toward the renter of the
MARINE SHALES AND SANDS SCARBOROUGH FMI single channel. The sand-plug units (60 m wide and 5 m thick) show giant trongh
cross-bedding. Thr clay plags (50 m wide and 8 m thick) are mude up of
- --
nl2 UNIrS

PRISM
- bioturbuted black shale or rippled siltstonr. Large etactivation surfaces (Figs. 13
and 14) in the side bars show that the bar construction is mullisloried and alternates
with periods al channel )nl'dl during which trough cross-bndded saodstonts are
1ff deposited. Channel activity commonly ends with complete channel tiiliil by a trough
eeoss-bedded sand plug or less commonly by a dry plug.
The middle unit, f-2, is mude up of flue- to medinm-grnned clean or argillaceous
sandstone. This unit starts with u flut erosional surface, correlaled sheoughoot the
site, sharply truncatiug the underlying unit l-t. Unit thickness varies from Ito 3 m

lOto
a PRISM II

SCARBOROUGH FM.
i Orn

It
PRM
10m
PRISM
I
and is continuous throughont the site. This unit displays stacked channels vrodmg
sand-flat megaerppleu. Channel lateral-accretion bars show mud drapes, backltow
ripples over the loretots, and biotuebnted levels evidencing un mteructaon el fluvial
and tidal processes. The megaripples arr developed into large eroded lureows. They
display typical sigmoidal cross-bedding with mud drupes, rracdvatlon suefaces,
backflow ripplet on the loresels und biolurbation. The top nl the mrgarspples are
sometimes reworked by oscillution ripples. On these entena, they are interpreted us
tidal megaripples deposited on u sand-flat (AiIm and Homewood, 1984). The
association 0f tide-influenced channels and sand-flat megaripples could charucterior
SCARBOROUGH FM. an estuarine sund-fiat.
SCARBOROUGH FM.
FIG. 5Synitbelic sentine of Ihn valley fill perpnadicnilar lo its axis along
the Ynrknhire coast. Sue Fig.t for geographic rnfnreucns. The valley fill
consists nf three superposed elastic prisms with a general saarduhnul
geometry. Thn lower peines (I) correnpoudn to flevially dominated, stoaight
sLacked channels (amt l-1) annelai, by ana estuarone comptes (miles t-2, l-3).

...ss.saSWaS
.a....s.sa..s.aSSRWaaaSRa.
The middle prises (It) correnpouds to stacked meander belts arad the rapper
oran (Ill) to mined fluvi.I-tidal mnna,dnr belts. The tidal ianfluessce increases
from the tower to the upper prism in relation to a stopped relative sea-level
rise inducing Ihn retrogradatlon. of the whole fluvial system.

Esckard, Raveeoe, Houel, aed Knox avle-ilsqec

Architectore of a valley-fill sequeace and eti gcdloa euue
n a deltaic aggcadaliooal sequeuce 15
135

as.*

FtC,. 6.Photomosaic of the clii f at Clongbtnn showing the volley-fill
member (lower half 0f the photo) and Ihn deltaie member (upper half h,
Incision of the valley corresponds to an erosional surface just at the cliff
foot. Fluvially dominated channels of nmt f-1 euhibit large side bars with
giant tabular cross-bedding. The top of the smit is dearly truncated by a
transgresuive surface, overlain by the esfumine sand-flat I-2. lt is itself
eroded by a flooding surface cappnd with parolic shale of unit I-3. The
argillaceous meander belts (unit fil-1) are draped by a continuous black
shale layer (fil-2) interpreted os morsi, deposits. The dnllaic member begins
with entensive crevasse splays or xhertflaad layers (C-l). A meander belt
(C3), with point-bar lateral-accretion surfnces, is isolated in floodplain
shates. Scale in upper-right corner.
Esckard, Ravevve, lionel, and Knox Arckttecture of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic uggradational sequence
The upper soit, l-3, eorersposds to a 30-cm-thick silly-clay layer, continuous sod
correlated ttsroaghoat the site whee it iv not eroded by the meander belt of prism
Ill. Here also, the emt begins with a fiat erosiunal sarl ace truecating the lop of assit
l-2. Small sideritic sod ates sometimes avertie this surface. The clay is silty sed
extebslx poorly-preserved biotuebatioss. For lack of other criteria, this layer is
interpreted as marsh or mudflat shale deposited in paralic or cutuarine
Prism ifi consists ol two superposed units, 1H-1 and III-2. Unit III-1 corvrsponds
to amalgamated mraedrr belts composed ol argillaceous siltstouc and fmc-grained
sandstone. The basal erosional surface of the meander bett deeply incised the
underlying prism I. Meander belts arr enclosed in argillaceous marsh or della-plain
facies in the eastern pars of the site (Fig. 7). Nanti (1976) and Alesandrr (1986,
1989) described in deed the meander belts outcropping on the present forestiere.
The siegte point bar u 3 m thick and around 100 m wide and shows a progressive
drorraso upward of the sand/shale rado and genie size. The point bar itself is
mainly composed uf contimesnic silty layers alternating with clay drapes, and
synsedsmentary stamps leequently aIled the lateral accretion surlaceu. Biaturbatiun
is also abundant, especially toward the sop ut the point bar. Ail these features and
the comparison with equivalent modern point bars (Frey and Howard, 1986; Smith,
1987) prove that there were leant interactions between fluvial and tidal
processes. Palynafacies analysis confirms marine iuflurnces (Fisher and Hancock,
1985). la the absence ol other regional data, it enmuins difficult to determine if
these meandering channels are connected to a fluvial system or if they are pure
tidal channels ona salt marsh.
Unit III-2 consists of a black organic shale layer, t 1v 3 m thick, coetinunus
throughout the sitO dropiog the mrandm bell m-l. PIacI debris are abundant mid marier
palynomorphs have been collected at Ibis level (Fisher and Hancock, 1985). lt iv
mterpeeted osa mars11 uhale deposited ins paralic ersienemeet.
The scdisnrulary prisms I and 1H can be interpreted as successive channel-till
stages (Fig. 15; too earlier discussion), lo prism I, the fluvial stacked channel nuit, t-
1, was certainty deposited during a facial aggnadataonat period when the
accommodation rate temporarily balanced the sedimeetatiuu rate. The
aceommedation probably did not vary much during deposition of this unit the basal
crosional sartaoo nl one ol the last chauuets that completed deposition of the unit
reached the bass of the prism (Fig. 14). A constant accommodation explains the
tact that single fluvial channels orn stacked together to tune the eontiuuons
sanduhrel, l-t. The erosional surface truncating the top vI the unit is interpreted as
a transgrevsivc surface due to an increase in the rate of relative sca-toce! nor
(Posamentier and Vail, 198tr Baton and Vail, 1989). II induces o rapid laadward
shift of the baylinr (i.e., the demarcation line between fluvial and paralic/deltaic
environments, Posamentier and Vail, 1989). Then the esluarine anit, l-2, prograded
or aggraded over the transgrrusive snef ace. The sop of unit I-2 is issolt needed by
another flooding surface canned by a further increase in the rate at relative una-
level rise, which as surs mduoed another landward shift ut the bayline. The marsh
shalr of nuit l-3 copping this flooding surface was therefore drposiled during the
mavimum loedissg period oldie channel-till stage.
After the invistan and deposition al prism U, nut represented at the Cloughton
tite, a minor relative sra-leve! drop induced the incision vi prism III into the
andrrtying units. The same mechanisms as those described for prism l-1 occurred
with meandeebelt deposition during fluvial uggradatiou periods asd marsh shale
sedimentation during the maxisesuss flooding period.
le conclusion, the arehiteceune of the valcy-fill unit aud the reservoir is direcily
Coviivuod av page 145
136
 29
LOG
PL/O - QUATERNARY GLACIAL
40m EROSIONAL SURFACE
25 C3
Meander belt

Ribbon deltaic C2

p channels

Tide influenced
cl
-1112- -J

31
p mennder belt

Estuorine complex
3
_12_
-4
c:.cl:
y-'02
l54i

Fluvial complex Il
Marine sand ard maris SCARBOROUGH
Datum planum FM.

FIG. 7.-Fence diagram ut the Clonghtoa site showing the general

32 geometry of sedimentary amts. Unit L-t (flnvially dominated stacked
cheamets) and l-2 (entuariase temi -flat) foret continnono sand sheets. Unit l-3
is too thin to be represented on the fence diagram. The fluvial-tidal meander
belt of prism ill disappears se the wentem part of the site. The delta-plain
beds show small ribbon channels Cl, C2 with a north-south orientation and
a cnrved meander belt C3 isoLated in flnodplain nbales. Crevasse uplays are
not represented on this diagram.

FIG. 8 (Following poge).-loterpretatien of a port of the cliff at

Cloughton in terms of lithelogy. The Scalby Formation starts with a
major unconformity eroding the Scarborough Formation marine facies.
The top of the cliff consists of Pliocene to Qoaternory glacial deposits.
In the valley-fill succrusion, tole the sand-sheet gromelry of asilo l-t,
t-2, l-3, III-1, III-2, limited by flot erosional surfaces. The flaviatly
dominated channels of unit l-i are composed of rather homogeerons
clean sandstone. They are overlain by the highly heterogeneous
estuarine sand-flat t-2. Paralic shale of nuit l-3 appears as a continuous
shale layer and the mixed flovial-tidul meander belts (unit ttt-l) are
mainly composed of argillaceous sandstone and siltslone. Point-bar
lateral-accretion surfaces may be draped by thick mod, c005iug ohliqnr
shaly helerogeerities. The deltaic series display small chaunels isolated
in shaly delta-plaie facies, which are interpreted as a moltistory ribbon
channel (C2) and as a meander belt (C3). The crevasse splays muy he
very widesprrad.

Eschard, Revenue, Houe!, and Knox Architecture of a va!!ey-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradatioaal sequence 137
 .sNRaasØ**N.***a
LN8
LITHOLOGY
- Sdt and clay

Argillaceous sandstone LN7 LN6

Mil
LN5 LN4
M li-Mv 20 Outcrop section

M9

MIXED FLUVIAL TIDAL 15-

PR/SM iII UNITIJI1 MEANDER BELT

15MÍ UNIT I
TR4N5GRffSSJr- 5/J

t
MV29
- e
Slightly argillaceous sandstone

Sandstone

Eschard, Ravenne, floue!, and Knox

MV26
t

fr
t
MV25
Projected borehole
t
MV24
t
MV23 10m
t
MV22

Architecture of a valley-f!!! sequence and a de!taic aggrndational sequence

t
MV21
t
MY2O
t
MV19

DRAWN BY Y. CALOT-MONTEON
o-

138
 LN6 LN5 LN4
O I 2001
API Io
API API

UNIT jfl MARSH DEPOSIT

FLUVIAL-TIDA
MEANDER

UNIT 13-e-
UNIT 12
STUA1NE COMPL

- I i
VALLEY-FILL BASAL EROSIONAL SLJRFAI

FIG.
Silt and clay

Argillaceous sandstone

9.Correlation in terms of lithology between drill cores on a section

parallel to the cliff and behind the cliff shown in Fig. 8. Loeation is shown in
I
Slightly argillaceous sandstone

eloarly multistory and formed by three stacked sequences deeply eroding the
underlying series down to Uso meander bolts of unit III-1. Small plugs,
separating the single sequences, conslifufe fIle main heterogeneities of the
- - o

Sandstone

ebonite!. Crevasse splay. never exceed 150 u. in width. Meander belt C3 is

approninsufety 300 m wide and appears continuous on fIle section. If is tillad
with argillaceous sandstone. As the wells are close to the cliff face, the
0m

correlations on this section are not ambiguous. However, note the changes
in the mit geomefry and architecture on the cliff foce (Fig. 8) and on the
perpeadicnlau section (Fig. 15).
F.g.3. The nnifs L-1, f-2 are continuous and more or less isopaebous. The
section is roughly perpendicular to the channel C2 axis. This channel is

a.ø* aSSS**SN
Architecture of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradational sequence 139
Eschard, Ravenne, Hoael, acd Knox
 LN6
API

- s-

L
Io
LN5

*I

A PI
2001

4
o
LN4

j
_J 8%<Ø'112% 40
Silt and clay
FIG. lOSectio.. porollel to the clii f mteepreted is terms of porosity the lithologies ecu be expressed m porosity. The sobtle porosity voriotious
Loestios is chorro is Frg. 3. Porosity sud penuesbility ore meusoeed ou ore deduced from detsiled sodimeutologic studies. Observe the complexity No measurement
plugs every 25 cm io the reservoirs. The peteophysicol reservoir of the mter.ssl heterogeseilirs with regord to the lithologic mterpretotioo.
estimated porosity
ch.urxetoeisties ore here moisly reloted to sedimsotory fones sud, therefore, See siso Figs. 16, 17 sud 18.

Eschard, Ravenne, Houel, and Knox Architectare of a valley-fill seqaence and a deltaic aggradational seqaence 140
 LN6 - Silt and clay

LITI-? OLOGY

o
ap'
2I CLIFF SECTION
- Argillaceous sandslon.

Slightly argillaceous sandstone

Sandstone

t MEANDER BELT
Cg

L
MULTISTOREY RIBBON CHANNEL
C2

UNIT 2 MARSH SHALE

UNIT 1I[ MIXED FLUVIAL-TIDAL

MEANDER BELlS

UNIT 13 MARSH SHALE LAYER

UNIT I2ESTUARINE SAND FLAT

COMPLEX

-
UNIT I
FLUVIAL- DOMINATED
-._STACKED CHANNELS

o Orn
VALLEY-FILL BASAL E5O/OA1&
I

FIG. 11.Sontion pnepcndicnlar to the cliff iotccprctcd m (cerne of

lithology. Location ehown m Fig. 3.

Eschard. Ravenne, Houel, and Knox Architectnre of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradational seqaence 141
 PERIWE4B/L/Ty
LN6
CLIFF SECTION

i 000md <K

i OOmd< K <1 000rnd

i Ornd <K < i pOred

trod <K < i Ornd

Oimd<K< trod

LJ Silt und clay

No measurement
[JI" estimated permeability

40
tes-s
O 10m

FIG. 12Section perpendicular to the cliff interpreted in terms of a homogeneous sand sheet The reservoir qualities decrease toward the top could be related to tidal influences os the valley fried. The mined fluvial- valley fill. The ribbon channels (C2) of the deltaie aggradational sequence
permeability. Location shown su Fig. 3 The stacked fl..vial cho.mnls of the of the unit as the reservoir heterogeneity increases. The amount of clay in tidal meander belt (prism HI) isa poor and heterogeneous reservoir because constitute good but small and disconnected reservoirs, the argillaceous
basal valley-fill sequence constitute the best reservoir of the whole series. terms of intoaporosicy matria or clay drapes over the sedimentary structures of a low sassd:shale ratio due to strong tidal influences townrd the top of the meander belt (C3) is a poor reservoir. See aise Figs. 16, 17 and 18.
The only shaly heterogeneities are due to narrow clay pings disseminated la

Eschard, Ravenne, Houel, and Keox Architecture of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradalionat sequence 142
 FIG. 13.Detailed architecture of the etacked fluvially dominated
channele f-1 on the cliff at ClonuJ.ton (part A, conthem part of the outcrop).
Northern eeteneion of the cochon anal legend on Fig. 14. The unit io formed
by coverai otraight etacked chamceiu (ah leact two on thic profile) chowacg
forgo code bare, trough croon-bedded charnel f ills or cilty plugo. Because of a
constant channel lateral migration and reworking, the sandbodies are mainly
limited by erosional surfaces. Such a amt presents very good reservoie
properties the main heterogeneities nrc related to the email shaly or cilty
plugs and to discontienouc coat einst-elch layers.

Eschnrd, Ravenne, Houel, and Knox Architecture of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradational sequence 143
....u.... ss..s* s*u.s.*u.s.a

COMPONENTS, SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Mud drope
ET
UNIT 12 I
LITHOLOGY AND FACIES
I Mego-trough cram-bedded argillaceous fine
grained sandstone
N

'CIif f base

Wave-ripple marks Silty plug

LEGEND
Cunent and climbing ripples Clean fine-grainba sandstone with climting megaripples
UNIT
A Project well o. Coal fragment - rich layer Clean fine-to mediom-groined sandstone with lateral
accretion bars Side bars
Topographic station Mud clast rich layer r Mega-traugh cram-bedded clean coarse-to hne-grainod
sandstone - channel fill
Coal frogmo'nts with Scarborough Fm Silt and marl
FIG. 14.Detailed architecture of the stacked fluvially dommeted diagenetic effect
channels (unit l-1) ois the cliff at Cloughton (part B, northern part of the
outcrop). Soc Fig. 13 for the sonlbcrn part of the section. Note severa.l
reactivation surfaces with oscillation ripples in the main side bar. The
channel f ill is clearly multistoried, the construction of the bars nitcenoting
with trough cross-bedded sand ping mf ills. A silty plug complotes the
channel fill. Note also that the channel basal erosional surface reaches the
buse of the prism (sao esplunalions io lbs feet).

Eschard, Ravenne, Houel, and Knox Architecture of a valley-fill sequence and a deltaic aggradational sequence 144
 LOG UNITS PRISMS influenced by minor variafions in relative sea level LN 16 Sigrnoidal bedding of the taegest meganipples and lateral accrnlionasy bars
V V sometimes appears on the dipmetee (Fig. 18). Abnndaot mad drapes considerably
30m redner the perosiry and permeability of Ihe reservoir arel (Figs. 10, 12 nod 18).
Reservoir architecture in the dettaic aggradotionol member. Porosy Perneabilily Gamma'ray Dip angle and
The paroic chales, l-3, clearly appear on most of the logs aloe abrupt deflection
uJ in % in MD. AP so Litho direction
lu contrast with the saeduheel geometry et the valley fill. the reservoirs of the in the gamma-ray and microresistivicy logs. Them sisales conslitste a bamrr of
02100
z<w deltaic aggeadatinnat member are mainly composed of small sandstone-tilted
40 0 2 o t t ' I 50 permeability between prisms I and 1H.

flhiflhl!
r
channels isolated in floodplain shaty facies (Figs. 6 to 12). There arc five channel 5m The meander bells of prism litI also shows typical bell-shaped gamma-ray came
Meander bell C3 (Fig. 19). The maximum of radioactivity of the whole sequence corresponds to the
(17 oints, Cl to CS, corresponding so levels in which channef lifts and theie rclated
Della plain shales ± fleedptain and crevasse-splay laines are distinguished. organic shatr of the moesh capping the valley fill and therefoec lo the maximum
co< In channel Cl a sandy meandering channel (8 m thick and 80 m wide) cuisis flooding period. Becanse of mad drapes, the luternl-accrrtron surfaces of tho tidally.
ca the western part of the rife. A centiisnono sand sheet capping this level is composed influoocod peint b ars clearly appear on dipmeter lege whys slumping does not
Msllislorey ribbon channels w deform the aceretiosary surfaces (Fig. 19). The tidal infloences induce a low
20m o of stiere tinc-grained argitlaeeorrs sandstone layers with carrcnl-ripple bedding and
iv interpreted as the crevasse-splay or sheesflood facies of stir channel. In amt C2,
IflhHIMI 11111 rand/shale rutie and, therefore, porosity and permeability see very low (Figs. 10 ord

.iiiiii.pui
- Maximum flooding surface tour independent straight channels (6 m thick, 70 m wide) are identified, coutainasg 12).
Marsh shale n'a trough cross-bedded sandstone. Their crevasse splays are uevve mote than 180 w in
width. The channels arc single or mnflistoried )Frgs. 8, 9 and 11) and deeply meise CONCLUSIONS
Mixed fluvial-tidal
meander bells
Marsh shale_Erosional surf
Flooding surface
h the endertying units down to the mraisdenbelt of prism Ill. Unit C3 is
meauderbelt 300 m wide and 5 os thick, mainly composed ol argillaceous fme-
geained sandstone with crorsojt cram-bedded sand plugs. Unit C4 is poorly exposed
and bas not been intvrpreled.
a

hi,I1lllhI.. in this study, a metlredotogy for theee-dinueosiosaf reservoir description has been
employed nsing oxlcrops, drift cores and wireline logs. Accorate three-dimensional
cross sections of the reservoirs are presented in terms of lithology, porosity, and
permeability, and they permit the definition 0f eelevant geological and petrophysieal

Esluarine sand flat complex
10m
- Transgressive surface -
I!II
This deltaic aggradationaf member was deposited during a highstand period when
I2 the rate of rise of relative sea level was balanced by the sedimentation rate and the parameters. They have been quantified te build ou important inpxl data base for
detta system aggradeaf. However, the drop incision of the multistory ribbon geostalisticat sisrslations (Ravenne and al., 1987, 1988). The porosity and

Slacked fluvial-dominaled
I
channel, C2, denn te prism ti of the valley lift certainty proves that minor relative
sea-level falls and rises occur even indie highsland systems tract. HhIiIIiiEií! permeability analysis is strongly linked le the sediteentofogie interpretation and
reatislically integrated ints the sodimentofegic reeooslructions.
Is addition, the abundance and qnality of the dala have been nsed here fur facies
h analysis and their sequential organization. As mterpretation in terms of sequence

IIiIIIIIiiÎI! 11111
Log characteristics and reoervoir petrophyeical propertieS of the cafley-/ilt retomber.
channels slratigropby has been carried ont on a regional seoIr and dirresly applied on the
Gamma-ray and dipmeter togs recorded oc the borehofes at Ihn Ctonghton site reservoir scale. lt shows that the rrcurvoir geometrios, their pefrophysicat properties
illnsteate the wiectixe response of the volley fill and of the nnconformttses. The and the permeability barriers in a valley-fill complex are dirretly inflnveced by
valley-fill member typically appears on the gamma-ray logs as a composite bell- miuor relative rca-level variations.
Subaerial erosional surface shaped pastero (Fig. 16). fas prism t, nuit t-t is composed of clean sands and has the
Littoral sands lowest radioactivity values of Ihn valley fill. Side bars dearly appear en dtpmeter
logs as organizod sait patterns showing constant accretionary diercfaonv (Fig. 17).
This unit consulates the best pelential reservoir of Ihr valley till with high porosity
INIII! 11111111 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study is pars of a research project carried ont by the HERESIM Groop,
and permeability vaInes (Figs. 10 and 1.2). Unit l-2 is clearly illnstraled on gamma- inctsding C. Rarenne, B. Doligro, R. Eschard, D. Gntirillot, Y. Mathies and J. L.
RELATIVE
SEALEVEL chANGE .,_Ma:imum flooding Surface
ray logs by a sndden increase of radioactivity. The teonsgresssvr surface itself often
appears as a sharp dellrcfion of the gamma-ray and mscroresistivily cnrves.

FIG. 15.Soqornee suraiigrnphy nf Ihn Sealby Formation und correlation

IIP!iillI (liii Rndkiewice from the lnslitnt Fraoçais do Pétrole, and A. Galli, H. Brocher and G.
Lolech from the Conter dr Gtiossatistiqne de Fonlainebleau.
This slady has been financially snpperlrd by European Economic Community
funding. Special thanks to Drs. J. Alexander (University of Leeds), F. Guilloehean
(Centre eafionot de la Recherche Sciestiliqne), P. Homewood (Société Nationale
with hypothnlicnf relative sea-level variations. Twn prisms, i sod ill, urn Eli Aquitaine Prodonlinn), M. Marro (Unsrersifat dr Barcolooa) and lu C.

PROM I
distinguished at Cinoghton su Ihn valley-f ill member, and nrc divided into
several units. Finvially dominated channels of Unit i-0 orn dopnsited lu a
volley during a fluvial aggradatinn period. A trausgrntnivn surface und
dnpsmitinu nf the estuarioe sand-flat compinn (nuit t-2) are related to an
IIIIM1JG1 I IIII
incenase io the relative sea-Iced rise rate. Additional mareen flonding FIG. 16.Composite log ut Claughlnn. The valley-fill member appears ou
gamma-ray log us a composite fuell-ohaped pattern, and masimom uf

HIIHII!iiIJIoI
____ flen grosnive surCaste induced deposition nf marsh rheIn (unit t-3) nu tnp of unit l-2. Prism ii is
oat prnservod al Clnoghton. iunisinn nf Ihn meander boit, fil-ir was mIsted radiooctivity correlates with marsh chales (lit-2) deposited during the
bor_rI_I to o minor relative sea-level drop nod the marsh deposits (uniI fit-2) were maximum flooding period. Porosity and peemeability decrease from the base
O.AX'-__ Subaerial erosional surface deposited duriug the usaximom flooding perind of the valley. Dellaplain Is Ihn top nf the vuliry-fili. The limit between nuits i-i and f-2 is clearly
tarins, corresponding to highstaud systems tract, show ribboo-channela or Good corroisbon coefllcteet shown by au abrupt drop of pnrmenbiiitieo, in relation ta the presence nf
moaisdnr behn isolated en floodplain feries. O Poor ceerohition coofftcioet clap deposited by tidal procernes.

Esçhard, Ravenue, Hood, aud Knox Architecture of a valley-fill sequence and a dellaic oggradntioeal seqoesce 145
LUTS GR. LOG LN7 MCRORESTIV1rY DFOTER LNTS GR. LOG LN4 MCRO- lSlSTrvTrY DF%ETER

-
API ob. s. ti ,,s C.
n,
LOG LN7 POROSITY PERMEABLfl'Y SItS. os C.
API .

_O 200 Trans gressive - rosiofl8I

IL
uk.$ 'oc. 2OO high
surface ., "
33m s ' -IzO ' - 20% - cl 'tO ¿00 -Flooding surface-

Channel fill t'

33m 27mrn
S Stacked tIdal _.
rtfktenced

i,
't: 35 11H 12
28 an'Iat
Megaripples
-

II
Ciey plug =

Side bar

-Basal incision--
surface
"
Good correhtion coefluint
o Poor cocrehtion coetfhient
37

I -Y
O 297/. - -- 000 vO
1111
29 orransgresslve -'
surface
,

Good correhtion coeffrtent

o Poor correl)on coetficienl

LOG LN4 POROSITY PERMEABILII'Y

shs.Prc.a
FIG. 17.Log eharacterinli.ns and prtrophysieal properties of unit L-1. FIG. 18._Log rharacteristisu and peloophysinal properties of unit l-2, The 0 20% wO 0000 ea
Side-bar foresets appear clearly on the dipmeter as organized nail patterns amount of clay due lo thu tidal influences indures a shift of the gamma-ray
showing constant dip direction. Presnume of mod elasts perturbe dipmeter log and a decorare in porosily and permeability. Tidal sand-wave forerete
measurements in channel fills. Porosity and permeability huye high and are sometimes detected an the dipmtter. Note also the gamma-ray aod
eonstast values, micro-resistivity shifts between unito t-2 and I-3.
27m

Psigdefubregas (Geeeralilal de Catulnnya) for usofol ditcuosiors about Yorkshire
geology aud sadimeratology. Thanks also to Dro. J. Dixos and D. Lockie (Geological
Survey of Canada) who revxewod this paper. The drawings were mode by Y.
Morbos (BEICIP).
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L Marsh shale
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Geometry and physical properties of sedimentory bodies deposited in a Obvio-
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t!
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ir
doable inseesion: Proceedings al Yorkshire Geological Society, e. 42, p. 505. 1988, Evelntion of the Arfic-Norlh Atlantic and Ihr Western Thethys:
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30 p. 719-738.
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13 C., 1987, Conditional simolalion of the geometry of flovio-sfeltaic reservoirs:
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0° 32° Magazine y, 113, p. 47-52.
aso Lceoen, M R 1978 Citangiog channel morphology and magoilode in
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Poor correlation coefficient ed., Flovial rodimentology: Caaadian Society of Petreleam Geologists Memoir
5, p. 431-440.
Posaoncsvmn, 1f. W., Jnrvev, M. T., asso Vao., P. R., 1989, Enslatic control on elastic
deposition I. Concepfoal framework, is Wilgns, C. K., Hastings, B. S., Kendall,
FIG. 19.Log ehorneteristies of the tidol-fluvini mennderbolt (m,it III-1). C. G. SIC., Postawenècr, H. W., Rost, CA., and Van Wagoner, J. C. edo., Sou-
Note the bell-sheped gomnsn-roy cervo nod the organized dipmetnr pdltn005 level changes, an inlegratrst approach: Society of Economic Paleootologists rad
with o canotant dip dienetion refleefoog laeerol nunentionory snofoces of point Mineralogists Special Publication 42, p. 109-124.
arte Voss, P. R., 1989, Euxlatic controls on elastic deposition II -
Sequence and system tract models, t,r Wdgox, C. K., Hasriogs B. S., Kendall, C.
G. SIC., Posamunlier, H. W., Rost, CA., and Van Wagoner, J. C. otis., Sea-

Eschard, Ravenne, loud, and Kuos Aechilecture of a valley-fit I sequence aod a deltaic aggradalionol seqaence 147

CENOZOIC FLU VIAL-FACIES ARCHITECTURE AND
AQUIFER HETEROGENEITY, OROVILLE,
CALIFORNIA, SUPERFUND SITE
AND VICINITY
TERENCE C. BLAIR
Blair and Associates
1949 Hat'dscrol,ble Place
Boulder', Colorado 80303
FRED G. BAKER
JOSEPH B. TURNER
Dames and Moore
9300 Tech Center Dci ce
Sacramento California 95826
Anssnucr, A thrno-dmtcveional Incisa aoalynia of Ce0000ic lloniai depmiln io the niomity of
ofndcaalSupesfndaitonearOsonillCalifo,ja,waacondocaedtovhaoavtnrien aqnifoa
hctnrognneity and to providnnbaoia foe nocurate modeling of tho complex groundwater nyntcm.
A notnnork sf29 bornholm is the 6.5.lon atody nana pcneOated fono diatioctioe Bovini osits,
molodlng the Lagnna Fonnatioa (uppee Pliocene-Holoceoo), Nonalaki Tuff luppnr Plioceno).
Mohrinrt Formation (Miocnnn-oppea Pliocann). and tone Fonnanion (Eoceno). All fon,
fonmatioon conajnt of pobble-cnbble granel, aaod, and viny drpoailed by the Feather and
anceannt FeatherRtveeayatemaatthemargiooftheSao,amentoBnaj,nrartheweateerSieeeo
Nenadamoontain frost. Sediment granioyflowxmdtnnncrlaiaaodenitivnnd pumice-riot,
oolcooiolanlio faciaa derioed from thn mothornmont Cancade nolcanic venteen epiaodically
choked the aocenOal Featheo Rivor ayatem dornig lato Pliovere upper Mehrten ned Nomlaki
Tuff depoaition. Cen000io florid aggoadation sean inletmpted by three peaiodn nf nalley
cuoiog. tnhtch0000tted l)doring thoOligoceoe,heov000depoaitionofthelono nodMehrlre
Formatiooa; 2) dornig the late Pliscene. between depoailion of the Nomlahi Taff nod Lagunn
Formation; nod 3) doting the middle Pleiatocene. afIne moat Laguna depoaition reaa complotad.
The Otigocene nod late Fliocene paleonalleya, 24m 61m deep, ate filled With nrrficalty nod
laterally iotetconnnotrd chaooel pebbla.cobhle granel el the Mehrten nod Lagmtaaequrncea.
The principal aqaifar aonoa in the nmdy area noe 30-m.thick uniu of hydreulivally
oontieuoua channel granel nod sand of the Laguna. Mehrten, nod lone Fnnmetiona. mono
aquifer nonna at ecnntin000a aorota Oligocena nod late Pliocone peleanelley margin, throagh
cka000l.fihl granel nod noed of the nerinua foamationa. Floodplain clay and nnlcaoivlantio
dobtia-flowuettaactaaaqoJtaodt, whichlnoailylimittheintteeactionhettaeenperreeableeonea.
A dienoined pentachloeophonol plome in local grnnnd watet otigioatea at Ihn Supeafund aire
(a wood Irentmma pinol) is the noothom md of tho study aree, where it initially monca within
the Lagoon Formntion. The plume han migrated nilo hydraulically continonna Mehrten nod
lone franela that mein contact '-425m anuth of the pinot aire. Thn plume baa alto pannod into
juotapoand Mebeteo and Laguna grenela 1,400 an noath of the plant aite. Pumping-teat data
demoonttatothetnnmarltedchnogeaiohydaaoiiocnnductinity occoracroaa thopaionnniiey.fiti
boundaoioa. Looni changea tin the hydtaufic-gradieot vector are ceuaod by changea in Bo
potereabili of the aquifer tnatarinl or in the thicknranof the aquifet asnea, both of tehich are
nanociatrd with Interni changea io lonoatiOna and facice.
Peenentaddoeaa Ebaeco Ennoonmmntai, 143 Union Boulenatd. l_akewond, Colmado 80228-
1824.
Blair, Baker, and Turner
..aN*SRS*SeØSeSSNes
Tho ebjectinos of thin papee aceto I) pestent the resalta of a ghree-dimensineai
subaurfaon faoiea analyniu of Conozoic flavial deponiln in the vicinity of a foderai
Sepnefond silo located near Ooonil I e, California; and 2)10 drmonnlraie the alility of
establishing a facirn framework lo delineate aquifea helerogeneily and lo develop o
detailed characterization of the man's complex hydeogeologic Syutem. Determining
the facien framework wan preerquisite to nedernianding ihe groundwater pathwayn
and flow cenditionn thai influenced dissolved pentachiorophenol movement in the
aquifer and for accusons Ibero-dimenSional groundwater modeling necentaay fox lbs
design nf an effective and efficient romediul plan.
Oroville in located along Ihr Feather River in northeansern California nl Ihn
bouodaey heitceen the Siena Nevada foothills and the Sacramento Valley, f55 km
north of Sacramento (Fig. i). Mogni Lasnen. the southemmont nf the Cascado
volcanic centers, is located 93km north-northeasi of Oenville. The Feather River is
one of many leaf C, high-gradient, peeranial gravel-hod streams neiginating in ihn high
Siena Nnnoda and finwing wnrtward io the central valley nf California, This einer
changos coarse to a noath-soathwentrrly dirnclion upon nntnring the Socramenlo
Valley atOrovilie, whero ilS gradient significantly decreases (Fig, t). Relatively flat-
lying Feather River and ancestral Fculhee Rives fluvial sequences that were depotited
near the Siena Nevada mnooiain feont underlie and aro expoued in the Orevittn
vicinity. These neqoencen onlap and pinch nut eastwardly againut Monomio
metamorphic and platonic rocks that connlitole Ihr Siena Nrvada (Creely, 1965;
Bateman und Wahrhaftig, 1966).
The sindy mea in located salt of the Feather River, 3.2 km soath of Oeoville
(Fig, I), The modem floodplain there in 4.3 km wide and in bounded by Plia-
Plnisiocene len000n ISis 37m high. The Study mea inclsdes the Superfsnd nile and
the adjoining region to the nnnth (Fig. t). This anca is 1.3km wide and 50km long,
orierted parallel to the Siena Nonada moantain fronL The neareni foothill bedrock
nxpossret arr 1.8 km lathe east, The depth ta crystalline bedrock is ontimatod lobs
275 m (Harmond and Heltey, 1987), althasgh locally bassmnal in eocOuntered in
nearby weSt al depthn of slOb w,
This study in bosad on t) stratigeaphic, facies, and hydeogeologic data obtained
feom a network of 29 boerholes peneteating targeled aquifer rones in the ntody mea
(Fig. 2); 2) hydrogeoingic dala obtained from other euialing wollt in abe viciuity;
3) the rec000aissance of espotmen near the Study aera of the steatigraphic anitn
intsrsectmd in Ihr borehole network; and 4) the integration of thene newly developed
data with proviossly developed strafigraphic infnztnation in the Oroville area, The
Cenozoic flsvial sequence in the Oenvilie region has boon finely divided ints
numerous formations on the basin of facien, age, buriod toils, and geomorphic
relutionuhipn. Enponmot of all of Ihn so antta novar within 7.5 km nf the study aile.
The goals nf the nseface-espolarc inseutigatinn were lo identify facies, reviow the
renulis nf peevinus studien, and develop criteria for ascia dinlinguiuhing fnrmalionn
and facies in Ihe nabtgefuce from deiliiog samples. The tenturos, colnrs, ncdimentary
utrnctares, buried soils, and paleocurrenl information were defermined from
13 esponstren (Fig. t). Samples of the sandy component mere coilecied feom these
enponsres foe petrographic analyses.
The 29 study wells are diniribuled throughout the 6.5,kma mea (Fig. 2), The
average dittancebeiwers the wells in 457m, whseeav the average spacing in key pana
of the siody msa, Such asar dro plant site, is 283m. Total depih in the weil network
Fluvial-facies urchileclore and aquifer helerogene y
Ftu, l,Lnontioaa map nl the Oraville regina nhamiaag the Buprrfaaad plant aile,
Ihr stady arra (labeled Figarr 2), and Ihr naterop localities examiaard )aambered
hlnohn).
averagos 73 an (Table i). Information obtained from the wrlls innlndrx the
rasa tdrnlif'tcation of facies and formations boned on the enaminalien of retrieved drill
cutlangs and the doleraninagion of flow condilionn across facies hoandarien feom 1hz
rosalia of geoasdwatrr pampiaf teals. Bath doal-labe reverne-air mfary drilling and
caatng-hammer airlift drilling lechniquen allowed for goad recovery of both
dtuaggregutrd and partIally lithified nattnplen, including gmin sizes ranging from clay
Io caaruc pebbles. Recovered samples wrre bagged in 1.5-m increments. Sample
8 testeren were descrtbed fallowing the clasaification scheme of Polk (1974) and wree
used te plot stratigraphic columns, cross neclionn, and fence thageamn.
A peirographic tnvesugaaion nf eight samples feom the P-1 welt (Fig. 2) and eight
outcrop samples wan conducted no help idenlify the pengloated units and te
obaracleenme aqutfer quality. Thin examination included description of tostaren,
adonitftcation of dtagenelic modificalians and pom sioen, and delerminution nf the
framowoek grain competition sia a 380 point-count asalysin. This petrographic
infarmallos wan then inlegralod with Ihe sneface and subsurface sedimentologic
dota Io dopad the thrcn-dimenuionol relationship nf formations, facies, and
oquifer-uqailued rones,
An tnconstutesl ntrutigrapbic nomenclalure han been enlubtithed for the Cenazoin
depontis ta the Orocille vininily (Pig. 3). Many of Iheso usituare definedon the basin
of gold contrai, buoted notis, and geomorphic relationships or by the introduction of
dintanl fnesnulion names wilbout local venfication. The sloatigraphy of dro Dessille
arca, denptte being finely divided, in farther compliculed by a lack cf cautinunnu
enponure, by a lack nf previous facies studies, and by the foci that many of the units
hase innot relationships with alder formations rather than superposed, layered
relauonuhips, owing lo the sedimentoingic behavior of the proximal Feather River
system.
By evatautang pant publications, esaminisng new roadcut and railenad-cnt
esposares, und adhering lathe straligraphic code (North American Commission on
Siratagraphtc Nomenclature, 1983), we differentialed four formal stratigeaphic units
an the study area. Thene includo, in ascending order, the lone Formation, Mehrten
Formalian, Nnmlaki Tuff, and Laguna Formation (Fig. 3).
lone Formation
Tho lone Formalion in the northeanlem California Siena Nevada foothills consista
of an mach au 183m of variably cemented, fine to coarse nandstone, uiltutonn, lignite,
and clayntone with varieguled colorn, including red, yellow, white, blue, gray, orange,
and black (Lindgren, 1911; Alles, 1929; Creely, 1965; Gillam, 1974). Interbedded
ienticuimpebble-rmd-cobbfo"oufmaous" or"greeastone" francIS are locally presenl
und become more abundant easilvardly (Allen, 1929; Dureell, 1987). A middle
Eoceno age has been assigned to this formation on the basin of contained fioca and on
the fauna of interfisgeeing and underlying marine formulions (Cerely, 1965).
The lone has lonf bons considered io be componed of the deposils of a fluvial-
deltaic system formed under u humid, sabtrepicat climate nn the banin of Ihn
occunence of lignite and carbonaceous shale, the identified flora, and the common
pretence of kanlinilr comest (Alien, 1929; Funk and Tsrner, 1952; Creely, 1965;
148
 Heflry&Harsasnd b*bsrsrlaee
InryOP) Serres Erecto 1965 nusacca 902 Feather River and also soiginaled in Ihe Sierra Nevada. Hacknl'n (1966) Eoceno

!'-rETr
FIG. 2.-Location of wells examined in the stady area. See Figure 1 for location
Uvderrewerrds paleogeographic map of the Sacramenlo Valley shown a marine shorelior
STH.J FORMATkm immediately west of Onoville, with the westwaed-pnogoadiog tono flavial-deltoic
Supodu Sd
TH-K
-
5, e - 550 pOlaca61 TUFFÇ system presrol in Oho Oroville orna.
Three new esposares of Iho tone Formalisa in the 000ville aran were osamined
Plant S,te
MW-13 j (Fig. I). All of Ihese colo consist of inlerhedded medians- to very fioe-graiord

TH-D//
MW-20 ISTh-G sandstone, modsl000, and silsstone (Fig. 4a, b). The nandoloso beds are lenlicular and
1*0cc l-Formation thickness (ml, Orocitle Superfaxd site and vicinity bore/soles
display slightly biotorbated, low-angle and honizootal beddiog. Sorting is moderate
Tl-I.l\ SMW-19 encept wheee detrital clay has been incorporated into the sandstone as a resolt of
MW-215 MW-17 bioturbation. Those lone deposito ore varicolored blue, green, tan, brown, gray, and
Bottom-
MW-225 TH-F Ssrfoce hoto Formativo Thickness Total - NEW Eno black, sod locally contain abundant organoc fragments orare tignitic.
Well Elevation Elevatioo Laguna Nomalki Mohoseo 10x0 Depth FORMaTION MEHRTEN tone sandstone framework grains in this ootcrop as well soin Ohr subsuaface of Ihr
OM
U.S. Hrgrrnay 70 060 48.20+ 126.80
-y- '
FORMATION study area priocipally consist of mosocryslalline and polycryolallise qoarla (16 to
P-1
P-2
7163
30.29
-55.17
-17.68
27.43
16.76
6.71
9A5
44.50
35.97 5.80* 67.97
S- 66%), plagioclase and polasniam feldspar (1009%). granitic cock frogmrntn (14 to
63%), sehiotene and gneissic metamorphic-rock fragments (1 ta 9%), and mica and
RI-4 60.96 -18.29 79.20s- - - 79.23 heavy minerals (11033%; Pig. 4h, c). Theso composilioaal chaeacteninticn indicate
EH-l. .p that the arad barbeen derived solely from Ihr crystalline rocks composing the Sierra
51-5 60.35 -24.99 23.16 20.42 19.20 22.60+ 85.34 Necada (Fig. 5). Cement types viewed in thin neclion are limoaite, mechanically
RI-6 57.91 -21.34 79 .20* - - 79.25
cvaE,vv associ L 01-Jon BaSaLT infiltrated clay, and calcite (Fig. 4b, e).
Baggert
Paterno
RI-7 47.24 -32.92 7920v - - 00.16 -w--
Mehrten Fornraliox
Rood
RI-8 48.16 -36.58 32.00 3.35 49.30* - 84.73
RI-9 47.24 -38.10 24.38 10.36 49.68 0.90* 85.34 The Mehrten Formation, as defined in this report, mnelades a neqaence of variably
RI-IO 49.38 -3 5.97 81.69 - 3_70G 85.34 cemenled, inlerhoddod clay, sand, and gravel that unconformobly oserlies the lone
Formaliov and io conformably ovorlain by adistinetivr, widespread, pamice-rich Coil
RI-4 ME VO TEN)')
RI-12 48.77 -30.48 24.99 9-75 45.40+ - 79.25 called the Nomlaki Taff (Fig. 3). Basacca (1982) eatimated that the Mehrten
5' F0RnATIep
RI-15 44.20 -41.15 22.86 15.85 46.02 0.60+ 85.34 Formatioo han a maximam Ihicknono of 152 m in the Oroville area. Radiomeleic
011.1 81.69 -17.07 32.00 7.32 27.74 3170v 98.76 dclenninalt000 and iaveotigaliosn of flora and fossa in the Mehrten Formation at its
RI-6 type section near Sacramento indicate a middle Mioceno Islote Plioceno age (02.0 to
RI-5E EH-2 47.24 -38.10 20.73 5.79 50.80+ - 85.34 3.5 ma) (sammarizod in Gitlam, 1974). One radiometrie dale from an ash hed within
EH-3 45.11 .41.13 23.77 7.32 50.29 4.90-t- 86.26 the tower Mehrten Foewalion al 000ville (23.8 ma; Banacca, 1982) indicates that this
TH-D 4 3_59 8.23 3 3.40* - - 33.36 w- formation is as old as early Mioceno. Both Ihr MehrOen Formalion and its
LOF. Tree Road - stratigraphie corertalive fringing the Mount Lasnon volcano lathe north, the Toaran
m-F 44.20 -32.43 84.43 12.20* 96.62 Formation, consist of parple volcanic debris-flow deposito and inlerhedded waterlain
3.70+ 89.31 lONE FO9MGTION
OPP500MATE 000JND000 m-G 43.28 .46.02 85.65 p fluvial deposito rich in volcanic deteitan, hut also containing crystalline basement-
OF PENT5CHLPHENOL m-H 43.28 -24.69 68.00* 67.97 derived clarIs and rare luff bedo (Creely. 1965; Bateman and Wahrhaftig. 1966;
RUUE - as- AURIFEROUS ONE FORMaTION lONE FORMATION

RI-7 / TH-I 42.98 -26.21 69.20* 69.19

ra
GRAVELS'
Lyden, 1967, 1968; Helloy and Harwood, 1985). The reported occurrence of both
channel-lain, clast-supported, pebble- and eobbte.gravet facies and inlerheddod

RI-8 S .\ , TH-J
Th-K
'14.20
40.72
16.76
18.90

23.77
27.40.1-
26.80+

22.90*
27.43
26.82

22.86
'OREE NS TONE
G RASEL S'
volcanic-rich debris-flow facies in thin formation saggests that debris flows, probably
related te volcanic events. episodicntly choked the ancestral Feather River system.
An esp055re of angabe to subroanded, mateis-oupporled, clayey pebble. te
bontder-cenglomeeale debris-flow facies of the Mehrten Formation is present along
MW-11 46.63
u MW-13
MW-17
44.20
44.20
24.38
-12.80
57.00*
57.00+
19.81
57.00
Flu. 3 -Cenozoic fluvial straligraphir nsmexclatare of the Oroville area. OlivrHighway earl of Oroville (Sito 8, Figs. 1 and4d). Thegravel and sand fractoono
of this deponil, as well as many intervals øf this sait encountered in the tahoarfacn,
consist of poephyrilic-dacite rock fragments and dinaggrogated quartz and plagioclane
s EH-3 MW-18 48.16 -12.80 6 1.00* 60.96 phonocrysts (Fig. 4e, f). The sand fraction of the stadied saboarface fluvial Mehrten
MW-19 42.67 -43.59 72.34 13.70* 86.26 samples comprises a mistare nf perphyritic-dacite rock fragments (36 to 37%),
MW-20 43.28 -28.96 71.93 0.30+ 72.24 granitie-rovk fragments (32 ta 49%), metamorphic-rock fragmenln (4107%), quarte
S EH-2 Baseman and Wahehaftig, 1966; Darrell, 1966). Gillam (1974) subnlantialed Ihm (10 to 19%), and feldspar (0 to 3%). This composition indicates that bbc Mehrten
1600 MW-21 43.28 -33.34 83.21 - 13.40+ 96.62 inlerpretalion throng/s a facies soalysis of Ilse Inno type onction, located 135 km soslh sequence in Ihe study area originated from the erosion of both Sierra Nevada
MW-22 42.67 -35.36 21.34 18.29 38.40s- 78.03 of Oroville, whore dellaic and braided t3ovial envieonmentn wenn differenlialod. The crystalline reeks aod a Mosel Lasnon-.derivrd volcanic neqaence 0h00 blanketed at
Palacio Roas SRI
Feet least part of the ancestral Feather Riven drainage banin (Fig. 5).
lone channel nynlem in Ihn Orseille area wan ins locaOon similar lo that of the pennonI

Fluvial-facies archileclore sod aquifer helerogeueity 149

Blair, Baker, and Turner
 Flu. 4.Photographs of the loue and Mehrten Formations. Study sites are C,y,taSno
located in Figure!. (a) toue Formation horizontally bedded, varicolored ctay and Ou,ownnt
siltstone in the lower part of this exposure is overtain by tan, tenticular-hedded,
very Sue sandstone; Site 13. (b) Photomivrograph nf micaceous and tilty, very oie Fmmnvofl
fine sandstone from the tone sequence viewed in (a) (sample OR-3).
Photomicrograph width is 2.4 mm. (r) Photomicrograph of culcile-cemenled,
p-1 Wet
moderately sorted, very fine to medium sandstone cuttings from the 375- tO
Outcrop
380-fl interval of the tone Formation in the P-1 well. Photomicrograph width in
2.4 mm. (d( View of matrix-supported debris-flow facies esposare of Ihr
Mehrten Formation, Site S. Gravel clatIs are composed of porphyritic undesite.
Photomicrograph of Mehrten Formation debris-flow facies, Site S.
Individual sand grains are composed of dacite porphyry or volcanic phenovryuts
and arr differentiated with difficulty. Pholomicrograph width is 2.4 mm.
Photomicrogeaph of Mebrlen Formation collings of Ihr volcanic dehris.flow
facies from the 120- Io 125-fl interval of the P-1 well. Photomicrograph width
in 2.4 mm.

Metvteo
Foenetmo '7

Norsloki Tuff

The Nomlaki Tuff io as upper Ptioccne (3.4 ma), while, pomice.eich, wotcelain
viteic tuff exposed locolly io the Oroville area, whore it reaches a mosimom thickocss
of 55m (Busacco. 1982). The Nomlaki ash was extruded from a caldero noce Tuscas
Buttes, 96 Ives norlh.00rlhwesl of Oeovillc (Lydon, 1967, 1968). This tuff is
desigossed a mcmhoe of tise Tuscas Formation north of Oroville aod a memhoroflhe
lowcr Lagons Formation around Oroville (Lydon, 1967. 1968; Busocca. 1982), The
Nomlaki Tuff is ixolaled as a formal formation in this study because ils color.
composilion. and thickness make il easily distinguishablc in drilling samples aod
becoase il isa widespeead straligeophic marker uniI that separates the volcanic-rich
Mehrlcn sediments below from lise leso volcunic.rich Laguna srdimests above
(Fig. 3).
Four Nomlaki facies were idestified in lise Orovitle area. At Stevens Market
(Site #7, Fig. t). u 2.4.or.lhick debris Sow is exposed, consisting nf granulen and
pebbles of pomice und rare asdenite suspended isa dopey matrix. This debrio.flow
soil oveeties leough.cross.bedded aed low.angle.bcdded, waterlain, gr000lar lo vety
coarse sond composod of pumice with rare andesite and quarte. The more commou
facies of liso Nomlaki arr low-angle to hoei000lalty inlerbedded granular fino sand asd
silt and horizonlatly laminated clay (Fig. 60, h). The inlerbedded granule and sand
couplets arr charucteristic ofleanspoelanddeposilion is transitional shullow.wolerto
upper.ftow.regime conditions, whereas the taminaled cloy wan formed by the netlling
of suspended load in slut waler.
The saud compositioo io all of the Nomlaki facies is dominated by pumice (1210
100%) with variable amounts of dacite porphyry (0 en 63%; Fig bc, ti). Minor
comporenlu include metamorphic-rock fragments (01o3%), granitic.rock fragments
(0106%), and quartz (01025%). These cnmposilioual churacleristics indicate thut
the Nomlaki represents the re.nedimrnlution by mutue flow or sediment gravily flow
of a pumicroos air.fall tuff thai must have significantly blunkeled lise Feather River
drainage buxis in the western Sierra Nevada. Tho deposition of Ibis material choked
the anceseal Feather River system daring a part of Ihr laleul Plioceno. Erosion of
Mehrten Formatioo docile porphyry locally canleibuled detritus during this phase of
fluvial aggrudution, as did background contribuImos from the Sierra Nevada
crystalline rocks (Fig. 5).
Onere Pum e n
Po,phyry
Flu. 5.Provenance dtagram based on point-counl dala from enpmnres (circles)
and P-1 well samples (diamonds). Cryslallinr bauemenl includes melamorphic
and plulonic fragments, polassium feldspar, and qnarlr. The tone Formation in
comprised solely of cryxlallioe basemenl fragmenls, wherras Ihr Mehrlen
Furmalion consists of a mixture of basement-derived grains und Mount Lassen.
derived porphyritic dacile-andosile detritus. Both Ihr Laguna and the Nomlaki
fields consisl of mislnrrn nf crystalline basement, Muont Lassen porphyrilir
dacile, and Nomlaki pumice. The Nomlaki field in more pnmivr rich than is Ihr
Laguna domain.
Laguna Foros,utiro
Contrary to definilions provided in prenious pubticali005,Ihr Laguna Foesnalion au
defined here includes alt posl.Nomlaki sediments in the Orovillr erra, including the
recrut deposits of Ihr Feather River (Fig. 3). Thiu broader definition is employed
because Ihr numerous Qualrrnory formations olhern have preponed (e.g.. Fig. 3)0cc
baned on geomorphic or baeicd.soil infonstatian rather than on criterio by which
formal formolions arc dtutioguiuhrd. Thin more broadly defined formation includrn
deposits varying from latcsl Fliocene through Qoalcmary in age. Il in the most
widespread surficial soil in lise Oroville mro.

Blair, Baker, and Turner Fluvial-facies architecture and aquifer heterogeneity 150
 Ftc. 6.(a) lntrrbrdded pumice-rich granair prbble gravel oud nul nf the
Namlaki Tnff; Site 10. (b) Laminated pnmiceons clay or the Nomlaki Tuer,
Site 10. (e) Photomieregraph et Nomlaki Tuff, Site 6. Volcanic-glass shards
Ftc, 7.Photographs of Ihr Laguna Formalion. (a) Jnlerheddzd gravel (G),
matie ap all nf Ihr framewark grains. Pholamierograph width is 2,4 mm, sand (S), and clay (C) ata 6-m rspasure at Site 2h. Darkened rones in upper
(d( Photominrograph of Namlaki Taft drill entlings, 96 to 90-ft interval nf the granel and tower clay are soil herirons. (h) Closeap of vertical esposare of coarse
P-1 wrIt, Framewarla grains are dominated by pumice fragments. gravel facies composed of sand and rounded pebble- and cobble-sized ctasts,
Phoinmicrograph widlh is 2,4 mm, Site 3. Note the imbricate fabric displayed by the etorgale clasts. Field notebauk
for scale, (n) Epsilvn-brdded sand set )S) oveelain by reddish-brown flnodplaiu
The LagunaFormation consists in outcrop of a sandy gravel channel facies, a sandy buried soils with rod In red-brawn aegillic or dueipan B horizons are locally prevalent clay (C) at Silr 1; scale = 1m. (d) Photomicrngraph of cnarsr Lagana sandstune,
The gravel in the Lagana channel facies (Fig. 7a; Baracca, 1902). sample OR-4, Site 2h. Framework grains enavist ata mictare of quarin and
channel facies, and sandy clay to clay floodplain facies (Fig. 7a-c).
deposits occur above sharp, scoured surfaces asd are comprised of poorly to The steaclares, fabric, and- testares of the gravel facies are indicative of plulonie, metamerphic, pamice (P), and dacile porphyry rock fragmenls.
toaespertalion by anidirectional water flow ander appee-flew-regimr conditions and Pedogenic handed hemalile nemeuls this sample.
moderately sorted, sandy, clast-sapported pebbles and cobbles displaying a well-
developed, imbnicale fabric (Fig. 7a,b). The gravel classy are rounded lo well rounded of deposition as vertical bedload accretion in longitudinal or traanverse barforms
and esainly occur in anita 0.3 to 9.1 m thick. Planan crest-bedded sandy pebble gravel (Fahuentock nod Haunhitd, 1962; Rant, 1972). Faleocarreot data obtained frem the
also is present locally within the gravel beds. Gravel clasts have plalonic and iwbeicate gravel fabric al sic Groville evposueeu show that the main channel flowed
metamorphic lithologiev and mavimam long dimensions of 30cm. Well-developed soatb-sovthwest in this area (Fig. 8), similar te the present Feather River trend. The

Blair, Baker, aod Turner Fluvial-facies architecture aod aquifer heterogeneity 151
 .....ØS.,*. SSSS.*NN.fl$Ø.
development of soils on the upper pant of these channel filin denotes long periods (at
leant Ihonnands of pears) during which the fill man Subjected to pedagenesis, mont
likely cesatting from channel abandonment of the area due to river avutsion or
downcutting.
The sand facies, mhich makes ap osty a smatt percentage of the Laguna exposures,
is typically medium to very coarse grained and displays horizontal bedding, tom-
angle bedding, and epsilon or trough cross-bedding (Fig. 7e). These structures
suggest tiuviat deposition under shaltom flow conditions nr in point bars. The
votumetricatty minor amount nf sandp channel deposits retative to gravet-chonset
deposits in the Laguna Formation reflects fam conditions is this high-gradient river
system that mere commonly too vigorous for sand deposition. The sand units that are
present mene probably deposited in the main channels durisg maning flood stage or
daring lower river discharge, or is srcondary channets, as in demonstrated by the
present Feather River system.
The clap facies is tan or rcddish-broms and occurs in beds raogisg from 0.3 lo
9.t m in thickness (Fig. 7a, e). tt represents sediment accumulation in floodptains
adjacent to the main channels. Manganese oxide rootcasts and reddened buried toits
are common in these deposits, denoting periods during which the floodplain was
vegetated and welt doomed.
Petrographic analysis of both the sand facies and the sandy component of the gravel
facies reveals a mide variety of framework grain tithotogies, including
mnsocrystattise and polycrystalline quarte (7 to 27%), ptagissvtasc und potassium
fetdspar(2 In 10%), metamorphic-rock fragmests (2 to 14%), granitic-rack fragments
(lt to28%),panphyritic andesite-dacite rock fragments (8 to47%),pumice fragments
(4 to 33%), sandstone and skate fragments (0 to 5%), and mica and heavy-miserat
grains (3 to 17%; Fig. 7d). Thin framework grain assemblage indicates that the
Laguna Formation basa mined provenance consisting of Siena Nevado crystatline
rocks, Mount Lassen-denived intermediate vatcaniclastic rocks, and Nomluki Tuff
pumice (Fig. 5).
p
The distinctive compositional characteristics of Ilse Lagona, Nomlaki, Mehrten,
and tose Formations (Fig. 5), combined mith other uniqar features observed in
outcrop, including catar and facies typos, have attomed usw identify these formations
and their facies in drilling samples from 29 berehotes in the study area.
Laguna Formation
Sitr av
The Laguna Formation is the soeficiot unit throughout most of the Orovitte regior,
and it constitutes a significasl interval mithin the borehole network (Tobte t). This
formation in Ilse slsdp area wells consists of the same textures antI facies as described
from the surface exposures, including fluvial sand-rich pebble and cobble gravats.
saod, and clap (Figs. 9a-e). Abondant reddish-brows clap within sandy gravet
samples is considered an indication of buried soits within she channet deposits, anis
Fts. 8.Rase diagrams nf pateseurrent directions constructed from
measurements nf imbricate gravrt fabric of the Laguna Formation at sis
toeatitirs io the Ornvitte area. These diagramsdemonstrate that the late Ptiacene
to middte Pteistocene Feather River had a trend simitar to that of the modern
Feather River.
Blair, Baker, aod Turner Fluvial-facies urchileclurn and aquifer helnregcneily
the reddish-brawn versas Ian color of the clay floodplain samples. The base of the
Laguna is cavity distinguished where the pumiceous Nomlaki Tuff man cocounlered.
Where the Nomlaki is absent, the base of Ihr Laguna man located mheer composition,
color, und facies isdicalive of the Metseler nr tose Formations mere reached.
The Logusa varien significantly in thickness from 17 ta 86 m io the study melts
(Figs. 9a-e, Table 1). A fence diageom (Fig. 10) and a Laguna Formation isopuch mop
(Fig. 110) show two zones is the study area mhere the Laguna is consistently vd6 m
thick. One southmest-tnesding anne is in ihn northern end of she study area, beneath
and near Ihn present Feather River floodplain, whereas the second zone has a
southerly trend und occurs alnog ihn southeastern side of the study area. The
remainder of the area is characterized by Laguna deposits commonly <30 m thick.
Aplotofthepercenlage of channel-fill facies (gravel plus sand) nf tho total Laguna
section (Fig. lIb) shown spuliol trends similar lo those in the Laguna Formation
isopach map. Tha eases containing <50% channel-fill facies correspond directly ta
the zones where the Laguna is thickest, whereas the relatively ibis Laguna sequences
consist of <50% channel-fill facies. The higheni percestage of channel-fill gravel and
sand in the Lagssa section (77 ta 93%) occurs in the northern purl of the study area
bencaih the plant site. The percent gravel pint (Fig. lic) shams the sume trend as the
percent channel-fill (sand pins gravel) facies and demonstrates that the channel-fill
facies consists primarily of grsvel. The channel fill io the sorthern part of the area
comprises -80% gravel, 10% sand, and 10% cloy.
The isopach, percent channel-fill facies, and percent grovel maps (Fig. lia-c),
combined with the formation fence diagram (Fig. 10), delineate Iwo soulh.
southwest-trending Laguna paleavalley fills that arc nested mithin older formations.
These valleys formed during a fluvial damocuttiag episode that commenced after late
Pliocese Namlaki deposition, as indicated by the preservation of the Neaslaki beneath
the Lagana Formation in the drainage divide between the tmo paleovalleys and along
the valley shoulders (e.g., Figs. 9d and Ita). In she drepest parts, the paleavalleys are
incised completely through the Nomlaki aod Mehrten Formatiass und into the lose
Formation (Figs. 9a-d and 10). Where discernible, bath paleavalirys have steep
margins with 6t m of relief (Figs. 9u-d). The Laguna puteavaltry beneath the
modern Feather River in the northern segment of the study area mas most likely
farmed and filled by the Feather River, whereas the identified Laguna paleavalley fill
in the vaulheaslern region formed either us u spur of the Feather River or by a separate
stream issuing from the Siena Nevada south at Orovitle is the location of the present
Wyman Ravine (Fig. i). The fact thai the fill is both of these palnevatleys is primarily
gravel and sand inconsistent with contained channel fam in an incised valley, mhere
cempelcnce was easily maintained,
Nomtaki Tuff
The Nomlaki Tuff man inlcrsected is 10 wells, alt located in the part of the stady
areahetween Ihr Iwo Lagunapuleavulleys (Table t,Figs. 9u-eand 10). TheNomlaki
varies from 3 lo 20 w ja thickness and is easily dissingaished from the Laguna
Formation abave and the Mehrten Formation below by its high-pumice content aud
white colar. All four facies identified in the Oraville outcrops, including the debris
flow and waterlais gravvl,sand, and clay, wnredistinguished in drilling samples from
the horchatas,
Mehrten Fornsarion
The Mehrten Formation wan identified in Il wells, includiag the 10 that contained
the Nnmtaki Tuff, and the MW-22 well, which in located an the shoulder of 1hz
northern Laguna paleovalloy (Figs. 9u-e and IO). This formation coatains abondant
prophyeitic-andesite fragments asd was picked as the unit below Ihn Nemlaki Tuff.
The base of the Mehrten was easily placed at the fiesl indication of the multicolored,
volcanic-fern, leso Formation sandstone, tilintase, or claystane. The Mehrten
Formation kas a manimum thickness nf 59m in the study welts andin consistently
<27 re thick except in the MW-22 und RI-5 wells, where it meuvares 18w (Table t).
Stratigraphie evidence indicates that the Mehrten Formation in Ihr sonlhern part nf Ihn
study area, ithe the Laguna Farmalian there, was deposited isa paleevalley at leant
d2m deep (Fig. 9h).
The upper Mehrten Formation in the subsurface commonly consists of debris flows
and gravel-channel fills rich in usdesile dusts, whereas the lewerpuol of the formation
consists mostly afchasnel.tili gravel with a wised andesite- and crystalline-basement
composition (Figs. 9a-o). Floodplain clay fucies make up only a small percnnlage nf
the penetrated Mehrten intervals (Figs. 9a-e). Watnelain vitric tuffs occur witkin the
Mehrten interval is the southemmnsl purl nf the study acea. These characteristics
demonstrate that maltet the Mehrten sequence was deposited by the sume type of
fluvial synlem that produced the Laguna Formation. Part of this istezvul accumulated
in apuleovatley caliate the lone Formatian in the southwestern part of the sindy area.
This fluvial system episodically was choked, pafliculaely during the laien stages of
Mehrinn deposition, by Mount Lassos-derived voicanic-drbris flaws.
lane Formation
The tane Formulion was partially penetrated (0.5 1048m) i5 14 wells (Table I). lt
was dintinguished from the overlying Mehrten er Laguna Fermalions by the first
indication nf Ike typical Inne tribologies, including molticetored, locally organic-rich
claystone and associated green, blue, gruy, nr tan saodstone and niltslone. The tone
samples commonly consist of cemented chips rather than disaggrefated sediment,
which lypifies the yansfer formulions (Fig. 4e). Addiliosully, micaceaus sillslose ïn
prevalensin the lane sequence, whereas it is rare in the younger formations. Sand-rich
pebble gravels are a misen composent of the lone in these subsurface mnleevals
(Figs. 9a. n, and r).
mcmx CONTROL ev asereno ntnvotntrrrov ava asurco ttereuoonvstvv
The aquifer told aqnita.ed distribution in Ihn study area. unwell us Ihr quality of the
aquifer zones, is a dicevI function of facien lype und occurrnsce. Three stratified
aquifer runes arr distinguished at least locally io the study area. These zones
(designaled A, B, and C) principally occur in pebble- and cobble-gravel facies and
associuted sand facies of the Laguna and Mehrten channel fills and secondarily in the
rarer lone Formation channel gravels (Figs. 9a-e). Highest aquifer permeability in
found in the gavial gravels and sandy gmveis that have not undergesa pedagenesis.
Permeability is reduced in Ihn buried-aril eones 1h01 commonly developed is IhR
upper parts of the channel fills dueto Ihn introduction of mechanically infiltruled clay
and iron oxide cements isle the inlergranular pores and pose throats (Fig. 74). This
reduction is permeability is demeaslmled by Ihr grnutrz rate of water production
during drilling with incenosisg depth in individual chanorl fills. Fore size
(intermediate dimension) is typically 0.4 remis Ihn sandstone massiv of this facies.
Total inlergranular porosity, undetermined from poiot-c000t data, varies from 25 to
35% andin seduced toll to 22% is the buried-soil zones.
lone Formatiou sandstone facies constitute a minor purl of the lowest aquifar rese
(e.g., Figs. 9h, n). These sundnloae units have lower aquifer quality dueto their silty,
Cvwtsurd ev page 156
152
 SOUTH NORTH
ft
A A

FM: LAGUNA FORMATION

LAGUNA FORMATION
I A
NOM LA Kl
r?I
A

J NOMLAKITUFF

Z
MEHRTEN
MEHRTEN FORMATION

B/C LOCATION MAP

FORMATION
LAGUNA FORMATION

.
r4
B/C
g
w
lONE FORMATION .7
ONE FORMATION Ig
r
5
Feo. 9a.Sonlh-north subsurface cross section A-A' rrom the P2 to TH-K wells
along the eastern side or study area. Arrows indicate groundwater-flow
direction hated on November 1987 data. The southeastern Laguna Formation
gravel-rich paleovalley fill iv situated between the EH-2 and Pl wells.

Blair, Baker, and Turner Fluvial-facies architecture and aquifer heterageneity 153
 ....sS.**u s*SSS*SNSUuSSS
ft
B B
SOUTH
Vea the,
NORTH
RIser Valley

LAGUNA FORMATION

NOMLAKI TUFF

MEHRTEN FORMATION

81G
lONE FORMATION

lOCATION Mor
FORMATION

lONE FOIRMATION

Fso. 9b.Soath-north sobsorface cross section B-B' from the RI-15 to TU-J
wells along the western side of sludy area. The northern Lagnna Formation
genvrl-rich paleovalloy fill is evident north of Ihr EH-1 well, whereas Ihr ONE FORMATION
Mehrlrn Formation paloovalley fill io present in the sonthwestern part of the
study area, sooth of the RI-5 well. Arrows indicate groundwater-flow direction
based Os. Novemher 1987 dota,

Blair, Baker, and Tamer Flavial-facies architectare and aqaifer heterogeneity

154
 WEST EAST
MW-17 EAST
WEST MW-22
MW-2 I TUI MW-19 D D'
ft'- C n
C,

ft
y

LEGEND LOCATION MAP

I11,bbI. e.bbI, I

To runup n.e's ct.7Lu.

Ir
J
a enn,unT.,nu
I

-- r'.0
uuI ,,n,t y
w

nC.qunf.n.ST.. O ................
Fic. 9c.West-eaot subsurface cross section C-C' between the MW-22 and
MW-11 horeboles in the nurthern puri of s udy area. The southern shoulder of
the Laguna paleovailey fili that dominates his cross section occurs between the
MW-21 and MW-22weits. About 61m of rebel is apparent at this valley margin.
Puc, 9d,Went-naut subsurface censo neetiun D.D' between the Ri-5 and RI-6
wol sin the central part of study area. The 61-rn-high western shoulder nf the
sou heastern Laguna paleovalley fill is inferred between these two horeholes.

Blair, Baker, and Turner Fluvial-facies archilecture and uquifer helerogeneity 155
 WEST RI-52
EAST
al-8 very fior sand size, small pore size (0.09 lo OIS mm) and the common presence of
Rl Z
E'
either bioturbated matrix clay or istergeanular cemeols, tncladiog ires oxides aod
fI
lJ calcito (Fig. 4h, e). The Nemlaki Tuff saodslone and sittstoee units possess high
(25 to 35%) porosity (Fig. 6c. d), but pore size (0.04 to 0.05 mm), peemoability, and
aquifer quality are tow.
The floodplain clay sequences of all four stratigraphie aoitu constitute Ihn majo
aquilards. Where prevalent, these sequences at toast locally limit the vertical
2 RI-1G inleracsion between permeable zones. The debris-flow facies of the Nomlaki asd
Mehrten Forsssalions also act av aquitards. Together, the debris-flow and claystone
lloodplato facies of the l'fomlzki Tuff form a cosfioiog bed for snderlyisg aquifer
zones B asd C is the central and southern parta of the sludy area (Figs. 9a, b). The
o'- hollow of Ihn grosndwulor nyslem recaen nl apparently ostensive claystone units of
the loue Formation, which compose the lowermost uquilard.

N
L V

I'
ç nedimenlalios, und uvutnios rates, suggests that the individual chansel-fill sequences
MW-11
II
Ftc. 9e.West-east subsurface cross section E-E' betweeu the m-8 and RI-7
wetts in the southern part of study area. The southeastern Laguna Formation
palenvattey fiti in inset and juxtaposed against the Mehrten Fnrmatioo
putoavalley tilt between the RI-7 and RI-82 wetts.
ULAGUNA FORMATION
NAMLAKI TUFF
MEHRTEN FORMATION
lONE FORMATION
Ftc. 80.Fence diagram ittustrating the gross geometric relationships
between the Cenozoic formations in the study area.
The thickness aod lateral eslool of Ihr floodplain clay asics largely deleesnine she
degree to which the three aquifer zones areverlicalty isolated or c005ecled. Thick clay
units (>1.5 w) une common in all of the foonations occurring in the sludy area, bal
their lateral extent is uncoelain over horizontal dislances less thus that of the well
spaciog. Experimental computer modeling by Allen (1978) of the parameters that
costrol she lateral entent of floodplain clay depositias, including subsidence,
are probably isolated vertically and laterally where floodplain clay connlilnles >50%
of the straligraphic noclinu. The degree of channel deposit inlercunnecledness
iocrrased rapidly in AlIens modeling when the chansel-to-overbank ratio exceeded
50%, and, at a channel-to-eveebank ratio of 75%, complote inlercounecsednosn
resulted. The application of these modelirg rosulls Io the Oroville study area predicts
that nearly complele hydraulic continuity should enist between chanool-fill gruseln of
the Mehrten and Laguna paleovalley fills, which have chaunel-lo-overbank thickness
ratios of 75 to 93% (Figs. 9a-e and 11h). The distribution of Ihe penlachlorophenol
plume throughout aquifer eones B aodC present is the paleovalley fill al the plassl vile
is the norshem part of the slady urna confirms thin resuS. The computer model also
predicts that isterconnecsedness is unlikely lo occur within Ihr Laguna sequence
between thelmo paleovalley fills, where the porc eut chasse I-fill facies decreases Io
«50% (Fig. 11h). The lack of peelachtorophenol in aquifer zone A is this region
indicates that hydraulic interconnoclion does not occur helmets this zone and the
lower B and C aquifer zones.
The depiction of subsurface data is Ihe cross sections (Figs. 9a-c) and in the fnucn
diagrams of formation, facies, and aquifer-aquilard plosu (Figs. 10, 12, and 13)
illustrates the three-dimensional subsurface selling of Ihn zquifern. These plots
display the complesisy of the aquifer system caused by 1hz complicated furies
architecture, which is demosstoated by tracing the path of Ihr soulbuurd-migraling
ground waler frnm the Supeefund plant site. Aquifee zone Band the underlying anne
C, the only 1mo aquifer zones present al the plaul site is the northern part of 1hz study
area. are continuous in the gravelly. paleovalley channel facies of Ihr Laguna
Formation. About 425m south, in the vicinity of Ihn EH-1 and F-1 wells, 1hz ground
water of these uqaifer eovrn passes through a paleovalley margin from the FIlo-
Fleislocene Laguna gravels In hydrnalically cennecled permeable grovel units of Ihr
Miocese-Plioceer Mehelen Formalion nod the Eocene Inne Formation (Figs. 9a, b,
and 12). This transfer is primarily mb Ihr thicker and more permeable gravel zonen
of Ihr Mehrten Formulios on the eastern side of the sludy area und the thinner and
lower-permeability zones of the Mehelen and Inne formativos en the weslern side
(Figs. 9a-v). Dislincl B and C aquifer Zonen begin aloof the western side of Ibis
negmeelof the nlady area rear wells MW-22 and EH-1 (Figs. 9h. e. und 12). They ace
C«nclnccd vn puye 158

Blair, Baker, and Turner Fluvial-facies archileclure and aquifer hetervgeneily 156
 H-F aWn
LAGUNn FOOMATION

NOMLAKI TUFF us,.,a

MEHRTEN FORMATION

ONE FORMATION
/

FIG. 12.Formation, facies, and aquifer-aquitard fence diagram, northern

part of study area. Minimum bed thickness depicted is 1.5 m.

Feo. 11(a) tsopaeh map of the Laguna Formation in the study area.
(b) Percent channel (gravel and sand) thieknens of the total Laguna Formation
thickness. (e) Percent gravel thickness of the toto! Lagnno Formation thickness.
The contouro in these mapoout!ine two paloovalleyfills separated by u 61-m- high
drainage divide. Stipple pattern shows distribution ofpentaehlorophenol plume
contained in (be groond water in the Laguna as wo!! as in deeper aquirers.

Blair, Baker, and Turner Fluvial-facies architecture and aquifer heterogenetty 157
 divided by either tone Foemation sittstone-claysl000 or laterally juxtaposed Laguna
Formation ctay.
Appeenimatety 1.400m south of the plant site, sere the RI-5 and RI-4 wettu, the
ground water in aqoifer eones B und C of the Mehrten und tone Formations on the
RI-5
western side uf the study area migrates across another puleovotley margin into
hydraulically connected, thick and permeable Mehrten Formation paleavaltey gravel_
fitl facies (Fig. 9h). Immediately eastward, at the RI-4 wett, these aqoifer 000es are
transposed across a Lagonu pateovalley margie iuta hydraulically connected Laguna
RI-e channrl gravels (Figs. 9a, d). Otear both she Laguna and the Mehrten paleovuttey
channel facies are gravel dominated and permeable, retulling in the reinterconneclion
between aquifer eonrn B sod C both mithin each of the paleovalley fills and thrertgh
the pateovultey macgin that separaten them (Figs. 9a, b, and d). Hemrser, these
V
aquifer rosen are confined along this segmest ef the study area by the presence of au
oveelyisg 8.5-m-thick Laguna Formation floodplain clay along the eastern side that
is jastaposed agaiost a 20-m.thick Nomlaki Tuff debris-Item and floodplain facies
along the wettern side (Figs. 9a, b, d, and r). Aquifer zone A occurs mithin
thia Laguna Formation grusel and sand facies above this croOning bed. The lack
of pensachlorophenol in aquifer A demonstrates the effectioenesn of thin
multiformatiaeal confining clay unit.
L Approsimately 3,020 m south of the Superfund plant site, near wells RI-9 and
RI-15 ut the southwestern end of the study area, rones B aud C still occur within
Mehrten patrovatley.fill gravels (Figs. 9h and 13). To the east, between wells RI-10
and P-2, the ground water migrates from the Lagusapaleocalley fill into the Mehrten
Formation gruseln and then into a Mehrten sequence dominated by lom-peerneubitisy
units (Fign. 9oasd IS). Aquifer zone A remains separated from interconnected oases
B and C in this segment of the study area.
ooLennce OF noviren tterououcvmY on vuouvuwnvce rt.ew
The heterogeneoun character of the aquifer syslem caused by the complex facies
RI-no FORMOTION\ architecture created uncertainty about the uniformity and direction of groundwater
umana
flow und the possible magnilude of penrachlorophrnol movement in the study area.
Au initial inventigation nf the plant site that retied ondata obtained from the surface
NOMInEr TUFF
and shallow borehetes saggesied thol the groundwater flow through the shallow.
anconfined gravels was te the west or southwest. us supported by groundwater
MEHRTEN FORMATION gradients sad the detection of pentachtorophenol (California Department of Water
Resources, 1973). It mas later demosaleated that the investigation was bared on data
from a nhallaw, perched, aquifer oone io which herioontat hydraulic gradients und
groaudwater flow mere dominated by surface-water features. In a later utudy
ONE FORMATION (Schmidt, 1984),upenlachlorophenot plume was found to entend nearly 3.2km south
from the plant site and at greater depth (79 w) in the aquifer system. The apparent
conflict in flow direction and the greater esImI of dissolved peutachlorophrnol led
to a mere detailed hydrogeologic investigation te evaluate the distribution of
FIA. 13.Formation, facies, And aquiter.aqaitard fence diagram, soathern peutachlorophenot and other constituents in the ground water und te define Ihr nalare
poet of stndy aera, Minimam bad thickness depicted is 1.5 m. of groundwater movement in Ihe aquifer system.
This investigation determined that groundwater 110w 5 southward thrasgh the
gravel facies of the three aquifcrooner. Water mores femety botween the gravels of
the various aquifer zones only where the clay aquitaeds are absent. The direction and
magnitude of the hydraulic grothent are similar in aquifer eones B and C. The
magnitude ef the tong-term average horizontal gradient in then eeonoo south of the
plant site muges from 0.001 to 0.003, un demonstrated by the polenliometric surface
(Fig. 14; Damen and Moore, 1988). The orientation of the hydraulic-gradient vector
ix generally to the south or soath.nouthwosl except in the immediate vicinity of the
Blair, Baker, and Tornee Fluvial-facies architecture and aqnifer helrrognueily
plant site, where industrial tapply and geoandwater.ercovery welts caase nignifleant
wuter-tevet dramdowns. Local nariutiuns in the direction ard magaitade uf the
hydraulic gradients arr caused by facies-ausocioted variations in the permeability nf
the aquifer material or changes in the thickness of the aquifer rones, aUch an or
paleoxaltey margins (Fig. 14). These nuriatioss in permeability er uquifcr-zone
thickness produce either a small change in flow direction or achangni n groandmaree
velocily. Vertical hydraulic gradients have been obuerved between aquifer 000es B
and C in pacts of the study area where these zones arr separated by a substantial
aquilard. The generally hooizontat flow of grouod murer is indicated uchemutically in
the cross section in Figuren 9u and b, where the gradual downward movement of
greund water io response to vertical hydraulic gradients olsa in demonstrated.
The movement of dinsolsed pentachlorophenol between aquifer eones B and C, us
iadicuted in groundwaler samples from welts in the southern pact of the nludy area,
confirms Ihr absence of an intervening aquitard midmuy aloof the plume und within
the southeastern Lugana patrovultry fill erar well RI-6 (Figs. 9a, d). The interaction
of aquifer zones Bard Char atoo been determined in the southern part of the plant site
(within the northwestern Laguna paleovatley fill), where movement of
pextachlozophenol betweer thear zones bus occurred (Dames and Moore, 1988). The
relatively ourrow laircat width of the plume in the study area soulh of the plant site
nuggenlu that Ihr plome movement in the ground mater is advectias dominated.
lo-nito aquifer-pumping lests were 000ducted tu estimule the general hydraulic
prepertien of the aquifer renos rather than Io determior the specific proprrtins of the
individual formation grocels (Dames and Muore, 1988). The horizontal
conductivitins of the permeable gravel units_au detrrmioed from pumping tests, arr
aiwilur and appear te br yearly isotropic is the horizontal direction. The plana-
site gravels (alt Laguna Formation) haue a geometric mean horizontal
hydraulic conduclivily, Kb, of 6.6n IO' cm/sec, und range frem 2.4 n 1g-s cm/sec lo
2.3 n 10-' cm/sec. The mean Kh values reported foe the Mehrten and Laguna
Formations in the arno south of the ptusl nito wem derived from observations from
mined nets of wells, some completed in the Mehrten and same completed in the
Laguna. The geometric meuo Kh for these gravels is entimated tabo 1.1 n 10' cm/
sec, with values rangiug from 2.4 n 10' cm/see to 2.7 s 10' cm/sec. Hydraulic
condoctixitien appear to increase with depth mithin each major gravel deposit,
reaching a manimum votar near the bane nf the unit. These empirical observutionn
(based ou the rate of waler production during drillieg with an air rotary-drill rig)
correlate with a general decrease in clay content with increuuing depth in euch gravel
unit, which in probably caused by the reduced esimI of pedogenenis with depth in
individual channel fills. Alt wells Anodin aquifer tests for the estimatien of horizontal
hydraulic conductivity were completed within the more permeable, lower purl of the
choonel gravel facies.
Pumping-text data showed that ne marked change in hydraulic conductivity
(contrast) accurreit acrous the boundaries of the channel fills nonted within older
gravel units. In addition, no discernible spatial trend was observed in the hydraulic-
cooduetivity dato. Pansibty, the normal variability uf the aquifer-levi doto obscured
measurable contrastais conductivity between the variouu chunorl geuveln. However,
the luck of evidence of a sharp difference in hydraulic ceodactivity is nel necessarily
expected between unconsolidated gruvetn of similar textures, since they can be
enpected to have similar premnubilitirs. Is addition, no permeability boundary or
"skin" effecl wan observed at the margin of incised-channel gravels where they col
into othergravet units. Therefore, results from the analyses ofpumping-testdulafrom
the study area indicate that permeability barriers dueto channel amalgamation are Rol
espocted is nequencen comprisnd of identical facies.
The primary hydrogeologiv value of the three-dimenviooal fuciev and stratigraphie
158
 analyses nf the study area is the basis it provides for understanding she occurrence.
distribution, and dimennioss of the aquisacds. The contacts between the channel
gravel and oveebank clay facies in this hydrogrologic system established potential
boundaries for major groundwater flow and prnlachtorophenot-migration pathwayn.
The depnsitional model allows for a bester assessment of gronndwaser movement by
esplaining the presence or absence of aquilards and the high variability observed
within the system. The three-dimensional facies framework provides a physical
foundation upon which la levI und develop the conceptual model of the hydeogeologic
system. The dopositionat model also provides an interpretation of key aquifer
components independent of the initial hydrogeolagìc conceptual reasoning and,
therefore, remains unbiased by groundwater observations. An such, it provides
independent scientific dota that sharpen the hydrogeologic model, strengthening the
overall siteinventigasion. Hydrogeologic ntadiennftheOroville stndyareahavebeen
successfully cnmpleled and have ted lo the development nf a there-dimensional
numerical groundwater flow und solute-transport model that is consittent with the
subsurface facies architecture (Dames and Moore, 1988).
An integrated surface and suhaurface ntndy of the Oroville Sapeefund site and
54
vicinity demnnntrates a comptes Encone to Holoceno facies architecture resulting
from episodic deposition, erosion, and volcanic infiernen of the gravelly Feather and
i /
ancestral Feather River systems. Aquifers occur in Ihn permeable channel sand-and-
I..
I gravel facies, whereas floodplain and debris-flow deposits conntitntr the aqoitards.
¡ / The movement of ground water through the aquifer eones includes flow between
several hydoanlically connected formations through the sides of jastapanod, filled
paleovatteyn. Detailed depiction of the threr.dimnnnionat aquifer heterogeneity was
instrumental so the development ofen accurate hydrogeologic conceptual model of
the aquifer syvlcm and in the identification of possible groundwater und contaminant
/ /
flow paths.
/
/ssa We thank Damns and Moore of Sacramenla, California, and both Brazer Materials
sod Serviert. Inc.. and Rappers Industrien. Inn., of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. for
permission lo publish this manuscript. Helpful comments un thin papre were kindly
provided by Mr. R. Rice. Damen and Moore, San Francisco; and Des. W. Karser,
R. Langford, and N. Tyler. D. Blair and V. Corringeuto drafted the figures.
SI I ''On
- I
/ s
Auen, V. P., 1929, The lane Formation of California: The University of California,
Department of Geological Sciences Bulletin, n. 18, p. 347-448.
Auen, JR. L., 1970, Studien in flaviatile sedimentation: an enplommry quantitativo
model of avalsian-conleolled alluvial studies: Sedimentary Geology. y. 21.
. los A Usrrovsg Wril
N
p. 129-147.
S tahr, wars Bavnm.s,a, P.C., ario Wv000,so'oo, C., 1966, Geology of the Sierra Nevada, io Bailey,
E. H., ed., Geology of Northern California: California Division of Mines and
Geology Bulletin 190, p. 107-172.
¡
1600
Feet Fisc. 14.Water elevation contours (in fret) for aquifer enfle B, Nnvembee
1987, Datum = meurt sea level.
Blair, Baker, and Tanner Fluvial-facies aechilecture and aqu er heterogeneity
Bcn.scca. A. 1.. 1982, Geologic history and soil develnymonl, norlhenstern
Sacramento Valley. California: Davis. University of California, Uopubl. Ph.D.
Dissertation, 348 p.
Cauronvus Duraovvrrsan or Wann Rcsvuocrn. Cuvenav DsvinIuN, 1973, Groundwater
qualily investigation, Roandhanse subarea, Groville: 22 p.
County. R. 5., 1965. Geology of the Grovilte quadrangle, California: California
Divinian of Minen and Geology Bulletin 104.86 p.
Dantes & Maneo, 1988, Rl/PS groaodmaler summary report, Fruthor River PIanI.
Groville, California: consalling reporl prepared for Kopprrv Company. Inc.,
Piltnburgh. Peuanytvaoia, Sacramonla, California, 1163 p.
Du000u., C. D., 1966, Tertiary and Quutemary geology of the northern Sierra Nevada.
California, in Bailey, E. H., ed.. Geology of Northern California: California
Divisinn of Mines and Geology Bulletin 190. p. 185-197.
1987 Geologic ttissoryofltteFratherRivrrCoonlry,Califomia: Berkeley,
University nf California Press, 337 p.
Passvnnrvcv. R. K.. asco Hvcntos.u, W. L.. 1962, Plume studien of the transport of
prbblen and cobbles on a sand bed: Geological Society nf America Bulletin.
v.73. p. 143 1-1436.
Fous, R. L., 1974. Petrology nf Sedimentary Rocks: Ansuin, Tenas. Hemphill's
Publishing Company, 162 p.
Gsu,ar,r, M. L., 1974, Contact mtati000 of Ihr lone and Valley Springs Formations io
the Buena Vista area, Amador Cuunsy. California: Stanford. California. Stanfoed
Univorsily. Unpubl. M.S. Thetis. 180 p.
ll.sccutit.. G.. 1966, Summary of the geology nf Ihr Great Valley. in Bailey. E. H.. ed..
Geology of Northern California: California Division nf Mines mrd Geology
BalIrlin 190, p. 2 17-238.
l{vnwoon, D. S., asan Heu.ov. E. J., 1987, Late Cenoroic tectonism of the Sacmmrnlo
Valley, California: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1359.46 p.
Hnu.cv. E. J., asca H.snw000, D. 5., 1985. Geologic map of the late Cenozoic deposita
of Ihr Sacramento Valley and northern Sierran foothills. California: U.S.
Geological Survey Miscrllannaun Field Sludion Map 1790.
Lsvvuncsc. W., 1911, The Tertiary gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California: U.S.
Geological Survey Frofenninoat Papee 73. 226 p.
Lvovv, P. A.. 1967, The origin of the Toscan Batten and the volume nf the Tuscan
Formalian in northern California: California Bureau of Mines and Geology
Special Repart 91. p. 17-44.
1968. Geology and luhaes of the Tuscan Formal/on, northern California:
Grological Sneirly of America Memoir 116. p. 441-475.
Narro Araculcasc CuMsosslasi ny Sruarionapntc NamnNrs.aruno, 1983. North
American nsraligraphic code: American Association of Petroleum Gralogintn
Bsllelir, v.67, p. 841-875.
Pase, J. A., alan Ternira, M. D., 1952, Geology and ceramic properties of the tone
Formalion. Bnena Vinta anna, Amador Conrtly, California: California Division of
Mines und Geology Special Repart 19, 39 p.
Ruso, B. R., 1972, Steuclnre and process in a braided river: Sedimentology, u. 18,
p. 221-245.
Scnnamy, K. D.. ¡984. Hydrogenlogic conditions al Ihn Koppers Grouille Plaat, results
of the Phanr II invesligution: consulting report prepared for Koppern Company.
loe., Pitlsbuegh, Pennsylvania. by Kenreth D. Schmidt und Associates. Fresno.
California, 19 p.
159
 CONSTRUCTING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL
ROCK-PROPERTY MODEL OF FLUVIAL SANDSTONES
IN THE PEORIA FIELD, COLORADO
Murls A. Cacees
Deparr,rsersl of Geology and Geological Engi er-ing
Colorado School of Mirles
Golden, Colorado 80401
Domo F. Muyce
Depurlmen, of Perreleam Engineering
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colsrre4o 80401
Aosrsucr: Nuid-florr, unira sod Ood-flora baooieea son distioguished ll0000gh mappiog
disoibuljoon of facior nod houndiog soofscos of coalesced charmai bela wjthio the Loweo
Coerac000s J Saodnlonr rn the Peoria field, Colorado. Meanuocd rock psoperrirs (porosity,
porroasbulisy. orlador pormeabilisy, and capillary poeaauer) oren colibralrd Io focira. which
wren dissioguiahrd by 000oo000 associ ions of geais airea clay con d.and srdimroIa,y
s500lorri Tha three-da000nional dianjbulion of rock proparrirs hi dro J asndoron000unenoir
nons oblaiord through facies mappiog. Withinarnrandr, boll, 000 gh coois-alrasilied rod clesrn,
ripple-laroionoodpoios-bsr snodsl000a solos flow soils, nod clay-rich sbaodonrnoos fills sol as
flow barriers. Hydraoliccornrnuoicaiion bolwroo nerlicslly ssacksd chaooel bohr doprodi 00
the thickoess sod cooliouisy of muMy asndsloera hsniog sbuodant clay incluaioos bot
0005moolyonorliobsnalscoorsurfaces. Th000lecsufsmallrracalrand0000sasybousdisg
surfaceaosllnid000wnsnolmeanursblrsithencslrofthrwelisPsomnfnodrogi,ieoraigdala
crailabla. Cornpaosmrsoaljealjoo of thr ,esernoio is iodicasrd by swo rlooasiooa of ad-water
000rocla sloog the dowodip, wosl Ilaok of the Bold. This is esplsiord byocoecoolrasior
of nbaod0000ens-fsll facies rod a lack of hydraulic commnoicaaioo brlw000 coalesced
chanoelbaiss io tho cersseo of abe field Per. sod posl-oojectioo produclion paurron arroaplained
by the geologic model.
koservoir rogl000rs erquiro o th000-dirneosional (3-D) repeesrolation of rock
peOperlios au a framework for cooslencliog eumericaf simololion models. For a
rosrevotr model lo accooel for geologic hclerogeneilies, the r000rvoir aochileclorr
(Tyler sod Finley, this vclume)os delermiord by logs, cores, ouscreps, ond seismic
datamost be leaosformrd into a 3-D rock-properly mold by cuber slatislical or
deloewloisllc melhods and by cerIum luogo-volume Sampling technique s such as
pressare buildup 10510. Tison, timo-depoodeol, fluid-flow simslalion models-
s000rpomling wells. fluid prOpeelios, and production schedulesmay be imposed on
lhe rock-properly modol. In Ibis way, the rock-properly model is Ihr link between
geology nod engin000iog and is Iho level al which geologinls mosI incrocI with
Fiord flow io aoy parliculor res0000ir is cooleotled by the interplay belwoes
yor000 prImary sedimenlary osila. loctonic foulures, osd diageselic modificalion. In
reservoirs where sedimenlaey facies dinteibolioe in she mont imporlaol 0001ml ne
Peruenl address: flhell Offshoro toc., P.O. Boa 61933, Now Orlenos, Losiuiuoa
70161.
Chopin and Moyer
.......S.
rcseevoir performance, a rock-properly model con be consiructed using dolailed
sedlmenlology and facien analySis lo define Ihr Spoliai disteibulion of moypoble
porous nod permeable facies milo. The procedòrr for conslructing Ihm type of rock-
properly model is lo 1) identify reservoir fucien asd polenlially imporsans heundiog
surfaces; 2) deseemior rock-properly patterns wilbis facies and across bounding
surfaces; 3) ideolify arrangemenls of facies and bouoding surfaces inlersal sa
discrele, mappable bodies; aod 4) delermino geomotries and inlercon000ledness
among discrete, mappable bodies (Fig. i). Geologistn hove Irudisiosally boos
cosceroed milh evaluasisg slopS 1,3, and 4 (e.g., Miall, 1988), bol by adding slop 2
ills posuible so concoct the geologic model into a rock-properly model. The level of 1) Identify facies ond
ddlermioism of tho flow model then corresponds so the level of determinism, or the bSunding Burt aces.
degrer of rogularily, within the geologic model.
This study preneols os ooawple of cosslrneting a rock-properly model where Ike
discorso, mappable bodies ore vertically slacked moanderhell sandsloses islonoally
composed nf coalesced point bars and cb0000l-abandonment fills within Ihr
Creiuceons J Sandstone in 1fb Peoria field, Denver basin (Pig. 2). Because laieraI
nod vertical facies associations wilbin pains-bar, ubasdonmrnl.fill, nod overbonk
deponilu aer eelulivrly well oodersIood (e.g., Alles, 1970; Cant and Walker, 1974),
we wore able Io map maceoscopic lal000l facies asnocialinnn wilhin nandbodien aed relalions within
by observing facies voqucoces in cores aod logs. Wo delermined Ibe contribution to geeetic units.
fluid flow of specific facics lypes and bounding surfaces and the c0050ctednens
among facies onils wilbin asd among the m000der bells rl a macroscopic level
(Weber, 1986).
The PeorIa finId (Pig. 2) produces from a nlructurally enhanced ulrasigraphic leap
(updip pinchoul cf meandeoboli sandstones agumnus ovnrbonh deposils; Fig. 2) within
Ihn Lower Crelocmus J flundsloso (J-2 iniervol of Fig. 3). Produclion characterislics
aro listed in Table t. Similar leaps occae io Ihe Lalign field lo the southwest and in
Small, dincooneclod accamalalions to Ihr northeasl.
The slraligraphy of dro J Sandstone in Ihe Denver basin has bees described in
various ways, as uummarioed in Figure 3. MacKeseio (1971) described Iwo
onconformily-separuled memboru of lheJ Sandsl050 in oulerops along tho went flunk
of lise Dcover basin. The Fori Collina Member c005isls of upward-coarsening
shallow-marine (sppee sh000face or drlla-f000l) regressive Sandstones Iransilional
with the underlying marine Skull Creek Shale. The 0000lying tIoruclooth Mrmber among genelic units.
consists cf fluvial through shallow-marine strala and occupies lopcgraphic lows
(volleys) scoured iolo the Fort Collina Member ood the Skull Creek Shale. Weimer
(1984; Weimer und others, 1982) documesled Ike regional oaiare of Ibis
u0000formily is Ihe Denuce basin andin equioalcsl nIcola io the Powder River basin.
In subsurface sludies, 1h01 Suodsl000 is divided into lheJ-1, J-2, and l-3 iOleroals
(e.g., Land and Woimer, 1978; Fig. 3). Conventional practico has bmn Io assign Iho
lowor port nf Ihr Horsolooth Member (misero if enisin) and the Furl Collins Momber
Io she J-3 interval. In Ihe Peoria field oeca, Ihe regional asconformily han remoord
most nf the Feel Collins Membor, und Ihe Horselooth Member usually rests directly
on biolurbuied sandy mudulones of the Skull Creek Shale. In thin papor Ike lowermost
puckage of fluvial and floodplain strata within the Horselooth Momber above Ihn reservoir syslems where finse is Onstrolled by primary drpositional facies.
sucoefocmily is unsigned Io the J-3 isserval. Strata bolow the uncusfnemity will be
referred toas she Skull Creek Shale, even though they may contain some sandstone
of Ihn Foot Collins Member immediately below the nnconformily.
Is Iho Peoria field 1-3 utraln consist of floodplain madulenes, upwuod.coarsesing
000vasse-uplay nandsl050s, and Ihm, convoluic-lominated, muddy, c000se-gaained
Three-dimeesioeal rock-properly model of fluviSl sandslones
Geologic Model Rock Property Model
2) Assign rock
properlies Io facies und
bounding surfaces.
Ideetify facies pallerns
identify relatioeships
RESULT: Input to flow
model grid
Eso, I,Prncrdurr for nnnslrncting a quantitativo rook-property modrl in
Tnns.O 1.Perna field charucterioocr (see also Ecker, 1971)
Productive arm Appeoximalnly 5,000 acres (2,025 hectares)
Wells as spacing 64 wells aI 80 acres (with fice 40-acre infills)
Original oil-in-place 37,500,000 STBO
Solulion gas, 24%
Primary recnvery
Secondary recovery Watee flood, 10%
Origisol reservoir prosSure 1.800 pni
Oil properties 40-42 API gravily; solution 0DB 701 f11/lsbl;
formation enlomo factor at bubble point, 1.47;
viscosity 01186°F and 1,800 psi, 0.34 cp
C0000le-water satoeasion 30-39%
channel sandsiongs. Some Ihicb, clean J-3 sandstones (presumably deposiled is
fluvial channels) Ire preneni weal uf the field. The Peoria field produces nut of ihe
J-2 ssndstneo Interval, which ceslains poite-bar and abandonment-fill fluvial
depestss and associated crevasno -splay and overhang dopnsitn, which ree
subsequently described in detail. The J-1 sandstone consists nf at trust two upward-
cuarsesiog sequencrs composed of resseicied marino to brackish muduloses that are
transitional with overlying biosurbated sundslones.
Marine sandsiosen ore
distinguished by Iroce-fossil assemblugos thus include Tenebellina, which in only
present in inlorvals that contais marine foraminiferu (Waage aod Richer, 19b0;
Chamberlain, 1976). The trace fosuils Asoeroornna und Teichichnsu aro common in
brackish to manor sandsl000s (Chamberlain, 1976). A lrusagressmvonarfuce of
reosuno (serminolngy of Weimre and Osnnenberg, 1989) nverlies Ihr I 505dutose is
nuicraps along Che west flank of Ihe basis and probably separates the J-1 interval from
she Mantornan Chale in tho Freno field; however, available cores did not sample Ibis
interval. Thus, Ihr Horsesooth Member representa an overall Iranngressivo syslom,
wtth more seaward facies present sleatigeaphicolly higher in a vertical sohns.
However, because the J-1, J-2, and l-3 can be picked throughout 1fb basin us
cn000lalisn intervals, and because lower units onlup ihr valley walls lIbo regional
unconformity), tlss possiblo thai they eepeeuent landmaed-stepping peegradutinnal or
aggradasiosal puckugos )eelrngeadali000l pa005cq000ceu of Vus Wagoner and others,
1987) within a longer period nf relative sm-level rise.
J Sandstone Faden
The fioul slep in constructing u cock-property model is to idenlifp oesrrvoir facies
and pnteotially important bounding surfaces. Thirly-000 cneed wells in und around
the Pcoeiufield unit baso beco sludied, olloming escepti050lresolution of facien. The
cores were fost denceibod occoeding so grain sire, clay consent. and physical and
binlogicul sedimentary stracturon. Separale small-scale lithologic lypes were shoe
160
 grouped jeto facieoonthebasisolcomm000ssociatiens ofthrdesceiplivepaeameters.
R 60W Sccaase those parametcee conIcal porosily and permeability in ihn absence of
peenasise diegcnelic modification, the facies may be especled to ad consisteedy as
ISST . cOrI Huntsman Shoe either flow anAs or flew barriers.
Figaro 4 illusleales lithologies rypical of the nerucal facies succession mithin the
PEORIA UNIT j Sondstooe in the Peoria field. The unconformity atibe boor of the J Sandstone
ED' oveelies Skull Creek sandy mudstones containing Asier000nra, Teichichnus, and
c7oeeoo/ Terehellioa borrows. The rocks directly underneath the unconformity often cootain
'mnVowintfl3SmnVWVBdOO
esideoce of ssbaeeial esp050ee )ruot monks, siderite oadules, and kaolinilic
alteration), bot in this core they do noi. The J-3 ioleeval above the unconfoemily
If inctades a convolote-laminated, mised feuin-siae (sand and mud) channel fili,
I eserlato by three opwmd-ceoeseotog crevasse-splay deposits litai uro sandwiched
helmern vertical accretion-floodplain mudnlonee. Splay sandstones in the J-3 and
A J-2 arr commonly rooted and mottled with inregalae silica and/or kaolinile cements,
Ft. Collins
but locally they contain planar und ripple Iuminae and Plasolitee burrows. Thin,
DENVER BAS N WatorE MAr
trough ceoss-sleolified beds are rarely peeseni at the lop of the upward-Coarsening
Skull Creek unito; they probably represent crevasse channels. CervasSe.sploy and crevasse-
Lowstand Unconformity Shale channel nondslnoes are grouped as facies CS because their rock-property
charucleriuiics are similar and thoy are difficall lo distinguish on logs. Oramai welts
around the eastern peetpheey of the field produce foom splay sandstones in the J-2
Laminated marine shale Splay sandstones sandstone, The J-3 splay sandstones may form coniinaour ponoss soils oven perlions
of the field, which commonly oct as thief rones foe injected waten an shown by
lemperuiuee- und lnacne-cOofOrmOOCO surveys.
Coarsen ing-upward Chan nelbelt
marine sandstone
Paeallel-lamioaled In ennvolate-laminated overbank mudotonen contain variable
sandstones
coecentealinos nf Planeliren harrows and carbonaceous deirilus; Ihey repeeneot the
Biotorbated marine wedand rnvteonments nf the coastal plain, nach as marshes, laker, and beacktsh bayo.
Coastal-plain
mudstone I sandstone These fine-grained vertical accretion deposits are grouped an facies VA. Facies CS
mudstones
und VA mene dencnibed and documented wiih core photognapho by Land and Wnimcr
(1978).
Frs. 3.Rtratigraphir retationships of the Lesser Cretaceeos Sandstone The major production from the J-2 interval comen from point-bue sandsmees,
interval and common terminologies, which can be described by three facies. Facies i coenints mostly ofapperfine-grained,
erosn-Slealified (unaally Irough where distinguishable, 20 to 50 cm re thickoens),
massive, and rarely planar-laminuled suodotose. Madclast-nich sandsiones
cemmonly overlie basal ncooes. le some casrs these sandstones are componed of
iruonporied clay rip-ap clasts nuspended is a sandstone monis. In ether canes, Ihn
renOm are oveelais by slumped or loaded, randomly oriented aegalar fragments nf
inteaclastic mudstone, teemed mudstone "break-up" emocionen by MacMillao and
o PRODUCTIVE Weimee (1976). Madulone-draped laleeal accre000 surfaces may arparan packager
LIMIT
6 T of trough cross-rirulified sandstone (Pig. 4). Faner lin interpreted to repeeseni the
basal chaonel fill of a point bar.
Facies li is charactenired by a gradutioo from lomen fine-grained ta upper very
e fine-framed nipple-laminated sandnloer wiih local mudnione drapes. Mauuine
Peoria Field - Structure, Top of J-2 bedding end Ihm ceosn-slrattfied beds alun may he pmeeol. This facies usually
ovenlies facins lar part of ihr tomer energy deposils of mho middle to upper poiot bar,
A A' Log cross section butmaybe the loweemosl facies mn puetiut abandonmeel fills where faciesl is minuieg.
a a' Core CrOSS SeCOOfl Pucier III in chnracteeieedby very fmne-gnuioed rippled sundnsonn containing many
DI water Contact or flanee bedu. abundant mad drapes, npaesn lo abundad convolute bedding, and
Planoliten harrows along some mud drapes. Thts facies occurs as this iotervals ai the
Gas-o I Contact
Frs, 2,Base snap el the Peoria Seid showiog stendere en the top of the 1-2 top of thick sandstone sequences (poiot-bae mop) and an thick, commonly slumped.
LATIDO FIELD + Dry hole abandoned channel fills. The facies and venlical sequence observed in this cere une
Corod wells o a an interval and Neid boundaries. Structure nonteurson ihr Denver haein (inset) are
en Precambrian basement (after Matuscceah, 1973; as illustrated in Land end consistent with uboeevattons so Ihn other coren within the field (see alio Land und
*Goswell Weimer, 1978).
Weimrr, 1978).

Three-dimensional rock-property model of fluvial sundslnoen 161

Chapin and Mayer
 ......am. a.....a.......m
40
S P. Rovstiaty
Gamme Bulk Onnsity 40
F Facies t
0=169
Gece,. Amg. 124 md. 20

20

yo
40

Facies Il e
F
r n80 q
°
e Geoen. Aog. = 5.2 end 20

20

YO .01 0.1 1.0 10 lOI 1000

.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 Permeability (md)
Permeability md)
Pto. 0.Logarithmic frequescy histograms of herieoetal permeability fiee'graierd,rippte.lamiealed saednlnee; faciesIIl ecntprives vrryfise.graised,
by facies type (n = number of samples). All salees are sncorrected air ripple. and wavy.iamieated saedelcee ieterbedded with mudstenr; aed
premeabilities measured from ccre plugs. Facies i comprises mestly treegh everbanlu comprises splay and flondpiaie sandstones of vaneas stratification
cross-stratified, upper lise-graised nasdsloee; facies II comprises meetly lower types asd geais niere.

Seep
Induotion
Skull Creek Shale This verticel scqooece cf gcain siaes, sedimentary sieucia000, and clay coded is important io eoalaate the rock-property chazador coocareenily with the inilial facies
typical cf point-bar naedvioses (e.g., Pryor, 1972; Jeecc aod others, 1904; Wallos cod analysis co that appropriate attenlios in directed to facies, pulIeron nf lithslcgics aod
Exrolanation eihcrc, 1986). The numerical facics deeigeaticse eoflout the rclalive poeiticns cf the sedimentary etruct000n within facies, and faciesarrangcmcntn that hcvepeieophyeicul
facies. Withie a siegle point-bar neqeence, a higher facies somber may overlie any and fluid-flow sigsificance. te many nf the coren ir the field, peencity and
M assivu Sandstone Rioturbated sawisrcos and siltsroeu AVsalf Current ripples Smell load structures
lowcreumber (e.g., facies ill may overlie facies IsolI); howcver, a new channel level permeability (often horizoslat nod vertical) were measured every fest in competent
is isdicated whoec a lower faciec numbce escolios a higher facies number (e.g., if nandst000e.
Crons-stretitied (domisastly oough) Charceal fragment Rieturbeted hsrizen
sandstone
Laminated gray shale facies i overliec faciro IiI). Facies I and Il 001ko meander bull end facics CS cf the
ljncrirnted carbon films. oveebash are eeservcien and can be mapped as geologic coito. Potentially impactad Permeability character..Facien 1h01 represent flew units and flow bacrices were
Planar-laminated sandstone Interlamirated cicystenc and ooerse ® Pytita nedule peso. leaf fragments hocnding surfaces include basal scour surfaces, especially those accompasied by dislisgaished by permeability character. Figare 4 comparen poronily and horizontal
sritetone nr uury fine sandstone abundaot madct500 icclacions, cod mudni500-drapcd lobed acceetioc surfaces. permeability with faciec. Facies I peemeabilitior range betweoe 100 and 300 md,
Ripple-laminated fine-grained Clay clast L Synsedimentary whereas faciec lt permcahiiities range brlween 8 aed 40 md, illontrating that these
Carbonaceous mudstena fractures
sandstone f Palieres of Rock Properties withis Facies faciro denignalienc arruine meaningful indicators cf rech-proprety characteristicn.
Rippled sandstone with abundant Mud breekup Kaolininc clay All colee were logged by facien, and valuen of pnrmecbilily are vhswn with eenpscl In
mud drapes Peor marks and casts The second slop in c000entiog a geologic model to a eock.peopeety model is le facien is Ftgore 5. Facino I and Il pcsmeability disloibulione arr symmetrical ce a
dclennioc sock-properly polleros within facies aod cerose boueding surfaces, il is logaeithmic scale, indicatiog that they ose log-normally distributed. The gesotelric
Mooted saOdstene-patohy quarta Leaf or stem fragmeet Ast. Asteresema
Srylelites, scluhen seams meus of Cadice lis 124 md, and thet of facino lOis 5.2 md. Facies III permeabilitien
cement and detrutel clay. original
tenture obscured are very low, having a geometric mess sf0.26 md. They weeld boceen lower if the
Conoolure bedding Teich. Telohichnus
Erosional sudaoa Flu. 4,Detailed facies aed petrophysicai properties free, a eared weit samplee mere weighted according ta volume becuone nsnsampled mudutoses area
Mud breekup Structuras
predectioe from as npnvard.finieg internai typical cf the J-2 Suedsiner is the vniametricalty important part of facies Ill. Facies iIi in that ietnrpneted an having no
but
Peoria field. Facies Lii, 1H, CS, ucd VA are discnnsed is the tent. nigeificavl poni ttve cooleibution to fluid flow, asd isntead acts as a barrier to flow.

Chapie acd Mayer Theee-dimecsioeal cock-property model nf fluvial nuodsooces 162

 The"overbank" facies in Figure 5 is ucompilafion of permeabililies measaced inboih horizontal permeability ralia sa 0.03 for fatica lund 0.75 for facies Il. The vertical- 2000
fa-horizontal permeability nasas arr driermined on small core ptugn and may noi be b)
facies CS and facies VA. Again, sample bian ir ioward the sandy, compefent
lilhologien, which ace mostly (>70%) facies CS. The irregalar spread of peemeabiliiy erpeosenialive of the larger scale roso, ruprcially is facies II, whero ronsampled clay 19ff
valuen illusiraien she saciable naiare of geais sizes, including clay, sedimnniary drapes are more common. However, in general the samples show relatively lii Ile
slracuaren, and nilica and kaoliniie cemenl lypical of this facies. Five wells in the verocal-fa-hoaizoatal anisaleapy. Weber and others (1972) derived an enpeesuios for 1600
eastern parI of she field produce from various splay uandsiosenwilhin she J-2 snserval. hoeieeatal-prrwrabilily onitainopy ("n" and "y" directions) caused by the rffrcls of
Because Ihn consribadon of splay naadsionei in prodaclion is uf minor nignificaace crass-strata formels and honoraseis. However, 100f algorithm assumed all crans se ta 140f
in shin field, these anita are considered individually in writs where they are importons. were similarly oriunled. If the individual sels have o variability in their arientahans.
Facies land Il aie volaweirically significaai, contain ihr heil permcabiliiy, and are Ihr anisotropy will be diminiuhed. Small-ucate horizontal asisoirapy is inuigsificasi
3200
ihr major reservoir facies in rho field, bal ether aspecli of their permeability characice is 1hz Peoria field because trough crusn-srtonieuiafioos change aroond poirtbarsond
also uhoald be considered. These include evaluations of permeabilify anisotropy significuor casolare around Ihr priai bar recaes ai a scale smaller thon the welt
spacing in this case (Chopin, 1990). The relofive preinoability isotropy brlwecu soso
influenced by nmall-scale variations in luwisalionn and peessare-solaliau scams. and
aninofrapy and cnnerciivify inflaenced by higher order bounding surfaces. horizonial and vertical samples in ment cores alio indicates Ibas small-scale
808
li is importons ta defermine ihe significasco of small-scale perweabitiiy variations hoeirontal anisairopy wiltbe negligible because unisosropy eno horienetal ptanrwill
cauaed by finI- sud second-order boandiag surfaces of lamina seis and caurIs and thai usually be lesi than vertical la horizontal asivalnopy.
Facssurr-soluiros seams hose tow perirseabiliiy and are somerimes fanned where off
of peemoabitiiy variation acronsandpaeullel totamisar. Horizonlal und verliculplugn
were obiaierd from many cored wells, and the average rafias nf nertcal-ta-harizoaial deroital clay on curbonoceoui mabesal fermi thin cooiings on ripple bursar av
permeabilities ana small scale wear deierminod (Table 2). The average vertical-lo- foroseisol irrogo crass-beds (Fig.4, ai6,53t fI). The pressare.solaiion noamu are eat 40f 051
cowman, oppraring in approsimatety half 1h reunes enamined, usually os inolaled 55 bOO so 100
horizons is furies Il and III. They are not nef ular in npacisg or pesiiion, so Ihey arr 200
TanLe 2.-Veriical veroar rarioorriat permeability by fatico Walls Oorarases Worm Srrarunnor
unlikely lo impari u significant horizontal anisniropy, although vertical penweuhilily
Verlicat/Horizosial will be alfecled locally. o
05 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
No. of Samples 0.0 Of 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 Fha. 7.-Rrlahinr permeability rurves: (a) trough crons.stratifird sundslone;
The penmeobility of higher orden bounding sorfuces is afles dilficatt lo quantify
breaase these thin zones are seldom sampled. The suafaces idmsiilicd os potentially S hg (b) ripplr.luminutrd Iandslunr. (h) is from a nahive.stule eure (drilled wilh Iraln
Facies 1,8 wells wiIh verrical and horizontal permeabilsty valuen importani la fluid flaw are acnur surfaces and lulerrl acorchen nunfaces (fourth- and erode), and analysil won sbnnr with mineral nil. (a) won a walrr.ftnshed more, and
fifth-order narfaces of Miatl, 1900; see alun Jonet and ethers, 1984; Watten and nondihions nf Ihr lent are noI knssn'n. Relahivr prrmrubitity 15 nil = hrn and
17 .88
ethers, 1986). Modsione laminar inlerpreted as loferai accretion surfaces orear Facies I: 0 = 106%, k = 233 md relative permeability Is Isoler = hrw.
2 .79 Facies II: 0 = 16.0%, k = 12.5 md
within facies land II and commonly separate them. Mudsione drapes fypically hove
12 .72
.83
permeabiliiies <0.1 md (i.e., below ihr nasotulian of mast cane-loberai any Facies II: 0 = 12.6%, k = 3.6 md
4 equipmenl). Os a corn-sample seule, this is a barrier. Otawevee, the degrea al ci) Mud breakup: 0 = 9.0%, k= 2.6 md
5 to .88 subsurface samples (Fig. 8). Correbarioss brtwmen permmabday and poroniry within
cantisuity along the point-bar depanifianul surfaces of any individual mad drope in facies arr worse Iban mhro all lacims are grouped together. Each facies orrapirs a
.71
6 three dimensions is nos known. Tb ose sur faces are sai mappable al she resolanos al FIG. 6.-Meresny-injnctian eapillary-pnennure earvrn'. (a) Irvugh cr551- porosity-permeability field, within mhich there is hule comrelolson between the two
1.01
Ihr presesi welt spacing. slratif'rnd, npprr I"snr.groinrd sandslonn; (b) rippin-bamiralod, upper very finn'
24 .81 parameters. The perstreabilisy-vemsus-porosity trend is caused by Ihr napreponilion of
Major basal scour surfucen have prevee easier sa mop. These surfaces are grained sandslsne wilh Ihiu clay wispn en furrIel luminar; (r) nipple-laminalod
furies types, und permeability in rather independent of porosity within facies. Thts
uowelimms accompanied by clay dusts and lauded mad breakup inclusions, and banner tine.grained nandnisnn with no clay wisps; (d) gram a lO.cm.Ihirk mud
Total/average 89 .83 contrasts with resullsof Jackson and albern (1987), who found permeability lobe melt
permeability in reduced to <0.1-3 md by deiniral-clay infilirulios and/ar breakup layer. Bhf = mercury saluration. coormialed mirth pamonily within separoar facies of the Shannon Ousdnlonr. Porosity
cosrenirafians of silica errerei, This pulIera has also been observed by one of the logs ace thus a poor predidlor of permeubifisy in Ihm Peoria field.
zaihonn (MC) in fluvial deposito of ihr Eoceno Orees River Formation in Utah.
Facirs cache tabmclivrly delormined by log pullmans thai hove bees calibrated lo
Facies 11,9 wells (nei necessarily Ihr same as Ihose abuvr) espenimeslal and Buid parameters in addition lathe poro chararlor and mineralogy of cores. Becaune rock properties (permeability, porosity, capillary pressure, and
Capillury prezsure und relance pemmzabitiiy.-Mrncury-injeciias curses
illustrare capillury-esrry prensares and pore-nier disiribulion fon several lithalogies Ihr rocks. However, Figure 7 shows 1h01 these rolasier penmeabililies seem Io relorive peemeahilily, con be ansociased milk geologic facins, rock-properly
.67 enmelase with peemeabitities because she higher permeability souple han lamer dusinibsiions run be mapped by mopping the focies. This relationship between
(Fig. 6). A value fon capillary pressure maul also be peooided ra reurasair-simulation
10 .73 imedacible waten naluraliun and higher retaline permeabdily 10051 fora givra mater primary facies and rack preperties also implies Ihat diagesesic effecta, including
modell ai each ponilian (node) mithin she model. Facies lemons-beds nhom o very tow-
.86 nalaration. Retailer permeabitily paileras muy also prom lobe distinguishable by qoarte osengmowrhs, outhigeoic haoliniieepeeeipitoiios, and nome fetdvpardissoluison
enfey pressare (severul psig),and uniform pore-size distribution is indicaird by abrupl
.72 facies gruaps, bal muer dolo arr needed to sabstassiain this hypothesis. (Berkham, 1979), hove not obscured the pnmary facies patteras of porosity and
increase is pressure osera narrow ronge of salaraf ion (Fig. 6a). Capillary pressures
Il .67
from tithologies milhin facies lt are more variable (Pig. 6h, e). Rippled sandstone miirh
permeubilisy.
6 12 .89 Permeability versus porooity.-Porosily is ube mass straightforward of the rock
discentisuous cloy winpi (Fig. 6h) has a highrr may pressure and amidon range nf
4 .59 praperties becoair ibis a scolar properry and con usautly be accurately mapped using Spuaut Diosribuiion of Facies und Meander Belts
7 pare sizes Iban rippled 50545505e miilsool clay milpa (Pig. 6e). f asdsionr tram u
Il .74
siticu-cemenied mud breakup layer within facies Il boda mercury-enoy pressare of porosity logs. A eowmoo melhod of eslimating penmoabilily from log-derived
O
.66
270 puig, emphasizing thai these layers ure barriers er baffles lo 110m. A similar porosity valori is so plat permeabitily versus porosity. Figure 4 shows thai good Beraune permeability und porosuny partennn are dissnibsied accarding io primary
porosity generally correnpordu to permeable rones in a cored well,yei Ihn magoiladen nedimoniazy furien in the Peonia field, u rork-propresy model cao be cossirucled by
lithology is present along the brouS channel scours described abave.
Tesul/aversge 71 -75
Rrlatiso-pmnneabitsiy curves from facies land 11 orn shown ss Figare 7. Relative of permeabililien do noi,correupond particularly well with porosity values. Flous of mopping she disiesbaison of farios in she firld. The distribution and ronneriedness of
prnmrabiliries arr difficull In measure, and resallo are dependent on a sarirty of permeubilily versas porosity confirm a lack of gaod conrelarion is both uazfuce nod soodhodies mass br mapped, und Ihn interval disieibuiios of facies muss br mapped

.m....... ..sa.....................a
Chopin and Mayer Three-dimensional rack-property medel nf fluvial sandstones 163
 10000 Peoria field, All Samples hy Facies within discrete randbodies. Theoc jonuco wcen addressed as is steps 3 and 4 of the
10000 Facies It, Peoria 0014 Splay Ioules, PearS liete R-squared = 0.571 procedura listed in the iolrodaetioe, that jo. delineariog aerangoments of facies ucd
Facies 0, Peoria Oeld 1000 fl-squared = 10000 bounding surfaces inteenal la discrete, mappable nandbodier and detorwination of
1000- R-squared= 0.417 geowetriet nod intecconsrctedsesn among discrete, mappable sandbodies. In this
E
loo way. thu geologic ways ree diecotly converted into rock.prepoery er flow-unit maps.
1000 The mooed of coatesced point bars within a meander battis often au upward-fining
- 100
W sheet sandstone with a relativcly Sat or sloppod baro (e.g., Friend aod others, 1979).

i
IO E
E loo Three levels of meanderbelt sondbodien with varying degreer of inreecoscectednorn
lo- were disrioguirhed in the Peoria field (Fign. 9 and 10). The core cross seclies
E
H itlurleates the dominance of the upward-fining facier roqoesec within a meander belt
lo (Fig. 9). Although the thicknesr of a gioco faner may chacge laterally, the vertical
o arcangement of Ihe facies in coosisrentand lateral variations cnn mappable. Figure 10
r) shows lateral vaciuti000 from thick, nasdy point-bar deposits (facies I dominated) ta
Facies I, Peoria fiel-- n H partially abaodoned (facies Il dominated) and abandoned.channel fills (facies III
Il-squared = 0.141 .01 o n 1k dominated). The core ceers scories nhewr scese of Ihr middle meandee belt lolo the
10 20 30 0 10 20 30 n Ilk
.01 n 111k lower meanderbelt io wells U31 and U68. However.a 70-cw.rhick caer efelay dusts
lO 20 30 10 20 30 Core Porosity (Percent) Core Porosity (Percent) a Splay k and mud breukeps io preseot aloog this scour, which urlo ara permeabilily barrier je
Cole PorOsity (Percent) thocentralporlofthe field. In weltU43, howeser, themiddle and lowermeanderbelts
Cole Porosity (P010011) Fra. 8.Log permeability versan porosity plato far each facies and total. Note
are amalgamated and ace nel neparaled by a thick cIap-cIar! barloen (Fig. lob;
that the carretatian is best when at! facies arr grouped and wars! is the most 30
10 20 interpreted without core). Thin in lypical of Ihr east-central and oorthwcsl parto of the
homogeneous facies (facies I). Log permeability vernies lInear porosity showed
the best correlation in all cases. Core Porosity (Percent)
Weal a East
4 132011 (402 w
a
usa osa HUNTSMAN SHALE
nun

!p1 _:i': Il:: '

J.!.Ii___
1F:ì. i
I1L=
LI j _1iy7,,i
LJVÌ __ SKULL CREEK SHALE

Fsu. 9.Cure cress section A-A' showing coalescing middle and tornee
Facies I Fariesli FnoenllI Ocerbeek measderbelt sandhodien. Key la lithologic symbols isis Fignre 4. Line of rection
is shco-n sn Fignre 2.

Continued an page ¡66

Chapin and Mayee Three-dimensional rock-property model of fluvial sandstones 164

 U30 U40 U39 U31 U68 U32 U69 U33 U25 U23 A'
A
D Sandstone
Huntsman Sh.
J-1 s
C

e
D
C
n
(0 40

Skull Creek Sh.

o lt00,,
o 300

of the J-2 interval. Faner I = yellow, feries Il S orange, feries III = brown,
Foe. lO.SP-renintivity log crosn neetioess A-A' (a) and B-B' (b) showing J-2 overbank = light green, J-3 = dark green. Lines of section are shoson in
vertical and lateral relationships of three meander bells and overbank depositn
Figore 2.

i
B U17 U19 U28 U3 i U38 U43 U47 U53 U63 B'

t
D Sandstone

-
w,_ -"---a
a .
s __i
.- ..
Huntsman Sh.

D
C
e
u)
10-
40

Skull C eck Sh.

o 1000,,
o ' 300.,

Chapin and Meyer Three-dimensional rock-properly model of flavia) sandstones 165

...._.... N__a.. ...._._.N_._

 field. Log cross section B-B' (Fig. 10h) includes Ilse uppermost channel tevet, which
in present only along some of the margins uf the field and is thinner than the middle
and lower meander belts. Figare Il itlitsaralea the areal distribution of the three
channel levels and productive splay sandstones.
To cesutrael a rock'property model feom these data, it in acoetay to map the
snternalty consistent rock-property units aud their connections. In this study each
reservotr facten (facies land Il) withis each meander bett was isopached separatety,
and areas where vertically stacked facies were separated by clay-rich layers were
soled on the fuetes maps (Figs. 12 and 13). The distribution of facies lin the middle
and lower merodee belts illustrates areas of laterally coalesced paint bars and
abandonment fills (Figs. 12a and 13). Using this praeedsre, a large number of
separate maps becomes necessary to define flow anita, and only the mare illustrative
maps are included is this report. Although this is a relatively simple geolegic system
of twe mats eeserscsir facies at two main weanderbelt levels, each cf the splays must
be handled separately, and facies land Ilmust be mapped for each of the there channel
belts. Because the J-3 sandstones hase undergone matar injection, those units also
mast be mapped fora compiute description af the reservoir system.
The fuetes maps cf the middle level are most illustrative of lateral facies
associations milhinameander belt (Fig. 12a,b). Abandonment fills are mapped where
the thtckaeun of facies I thina la zero (fractured pattem an Fig. l2a). The thickest
accamalattona of facies Il arc usually offset from the thickest pods of facies I,
indteattng that facies Il thins ever the top af the point bars and thickens temard the
cutbark edge. Figure 12h Sb own ser eral instances where 0.5-ta l-m-thictimudstone-
etch layers neparauag facies I from It are offset from facies I pads in similar directions
to those of the facies Il accumulations. These are iatrrpreted as lateral accretion
surfaces, which thicken in the vicinity cf abandonment fills. The directien cf offset
of facies Il pads and she mud drapes from the facies I pods may indicate the directien
of potvt-bar accretion. Facies Il may thicken nr thin into the abandonment fill,
depending on the style cf channel cutoff and the rate of channel abandonment
(Fig. 14).
Several potential flow units und flow barriers hase been ideulified by constructing
deluded core-controlled stratigraphic crass sections and by mapping facies. Within
a meunderbelt, facies land Il within laterally coalesced point barn are flew units, and
abandonment fills and clap-draped lateral accretion surfaces may be flow barriers or
baffles. The coonecttvtly between two vertically aserlapping meander hells varies
depending on the abusdasce of mudstone inclusions overlying banal nc aortae faces.
Figure 15 Shown the distribution of mappable flow barriers is the Peoria field. The
lateral accrettan surfaces could sot be mapped at the resatutien nf the present well
spacing.
Reeerooir Comparemenealiautien
Two apparent reservoir cemparlenents, ene is the northwest and one in the center
tosoutheasspurtofthe unitiredprodsciug area, aredisainguishable inFigme 15. Each
has tIn awn oil-water and gas-oil contacts. The Peoria field is compartmentalized by
narrow, ribboslike abandonment fills (facies Ill) in the narrow, center portion of the
field (Ftgs. Il and 15). The middle and lower meander belts, altheugh superposed in
thsu area, are separated by an impermeable mad breakup roncan previously discutsed
und as shown is Figure 9. Analysis uf pressure dala is the two Meas might have
confirmed the compartmestatiration, bal Ihese data were not available. Interpretation
of the pressure iuformation with respect to the barrier would probably be limited
because moss of she wells in the field buse bees artificially fendard, atlowiag
R61W R6OW
communication between the meander belts and pathways around the abandonment
ftils. However, evaluation of primary production ratei and walertlood history bar
provsdedamrtbod to observe reservoir comparssnestaliration in the central part of the
field.
+ * 4-. PEORad il/NIT Production Hiotory
p4iIl
The distribution of reservoir facies, through porosity, permeability, and thichnens.
controlled the Peoria field's primary penductios respanne. The field was discevered
+ + T and drilled by several operators in 197f to 1971 and pradaced by primary depletion
drive (very weak gm-cap espansion und no significant water drive) until the field mus
antttred asdee Amoco operation in 1972. Figures ib and 17 illuslrate oil prodactien
rates meavurud at time of completion and taler in 1972. The beat performance comes
from wells that penetrated thick accumulatians of facies I, either withia one meander
belt or wslhin n combination of two well-connected meander hells. Production rules
of the welts preducing from sp1ay sandstones and the thin, upper-channel sandstone
leudad ta deep quickly because of their relatively smaller drainage volumes (thinner
eones typically basing tower porosity).
ii In 1973 peripheral marginal producers were converted sa water-injection wells.
and an infili water-injection well wan drilled is southeast ta northeast Section 32
i (Fig. 18). The infilI well, which penetrates unty the middle meander belt, affected
production in three offset wells, which rise penetrated the middle meander belt. The
offset well lathe north, which penetrates only she lower muanderbelt sandstone, failed
sa respond. (Compare Fig. 18 with Pigs. lI, 12. and 13.) The performance uf most
other injectors inconsistent with the geologically interpreted reservoir architeclaee.
Injection wells in splay ae appen mrandeebelt sandstones tended ta accept less water
(water fiSed the limited pare salume fasler) or channelled water through artiBciut
fractures le Ihr 1.3 zane (poor conformance as meanured by temperature and tracer
surveys). However, nome injeclnrs in gaad measderhvlt sandstone also showed poor
cenformance, possibly becaane of completion problems Such 05 pone cement jobs or
inefficient perfaratiug. One injection well in a splay sandstone (southwest to
northeast section 29) allowed high injection rates info the J-2 interval. and offset wells
le the meut respended, indicating connection belween the splay and channel
sandstones at that position. Ose injectien welt allowed moderale rates nf injection
that conformed well lathe J-2 interval bui failed to produce any definite response in
adjacent prodacing wells, even thaugh injection was into facies land II (sauthweul to
nauthwest nelson 28). Many of the injectors at Ihr west edge of the field were
sneffecisse, even though they penetrated measderbelt sandstones, mostly because
water channelled through ihm lower zones (either banal j-2 or J-3) to offset wells.
In 1976 four additional infili welts were drilled and the center of the field was
convened loo timtted five-spot paaem. After evaluation by the operator, many of the
peripheral injectors were shut in by 1978 (Fig. 19). Several of the best preducern in
Aeeal Distribution nf Meander Belts the field were converted In water injectors (e.g., southwest to soatheanl section 29,
Upper Meander Bell northeast ta nuetheast section 32, and southwest ta northwest section 33). Each nf
A A' Lag crans necEan these wells penetrated a thick section of facies I within the lower meander belt. Only
Li Middle Meander Bob )ahndn 911)
a a' Core crass section two of the saftil wells penetrated sigaificaut thicknesses of facies I within the lower
! Lower Meander Bell )ahndn fil)
--- Oil-waler nanlael
Pradselale npluys
Ftu. 11.Areal dinlribntinns nf mrander belts, pradnelivr splay sandstnnes,
, Verlwuly-slacked meander hofs Cared oeilS and nnnpradnrtive nvrrbunk drpesits. Clay.rirh layers separating meander
_5Oi belts are eninpased nf ola yrlusts and msd brraknp strartnres aheve banal
ebannrl.nrnar surfaces.
Thren-dimeasional rock-property madri of fluvial sandstones 166
 nor w mow ROt W 000W
ROtW 060W

0)
.4.. PEORIA UNIT
UNIT
JPEORIA +

: ::
+

-e ro

ort re®
air
r

=
T
o.
S
+ e
b) Middle Macoar r gall - FACIES II Lewer Meander Belt - FACIES I
ra r a) MIddle Meander nett - FACIES I

+ CI. - S A 0 Log cross sector +

+ a a Core cross Sacsofl a A' Log cross section
* + A A' Log cross sacIar * + Facies Il separated from orderly ng a a' Coro cross secton
o a' Caro cross sector r.z1 Famos I by Aay-nch Ayer LA TIGO FIELD
* LATIDO FlEW
L,OTIGO FIELD
Cord entA
e Cored asile
o
Cored celo
tr ,n
0) ro

Frs, 12.Isopach maps of facies 1 (a) and II (b) of the middle meander bolt.
Clay-rich layers separating facies L and IL are lo- to 60-em thick mudstone or Frs. 13.Isopacts map of facies I of the lower mrander hell; hachures and
muddy sandstone layers that are interpreted as lateral accretion ssrfaces. stipples as in Figure 12.
Hachares indicate facies pinclsout and stipple patters indreatos facies
thicknesses (>3.3 m( in map (a).

ThreedimensionaI rock.property model of fluvial sandstones 167

Chapin and Mayer
 R 6f W R 60W

061W 060W
Lateral accretion surface
i i 6)
PEORIA UNIT
+ a
& Ia
. s

Lateral accretion surface

+ +

Ess. 14.Hypothetical point-bar and abandoement fill showing how the

posrtion of thickest facies Il ran be offset from the position of thickest facies t
toward the abandonment fill. (a) Facies Il thickens off the side of the point bar
toward the abandonment fill balia not present in the abandonment fill (snddcn
channel cotoff). (b) Facies Il thickens tosoard the cuthank (gradnal cutoff).
Wítul'Ñí°
- PRODUCTIVE
1LIMIT
+ -. +
+ , S

+ Initial Prodaotlae Test Map

CL: roc. aso. 'sac, toca 00cc
+ +
* + + Dry hole O CarCa Odia
Nccrnsercair lion-graioad avnrbuok (CS nod VAI facies Barrief and Boundary Map *Oaaaat
LATIDO FIELD * 60nai
6)
5 0
Abaodcoad-chaoonl fils (middle local,lownr mani)

Fas. l5.Dislrrbntion of types of boandaeies and barriers within the J-2

reservoir. The npdip, east honedaey is caused by clay-rich averbank facies.
OitMatee contacts form the downdip, west boundary. The two elesations of
oilwataccontocts reflect the compaetmentalizatioe cf the eeoerocir byaverbank
facies, abandonment-fill faciesr and lack of vertical hydraulic commanication
between Ike meander belts in 1he cestee of the field.
Water-saturated snodstunen

Prodaolicn tram splays

Vertically stacked meaodar halts

separatnd by a clay-rich layar
Cored wells -
Oil-mutar 000tact

Eso. 16.Initial oil peoductian map. Sisty peecent of wells onere initially
completed flawing.

Chcpio and Mayer Three-dimensional rock-properly model of fluvial sandstones 168

 meandee belt. These two wells, aod anolhoe to the southeast of the Poltern that has
thick facies I coolesced from two connected meunder boils, responded lo the 11004
(southeast to southeast section 29, northwest to northwest sodios 33, and northeast
961w nuew 061W ngw lo noulhwest soutins 33; compnm Fig. 19 with Figs. 11,12, and 13). By 1978 thensost
productive wells were those that either contained a significant thickness of facies I
from the lower meander belt or contaised connected facies I from the middle and
i ocam UNIT
'r
lower meunder belts (Figs. l2a, 13. and 19). This is sul surprising because prior to
PEORIA UNIT
1976 there were no iojedturn sweeping the lower mrunder belt, whereas ufter 1976
+ shore wene three.

+ '.I® t e
Coofidenee io Geologic and Esginerrisg !oserpretuti000

The posmury production response illustrates the imporlaoco uf the facies control

.4' + ]A on fluid flow. The watergood responte illustrates the significance nf houndiog
surfaces cod sundbndy inloreonnedledness on fluid flow dueing displucement
processes. In gcorral, the production hislury ii enplaioed by und supports the
geologic interpretation. However, there is un unquantifird degree of uncertainty is
the geologic nod Dow-und models, even though therein reasonable weit spueing und

Mapping of facies and sundbody tenets, while moderately well determined inmost
of the field, is somewhat mono tenuous where cure data are sparse. The definition of
sume bounding surfaces in equivucal, erro whero coces ore available. lowell U39 a

,,,,,,,,',,
4[Ç V slight grais.niar increase and a cloy elusI are present in the middle of facies I (Fig. 9
016,563 rl). Thin has bees interpreted as a single sundbndy, with the minor scour
representing a stage fluersauno nr schute channel. However, a sund.on-sand scour
of another meander bolt might lease a similar subtle surface. Dinlinguishing finer
grained facies of tower meander bells, whew Ihren is so core control, is nonther
uncertainty. The map pattern of the middle meander bolt looks geologically
reasonable (Fig. 12), whereas the meal dinleibulion of the lower meander bell appears
truncated in placos (Fig. 13). This muy ho because finr.grained abandonment filin
(facies III) within Ihn lomee bell mere indislisgainhoble on logs from overbank
.. i deposits, mhern Ihr middle moandrrbelt sandstane mas deposited user them on u orear
surface. A similar problem occurs where fine.geained facies from an overlying
meander belt rent on lop of enarsee facies of an underlying mnandnr belt; the log
signature appears as a sisgle upward-fining sequence. Allhough nome clay deepen in
+ ________________ + cores are islerpeeled as laierai accretion surfaces, Ihn orientation und continuity nf
Ikone nl cuy one locution arr not known, and their contribution to drainage anomalies

t ln,2OtaIun
nl: 11.20. vn. Inn. nopa
r
isla Status - InitIal Watrrflnnd Responso
CI.: 51. ron. Z,SOO onpo
canonI be determined milk Ihn well spacing and resolution of the engineering dota.
The esgineering data regect anomalies from manmade as mellas geologic casses.
Fur enamplo, u well in she crome nf Ike five.spot Faltern (northnorth eenlrot
+ +
: +
+ section 32, Fig. 19) did sot respond to muter flood because it bud proninanly been an

* +
: Cn,rd nClle * + £ Ot000, _..!..,.. Irreesnveirnvse, ,nvIIz injector und bud sesee produced coy oil after il mus converted lea preduerr. Also.
the geologic und engineering interprelulioss mero cundueted concurrently, with data
LATIGO FIELD * C 5OnuII LS TIGO FIELD * Ma,pneI In1urInr ___- pn5Iu esronue
from one discipline used lo constrain the other. This makes Ihn enplunotions
0 Cnr.OneIln
rin 'eu
islrmally consistent buI the reasening somewhat circular. These factors contribute
101ko uncertainty in the geologic und flow models.

Ftc. 18Initial waterflood response, 1974. njeetionrrspense is measured by

Foi. 17.Oil production rates in 1972.
time to svatee breakthrough in offset prodscing wells. Thus, is some cases the
determination of an injector affecting as offset produce ris non-unique and is
interpreted on the basis of the quality of nearby injectoet. Quality is mrasered
by the amount aed rate of seater that the isjectoe svitI accept and how welt it
conforms to the J-2 zone. CentCaes arO barrels of oit produced per day in 1978.
Fnr reservoir management, the ultimate foul of reservoir chaeadtenieatinn is nftrn
the construction of reseevoir.simulutios models. With a few adjustments, the doto
presented here con br inpul loa two. or lhrre.dimennional grid for finime.difforence
reservoir.simulutios models (Fig. 20(. The simplicity of Ihn spward.finisg furien

Chapin and Moyer Tlsree-dimenn(onul rock-properly model of fluvial sandstones 169

__._....._...___._s..____a... ___.__._...
succession allows each facies (land II) to be assigned lo a separase layer, although
n Upper !,;i ,',',',','v' facmtsoch maps), elevaions (Omm logs and rock properties for each fasos,a
R 51 W sa no W
Moanile Faden I I
dm I g il ou b t t d F Id p w and p d ti t data

-'m..... PEORIA UNIT

Belt
'4'" Foci s I
/ aneth mth dbyw 11g

Tb
djEd
Poi
5f
ir la

dg
Twm till

Ii.
M il Y P ?5lyrs0de

iFa:
B t r,i,,vi, r,veci,e inp,en..5i, p
1 p :.
+ than the core-plug valses because of Ihn thfferonl sample volome (Haldorsen, 1986).
Pressore-trunsient data from cored wells would help to catsbrale Ihn constructed
T
+ . s icc iooioovvaoureitiooioyol000covv
model. Air-permeability values could be converted lo liquid-permeability valons at
i
,
S . ..... ... ... =.....
i

reservoir pressures, and these valoes could be compared with permeobilities derived
»,,, ,,,,,,,,
+i r"-i from pressare buildup tests. Although prensare buildup data were unavailable, thin

-=,., 0
+
Loper i II -
i,,,,, e5tisnatr of averagr pernseabiiily, wlsich Iras consistent with the permeabilitien
i. e
L aper 2 i I Because ihr geologic model has been verifsed by qualitative field performance
n ,, I I I I
I

data, it is likely that a geologically realistic rock-properly model could be inpol too
F
/ reseevoir-siwalatioo grid. Howeoer, the small-scale rack-properly measureweoin
i_,,.,.,,.,,._

k4'Ç
5y,m

® W' i
®
i, Layar 3 I-4- I I I I I I
'T-O
I must be erais checked ard calibraled against lange-volume sampling methods.

O V Layer 4 - eonei.vstuns
Il
+ t A 3-D rock-properly model was constructed by assigning ehanacierisuc rock
La
0 5 I I I I __________________
fwllThPd
+ 1 an'gs
e' o . Each Nodo. demunsleated la be important controls on fluid flow. Sorer anomalous well
rruueleoasno
fi performance muy hase been caused by smaller scale feuluers, such an clay-draped
kuh ka 0k P lt t t arg h lib w 1m au bi lib w Il p gandwthth
W Trarmiusibi6y macruss type of engsneering dula uvuslabte. Because the problematic reale of heterogeneity in
upper aod Inane beunduijos the largest one immediately below the available lend of resotulion, it makes sense lo
+ + ley to push the detrrsnioislie resolution loan fine a scale as possible, below which
statistical methods become necessary (e.g., Chupin, 199g). In this cuse the
+ macroscopic, mappable features explained mast of the field performance. Detailed
sedimenlology has thus resolled in a higher level of doleeministic resolution wilhin
1978 usaran - n-Spnt Watorrbmd Responso
+ +
JrD ihr reservoir

iuscv]I nv icc oeste u

* +
LA TIGO FIELD * f Svur.in 00055e
+ Cosa nain
i io,is
___-,-.Ø.' Preston ennenem

fl "r" L0rO
= FLOW MODEL We thank Amoco Production Company, Denver, for Ihr release of inlomat
engineeriog reports of the Peoria field. Jack Shelton and AetBurmun were especIally
helpful. We also thank Parker and Parsley, Denver, foe the release of Peoria field well
i ' '

turre art saturations over lime, given froduction/ ivleoilcs rates
or rates and saturations over time, piven pressures
Ftc. 19.Fiv-npot ssatrrltood responso, 1978.
Fsc. 20.Procedure for placing t he geologic models into a gridded format for
input to areservOir-simatation model. Directional permeability = kv, ky Iso;
porosity = 0; relativo permeability = kr; capillary pressare - Po.
files We ruhr full resecosihihirv for ,rrrru,restiors rirenerird heer Thr rr,n,,srrins
and the ideas presented benefitted from numerous discussions with and reviews by
Tim Cross, Colorado School of Mines. Reviews by Scott ltamlio, Dennis Knee,
Noel Tyler, and Robert Wnimer improved the manuscript and are gratefully
acknowledged. Shell Offshore, Inc., provided financial ssppoel foe the color
illustrations io this volnme.

Chopin and Mayer Three-dimensional rock-property model of fluvial sandstones 170

 00555e, K. M., aso Escara, D. L., 1960, Dakota group in she northern Frani Raoge
area, in Wcimee, R. J., und Hass, J. D., eds., Guide to the Geology of Cebrado:
Au.on, J. R. L., 1970, Studies in fluviotile nedimenlarson: u conspueison of fining- Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 230-237.
upwaed cycloshems, with special reference to course-member composition and W.ss,turn, R. G., ava Cavi, D. J., 1984, Sandy fluvial syulcmu, in Walker. R. G., ed.,
interpretation: Joornal of Sedimentary Peteology, v.40, p. 298-323. Facies Models: Geoscience Carada Reprini Serios 1,2nd rdition, p. 71-89.
Bucrass,sra, E., 1979, iagenenis of the muddy sandstone (Cretacroan), Peoria field, WatsoN, A. W., Baueuor, D. J., Evevsov, R. A., Rorucsnr, D.H., ayo W0000, M.D.,
Denver BOnis, Colorado: The University nf Tenon at AssEn. Unpshl. M.S. 1986, Churacterizasion of susdosaue reservoirs io the Cherokee Group
Thesis, 109 p. (Pennsylvanian, Desmoinsian) of southeastern Kansas, in Luke, L. W., und
Coasr000Lass, C. K., 1976. Field guide to the trace fossils of she Cretuceoun Dakota Carroll, H. B., uds., Resorvuir Chaructortautian: New York, Academic Press,
hogback along Alameda Avesse, west of Denver, Colorado. in Epis, R. C., p. 39-62.
and Weimer, R. J., edn., Sladien in Colorado Field Geology: Professional Wesen, K. J., 1986, How heterogeneity affects oil recavery, in Lake, L. W., sod
ConlribatioOt of Colorado Scheel of Mises No. 8, p. 242-250. Carroll, H. B., eds., Reservoir Characserization: Now York, Academic Press,
Ctt.sret. M. A., 1990, Quansificotion of mutliscale rock-property vaeiadonn in fluvial p.487-S4d.
nyssems foe petroleum reservoir characterization: Colorado School of Minen, Eire, R., Lossvcc, D., ayo Muera, C., 1972, Permeability distribution is
Goldcn, Colorado, Uopubl. Ph.D. Dissersasiov, 305 p. a Haberse distributary channel-fill rear Leerdam (The Netherlands)-
Ertarn. G. D., 1971, Peoria fietd, Arapuhoe Coasly, Colorado: Mosstain Geotogiat, permeabilily meunssemeols aid in-situ fluid-flaw ropersments: Geologie an
v.8, p. 141-ISO. Mijobauw, y. Sino. 1, p.53-62.
Fososo, P. F., St..seen, M. J., azor Wtt.sarsssn, R. C., 1979, Vertical and luterai building Wussten. R. J., 1984, ReIssue of unconformities, tectonics, and nra-level changes,
of river soodutane bodies, Ebro Basin, Spain: Geological Society of London Cretacross of western interior, U.S.A.. in Schleu, J. S.. ed., loterregional
Journal, r. 136, p. 39-46. Uncoofoemilien and Hydrocarbon Accumulation: American Association cf
Hsc»oesev, H. H., 1986, Simulutor parameter ansignmonl und the problem of scale io Petroleum Geologists Memoir 36, p. 7-35.
reservoir engineering, in Lake, L. W., and Carroll, H. B., edo., Reservoir
Characterizulion: New York, Academic Press. p. 293-340. 1982, Tectonic influence on sedimentation, Early Cretoceous, rust flunk Powder
Jacterov, S., Szrasiowsrz, M., ave Tosrirsa, L., 1987, Geological chaructorizutioo Burr Basin, Wyoming und South Dakota: Colorado School of Mines Quarterly,
and statistical comparison of ustcrap and subsurface facies: Shannon shelf i. 77. sra. 4.61 p.
ridges: National Institute for Petroleum and Energy Research Report aNn Sosrurvreus, S. A., 1989, Sequence straligruphic analysis of Muddy
(NIPER-2t4), Burrlesville, Gklahomo, 62 p. (J) Sandvlonr reservoir, Wattenberg field, Denver basin, in Coalvan, E. B., rd.,
Joyos, J. R., In., Scon, A. J., ayo Lasso, L. W., 1984, Renervo!z characterization for Petrogenenis and Petrophysius of Selected Sundslane Reservoirs 091hz Rocky
nsmerieal simulalion of Mesuverde meusderbelt sandutose, norlhwentern Mountain Rrgion: Rocky Mountain Asnouialian of Geologists, p. 197-220.
Colorado: Society of Prtroleom Engineers Paper 13032, 14 P.
Lava, C. B., ayo Wrtsrcn, R. 8., 1978, Peoria field, Drover Basin, Colorado
J Sandssone distributary channel reservoir: Rocky Mounlain Association of
Geologists Symposium, p. 81-184.
M.scKcvzso, D. B., 1971, Posl.Lytle Dakota Grasp on west flunk of Denver batan,
Colorado: Moontuin Geologist, y. 8, p. 91-131.
MacMss.s.sv, L. T., ava Wetsroe. R. J., 1976, Straligeaphic model, delta plais
ncquonce,J Suodss050 (LowerCrelacrous),TurkcyCrrekureo,Jcfferson Counly.
Colorado: Colorado School of Mines Professional Conleibutson No. 8,
p.228-2d1.
Msnanzrzasu, R. A., 1973, Wattcoberg Sold, Denver basin, Colorado: M055tuin
Grologiss, u. IS, p. 99-lOS.
Mtau., A. D., 1988, Resrrvoie heterogeneities ir fluvial sandstones: lessons from
outerop sludies: American Association of petroleum Geologists Bulletin. v.72,
p. 682-697.
Povon, W. A., 1972, Reservoir inhomogeneilies of some recent sand bodies: Soeiely
of Petroleum Engireces Transactions, o. 233, p. 229-245.
VAN Wauovcn, J. C., Macnun, R. M., poseMevuten, Il. W., ava Vas., P. R., 1987,
Seismic ntratigraphy inserpretution using sequence slrosigraphypart 2: key
definitions ta nequesee strusigraphy, ir Bully, A. W., ed., Atlas of Sotsmsc
Steasigeophy: Americas Associalien of Petroleum Geologiuls Sludies in Geology
#27, p. 11-14.

Chopin aid Mayee Three-dimensional rock-property model of fluvial sandstones 171

 FLU VIAL-SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS OF THE
TRAVIS PEAK FORMATION, EAST TEXAS BASIN
ROBERT S. TYF
Bureau of Economic Geology
The Uni veroity of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas 78713
Anare,uvo Gas paodoction (7.2 Bof) from Iote-pemtcahility nutodatonea in the Early Cretaceom
Tracia Peak Foemotine, North Appleby field Nacogdoches County Tanna, ia ardraacni through
hydraulic ftactmiog nf stacked, blocky to upward-Caning aacdatonra encaned is impemteable
modslone ioterbrda. Pernaaice quarta cement in the sandatonea decrease, peroaity and
ycrttoeabiliry and connibutea to formation of the rnaernnie seal.
Subaurfaoe data indicate that much nf tisa 6l3-m-thick tech an repreaen ta aggradation of
alluvial-nalley depoaita. Multiple chaoorl holm forro asetwork of otarloppieg, broad. tabular
aaodntoneu baring thickooens-to-width rntioa of 1:850(2.4 ta 13.2w thick; widths en000d 6.4
to8kot). Sintoeightchannnlheln, rach000taining80to 90% medium- aofme-grained
amthmone,locally000upyahl-m-thiohinternsl. loaneetical sequence thenughonechonnelbrlt
nmda000e, basal planar croaa-bedding grodra upward into thiolyiomerbaddad arts of planar
croas.bedaandtippleosa-lrminutinn. Cluy-olantounglnmcrutsalmencostodohelbanoa.
Adjecent ta the chanuela, fine-gtsincd asdimesta ncosmuluted in tunit-deainad swamps and
lakea. Poorlyanrtedanndatonesaepreaent nnctbarohdeponitinn. During Travia Peak depaaitinn,
alluciaf styles enolnod from dominantly bed-load deposition neue the base of the formation to
more mud-rich, minad-toad ayatema at the top.
Sandstone gromatry, continuity, and internal hetcrngrneity inflacncereaernoir
performance and well-to-well comrnutoicatino. Smsll-avatabedfonna, biogeinc soncturea, and
quality reaornoie sandstone (high poroatty aord low-water saturation) asiate in naorrw barda that
nrooeientedasbparulleltodepoaitiouoldip. Reaernotrqualidmteuecautokanae))tmstgina
)lcreea) and topa )abandooed channel) and in hsr-geuined inaetohaunel areas (abadowoonea
behind longitudinal bara).
The nsefulaets of Ihn three-dimennional architectuee oe stratigraphie approach to
deponitinnul-uyslemn anolyuiu has become appuersl as more uedimenlalogistn weentle
wilh inlfepeetulians of teerigenaut-clastic or carbonate arqur000n. Particularly,
nubaurface geolagintu have become ditonchanled with lacier models (bated on
vertical s000etsions sI lilholagioa and structueeu) an greater demands arr made Lo
provide increasingly mace detailed geologic detceiptiont (e.g.. lateral continuity and
inle000l heterageneit y) of aquifers or hydrocarbon reternoien. Hawever, when
tacking well-euposed continuons oulcropn, inteepeelatiant of depotitional
envieoomenl. sandbady geometry, and spatial aeeangemeol mart ho made suing
seismic, well-log, and cors dolo. With these dala, aurful and detailed informatisa on
the sleatigeaphy of nandbodios san still be peosided.
Ono nach aubsurface study involves umglfidisciplinary research prograno denigned
la esalaate gas-bearing law-pormrability sandstones in the EastTexan Basin. An pact
of the program, Ihres eesearch, oc Staged Field Enpeeiment (SFR), wells were drilled
and completed in the Teavis Peak Farmglion (two in Haeeisan Coanty and one io
Nacogdachea County; Fig. I; Halditch and others, 1987). From these welln and
Presenl oddrrsn: ARCO Oil and Gar Company, 2300 Went Plano Parkway, Plano,
Tenas 75075.
Tye
additi000l wrIts (Fig. I), dola (isolading 407 mol core) were cotlecled to generate a
pofenphysioal,enginereing, and geologic profilo of Travis Peak renervoion, Thin papee
lacases sa the geology and reservoie characteristics of Teanis Peak saodstones that
wore sampled an the SFE No. 2 well tocaled in North Applehy field, Nacogdochea
County, Tesan (Figs. I and 2).
The Travas Punk Formation in described an a eedhed-beacing neqaence of coarse-
filtif
ta fire-geatned nandnlanr, nilfnfone, modstone, shale, dolomite. and cherly
conglomerate, allhoagh shale, dolowile, and conglomerase wrre not observed in the
msZen° corea esamtned (Hazraed, 1939; Imlay, 1940; Murray, 1961; Boreyhill and othern,
1967). II a0000formahly overlies the Upper Jurassic to Lower Ceetaceous Cotton
Valley Pormaann, and, because the Traum Peak was deposited dueing a preind of
relative arm-level nor (MoFarlan, 1977), it is onlapped and ovrelain by micritic and
oolito limestanes of the Cretaoeouu Sfigo Formation, forming a lime-teanngresnise
//
upper boundary (Todd and Mitchum, 1977; Bebaut and alhees, 1981). The lower
0 so rae ea r
Sltgn Foemution an Louisiana in predominantly u marine nilioielanlic neil that is a
4''DTot5r Snbtne s. basal fuetes equivalent of the Travis Peak (Hosatag Formation). Upper Sligo
- r-,- t
) A ch
k t
f 9, lB
sediments are dark gray, nolitic, fossiliferous limestone and dark shale, and inthcale
normal-marine deposition (Boreyhill and others. 1967),
/ -, Previous Tronas Peak core studies have interpreted the balk nf the formation in East
Tesas al having keen depositod in high bed-load, broad, braided nlreams (Saaciee and
others, 1985; Dutton, 1987). Regional ntratigeaphic studien indicate that the style of
fluvial systems evolved during Travis Peak deposition (Tye, 1988). Iniliafly, fluvial
systems 000sisfed of brood, faw-sinaosily, sand-rich (bed-load) channels. These
,,,,"""Ange(ea F)anor"' N braided streams responded to u desecase in bane level (nea.lesrl rise) during tale
Travis Peak depastiton by aggeading the alluvial plain and foeming channels of low
Osa: ntnaosnty that transported a fiee-grained mined-sediment load,
Gas is produced from Trusts Peak sandstones that weee deposited in fluvial, deltuic,
paraltc, and erratic oncironmenta. Finley (1984) estimated that ultimate recoverable
reserves as the Travis Poak ronge from 13,8 to 17.3 Tcf. The gas is thoughi lo haue
been generafed in theJaransic Bossier and Swackover Formations (Dallan and others.
1987). Teavis Peak fields located over Ike Subire Arch (Fig. I) produce primarily
Husrtsara co feam combination steuctueal-slraligeaphic traps (porosity pinchauln) similar IO those
Woskorr lirtd_;o descrabed by Forgotson (1974) and account for a majanity of the 10101 Travis Peak
u', produchon an the East Tenas Basin, Porosity and peraneabilily in maul of the Teavin
'1". Peak sandstones have been redaoed due ta quarta cementation and the presence of
4
rune no,)
reseenote bilumen (DuEtos, 1987; Duften and others, 1987; DatIon and Land, 1988).
n, Perweabilily n <0.1 md; poeosity ranges from 310 17% bal is generally less than 8%
/ (Dalton and Finley, 1988).
Deposition of broadly testicular sandslooen encased in mudstonen followed by
quarto cementulann has Orealed diageaetic-vtraligraphic leaps in Noeth Appleby field.
Thin reservote lype wan described by Spencer (1989) as an LP (Low Porosity)
renervote, and, mn addition 10 low-porosity and permeability saloon, these reservoirs
NoCh Apptaby L sonar na chacaclertnttcully have high-capillary preusuern nod variablo-walee nalarotiosa (45to
Fiatd 70%). Cant (1983) described similar low-permeability reservoirs und noted that
sandstone peemeabililirn are no low Ihat the sandslonen can aol as their own seal.
) In Cumulates production lheough 1987 from Teaoiu Peak sandstones is Ike North
Applobp regioo (which inoluden 36 wells) equaled -7 Bof.
wAc0500crnn oO'v
Fts, 1.-Location of Ihe Travin Peak Farmalinas ntndy area, isaelnding Ilse
," anrr
majar xleactnral alaments nf the EanI Texas Basin (a) and Ilse dinlribntian nf
cored wells (b). Narlh Appleby field is acatad in narlbeaat Naeogdoehea Cansaly.
Note Ihr localisas for Ihr Prairie Prodacliosa Mast Na. l.A (#9) and Ihr S. A.
Halditch SFE Na. 2 (#12) welts.
Fluviol-sasdsloae reservoirs
Objectives of this sludy include I) placement of the North Apploby field reservoirs
wathin the regional geologic oonfevt of the Travis Peak Formation; 2) determination
of the depasittonul envirosmeots represented by Ike Noeth Appleby sandstones and
mudulasen; 3) documentation of naodbodp distribution, orienlation, and cOntinuily;
und 4) determination of the megascopic contents on eeservair qualify. Additional
ineesligutions of Travis Peak reseevairs include those by Howard and Hunt (1996).
Dutlon (1987), Dalton and Land (1988), Lunbach and others (1997), Laubach and
Mooson (1988), and Luffel and others (1989). Benetils nf these innosligatioas lie in
the possibilities of improving field.deuelopmeol stralegies (well placemeol and
spacang; prioritaoing perforated intervals), making peevinaslp uncommercial eenerves
peofnlablefhroagh botter reservoir delineation and improved technology, and locating
new euplorufmon objectives.
North Appleby Field
Nnelh Applebp field is is Nacogdocheu County, Tesan, an the went flank of Ihr
Sabtnr Arch (Figu. land 2), abasomcnt-cored, law-amplitude anticline that forms the
eastern margin of the East Tesas Basin (Jackson and Lanbach, 1988). Movement of
the arch occurred in Ihe early Late Crelaceous and early Tertiary (Halboaty and
Halbouty, 1982; Jaoknon and Laubach, 1988) and has had a profound influence an
hydrocarbon trapping. Struclursl dip is the nlndy area is uniformly io the sonlhwenl
(15 anJkm; «In; Fig. 3). ProducImos in from sandstones theaughoal the Travis Peak
archas in Noelh Appleby field (Fig. 4; Tyr, 1988). Wiahin Ibis 610-m-Ihick interval,
fluvtal deposits dominate in all but the upper 100m. Although not always in economic
quantities, gus appears to ho pretesI throughout ike Travis Peak (D. Luffel, pers.
commun.), and, like other low.poeasitp eesorvaios (Manteen, 1979; Spe000r, 1989),
the Travas Peak does not eshibit a discrete gas-waler onntacL Depth to Ihe top of the
Travis Peak rangen from <1.3121003.280w and sr-reales 2.440w (Tye, 1988).
Thirly-sin welts (drilled on 640-acer spacing) have been included in this study. and.
an addition te Ike well lags, a total of 168 mof core were recovered from the Prairie
Prodactios Mast No. l-A (79m) and S. A. Holditch SFR No.2(113 m; Pig. 2) mclii.
The generally continuous nature ofihe four slealigeaphic rones that wem cored in SEE
No. 2, n addition Io the cared und perforated internals present in wells along a
noethwenl.noutheanl crans section, are illastrafed in Figure 3.
In the banal 46m of the Travis Peak, a ipiky ta serrate gamma-ray log oharacler
repeeneuts than, upward-caarsenasg progeadational sandstones separated by mudstonen
(Ftg. 4). Log character in this basal interval gradually changen upward, an Iho
sandslnoes become thicker sod blocky, owing to a predominance of aggrudalional
deposiliooal conditions is the braided-flsuiaienvieosment. The middle Travis Peak
in 370 to 430 m Ihick (interval between 8,400 and 9,800 fi; Fig. 4) and coatoins
numerous blocky and upward-fining (aggraduli000l) sandstones and fewor upward-
coarsenang (prograduti000l) soedsiourn. Overlying the middle Travis Peak section in
n92-m-Ihickustervalofthmn, sharp-bused, and upwaed'finisgsuodulanesseparaledby
madstnnes. Near the lap, sandstaoen are poorly developed, and, is combination with
the mudstonen, Ihey exhibit a serrate gamma-rap log patters.
Two eeprenentatiee sandstones (B and Z) in Zones I and 4sf Noelh Appleby field
(Fig. 4) illustrule deposilionat processes and reservoir qualily. Five Iithofscies were
defined from Ike caer dala, and, on the basis of their sedimentary character (lilbology,
bedding. and struoluros), caee.to.Iog correlations, and sandstone mapping, they are
inleepeeled Io eepreueol discrete fluvial deposifional environments (aelive and
172
 locally include day-dust conglomerares, with class side eangieg np to pebbles
(3.5 cm). Th primary bedding type io the basal portion of the ssndstooes is planar
cross-bedding (Fig. 6A; sels avorage 9 cm thick), which changes upward to thinly
snterhedded sols of pl000r cross-beds ned rippled beds (Fig. 6B). Other fealuoes of
these saodvlonen include abunduns mud rip-np clasls (Fig. 6C), massive-appearing
N
and slumped beds (Fig. 6D), beds of horieonlal to gently inclined lamiese, detrilal
North Appleby Field Area
oegunics cancenleuled on Sodding surfaces (Fig. 6C), mid water-escape stractures
(Fig. 6E).
I2l47 B 12-198
RUSe CO Thicknesses of Fouies I and Fucien 2 steals may reach 4 mid 2.5 m, respectively.
fuACOGDOCO5 CO 0SFE Il/e. 2 Flowevee, amalgamated thicknesses of Facies laud 2 saodstone vary (Fig. 4), ranging
from 9.1 to 15.2w. Thickest smidssaues are present io the loweemost ioterval (Zone
12-199
Il-399 4). Vertical nandstone thickness is often increased by the slacking of separate budies
12-693 o PRAIRIE (Zone 1; Figs. 7-9). Nes-nmidssone mops of individaal Facies I mid 2 sedimentary
I2_ 599 dIenst .4- /
packages reseat that they may osceed 4.8 109.6 km in width (Figs. 10 and 11). Os
12- 691
SFENo2 12-498 s gamma-ruy logs, sandstones appear blocky to ireegular in forro. Sandstone basen are
generally sharp, bus thicknesses desremined from logs muy be underestimated
because clay-dust tags near the smidstnee bases respondas shales.
I259S
Muddy sandstones of Facies 2 gradationally to abruptly overlie Paries I sandstones
497
0500%,%,v.v,-,,---- and mie represented un the gamma-rap log by mi overall apward-fining nerealepanem
2-495 .12_598
(log depth 9,89710 992g ft. Fig. 8; 9,961 109,982 f1, Fig. 9). le core, these deposits
.12_594 12_699.
consist of thin. to medium-bedded, fine- lo very fine-grained sandstone, silty
12-492 sandstone, and mndstone. The increasod mud coulent of the sethmuels mid the greaser
12_597 12-694 12-697
2-49e S activity of harrowing organisms noted in Facies 2 (Fig. 12A) indicate conditions nf
12_ 494 12- 692 low-sediment input mid weak deponisional energy. Trough- and planar-ripple cross-
r 2-497 lamieations are common, and ripple farenets are often accentsated by flaner beds and
12- 596 4' 12-690
organic drapes. Pyrite misociuted with the detrital orgusics is ubundmil (Fïg. 120).
B-
Consorted, saft-sediment deformed beds up lo 0.45 ro thick occur within Facies 2.
52_ 499

.I2O95
12_896 12- 695
lo-o,,,2k,,ISei
O
Bureaws and occasional rooting steucturen have obliterated primary structures io the
O uppermost portion uf Focirs 2.
Cent ou, interuel 50ff
Dotum sen level SA 10209
Foaciee 3Bars-owed Muddy Sandotone
2-798
Sb -998 Flou. 3.Structure-centour map constructed on the top of the Cellen Valley Fueses 3 sequences are thin (1.2 m) and consist of intensely burrowed lo
12_897 12-997 Formation reveals the gentle sesthvsenterly dip os Ihr flank er the Sahine Arch. lamsnated and tippled sandy muddy sillstosen to silty sandstones. Burrows mie she
sic_893 ,I2894 Welle in the North Apptrhy field arco are nhown fer orientation. dominant feature, bat thin facies may also be rooted. Some organic material is
.12.797 preserved.
These deposits overlie sediments of Facies 4, mid Facien 3 is usually oveeluin by
EXPLANATION
a Facies S sandstone that can either coarsen or fino upward. A sharp centadt often
marks the Facies 3 (mudstone( lo Facies 5 (sandstone) boundary. Thin inlrrbndded
Cooed nsell S Logged roch
association imparts avortate, shalycharacterto the sand-poor deposits on the gamma-
ray log (Fig. 7).

Feu. 2.Location or the 36 wells used in thin stedy of the North Appleby field
area. The cored wells SFE No. 2 and Prairie Production Mast No. 1-A are
desigttated 12-493 and II-497, renpectively. Crosn routions that correnpend to
Figaren 14-17 are incledrd.
abandoned-channel, lacaslrine, and eveebaek). Brief descniplieen of each lithofacies
and the inlerpertrd depositionul enviroomenls fellow.
Facistol aod 2Cs-coo-B oddod and Ripp(r-Lasninasod Sassdotone
Snodotones je Facies I mid 2 mie geneeally fine- ta very fine-graioed, have scoured
bases, mid commooty exhibit internal scose coetncts. Sedimeotuey slcscsures and
testones une oimilar in Facies I aod 2,bulPacies I isdissinguishrd bycoarservednment
10610cc and a domiounce of planar ceoss-bedding. Saodstoees je the loweemost coned
interval (Zase 4) gee the enarsevi gruined (mediom- ta fine-grainS). Saedvtanen
Facieo 4Bios urbatrd Mudstone
Facies 4 comprises densely ranted und burrowed red to greenish-gray mid black
sandy mudslanes. Thin facies ranges from 0.6 to 5.7 miv thickness. Intense biogenic
reworking gives these deposits a mottled appearance, and primary sedimentary
strudluren Such us irregular luminutions or ripples aro rarely preserved. Diagenetie
carbonate nodules and disseminated organic malter (coffee grounds) are common
(Fig. 12C); however, pyrite is ubsent.
Facies 4 eshibits serrale-to-oniform shuly pasterns on the gamma-ray log. More
thickly developed Facies 4 sequences appear venale on the litholegic log, owing to the
inclusion of thin, mud-rich suedstoncs.

Tye Fluvial-sundslnoc reservoirs 173

 GR SFL

atlon
March line
GR SFL

lop
Tracts Peak Fm.

tIIIiIi1 I_ I1IluI1II
i1i'ì;ihtRI! :11
II!I!'..'H'
i!I1lIiILiI
I
21 Base C

iiiiriIiiiiiaiiij'iii':
Base B
Z

Base A

!.!...i r.i w. Ii
.
iíi,!Iil1I'J
JSP1ii1iy
,

Zone 2
Fac. 5Stratigraphie cross section across North Apptehy field area depicting
the ditrihation and continuity of the (oar stratigraphie intervats cored in the
SFE No.2 wett. (Location of cross section shomn in Fig. 2).

Traeak Fm
Cobbon Valley

O
L(API) ISO G )Ohmm) 20
Match
0 )AI) I00 )ch)nn) 20
Groop

Fas. 4.SP and resistivity togs from the SFE No. 2 mcii. Fonr Cored
stratigraphic zones arz shown in additiou to the A, B, C, X, Y, and Z sandstones
EXPLANATION discussed in test. Note the perforated intervata.
cere Perfororlon

Tye Fluvial-sandstone reservoirs t74

 B

I
I u
I . u
01
I u u

I
C,
3 u u
. u
u . u
I u u
u
Fra. 6lA) Low-angle planar cross-bedded fine-grained Facies 1 sandstone
from well SFE No.2. Sample depth is 9,939 ft. (B) Thin sels of flasrr-bedded and
ripple-laminated fine-grained Facies 2 uandstone. Sample from well SFE No.2;
depth equals 9,911 ft. (C( Rounded mudstone rip-op etasts and eoaly debris
concentrated near the base of a Facies I sandsloue. Note the presence of pyrite
(tight-colored blebs near top). Sample from well SFE No. 2; depth equals
9,940 ft. (D) Stumped Facies 2 sandy mudutone is sharply overlain by a cross-
bedded Facies t sandstone. Sample feom well SFE No.2; depth equals 9,923.5 ft.
(E( Water-escape pipe io fine-grained Facies 1 sandstone. Dark coloration
caused by the presence of bitumen in the sandslone. Sample is 7cm wide and is
from the C. W. Sam Hughes well (#8, Fig. Ill) al a depth of 7.093 ft. Some
structures may app ear nnclear because of the maturity of the Travis Peak
sediments.

Tye Fluvial-sandstone reservoirs 175

...a......a..
Percent Sandstone
Deposittoflal
Environment tax Cote 000iSt ivity Porosity
Gamma-Ray Log
Depth Depth
ivni IFi) 1Fr)
ro
Percent Sandstone
Dopo sit j o n al
D atn nn o-R ay Log Ivo COD
Resistivity Porosity
Depth Depth
IPtI Fr) OHMM

i liii .uui
111111 11111
Floodplain 111111 uui i
liii!! 11111
111111 uii
ii
L'lui uii iii Corn
P0,05,
Channel

IIi 111111

I'll'
Channel
..,.
...'. Floodplain

DaSS
IIIII L!III1 "i,'
Feo. 7A.Compa ison of the core profile, gamma-ray, resistivity, and density-
...
IIuI
--u.-
Ovorback
Sandstone

porosity logs, core porosity, and sedimentary facies for sandstones (8,230 to
8,255 fI; channelbel C; well SFE No.2) in Zone!. Shallow solid line) and deep
(dashed line) resistivity curves are shown. See Figaro SB for explanation of
symbols.
Fec. 7B.Comparison of the cere profile, gamma-ray, resistivity, and density-
porosity logs, cope porosity, and sedimentary facies for sandstones (8,260 to
8,292 fI; ehannetheti B; well SFE No.2) in Zone!. Shallow (solid line) and deep
(dashed line) resistivity carves are shown. Seo Figure 9fl for esplanalion of
symhols.

Tye Fluvial-saodstone reservoirs 176

 P000ent Sandstone
Deposilional

ii
Fervent Sandstone Environment Gamma-Roy Log tog Coro Resistivity PorosIty
DepOSitrona( Denin Depth
En viro n m a nr Gamma-Ray Log Log 0es nr Porosity (API I Intl
(ta-il Rl ca-on
200

Channel
111111
uiliiiiIurli
lIIIIIlUIIii
ht I

Èu
-'N
IIIIlIII74IIIIII
IIIIIIII4lIIIII II UIuIi lIt
.,III Ii UlIl, L Uil.
VAU
iiiiir..iiiii Channel

III IiIIIIII' Ululi iUI!iili EU

III II)iuIII I III I UUVlII
II .l'uuuI
-u.. ri

r
I
FloOdplalrr
Floodplain
iii i _uiuii
UI I I'4jlI111
¡i Ill I iIIIlII
UI HIPJII il 1uiii
UI
iih'lii
I

Ululi) uII I I

'ui:
IIIIIIIII
11111 iuui
ulIuli_ull
IlIIIIliIII
I
C honre
UI
.
Abandonad
Channel
uIIIIIIII&III I
i,iiiililllui
IIIIIliIII
I
II'
rAr.
'UEU
'U.

Feo. IAComparison of the core profite, gamma-ray, resistinity, and density-
poresity logs, care porosity, and sedimentary facies for sandstones (9,887 tO
9,912 Pt; floodplain deposits and base et cbonnelbelt Z; well SFE Ne. 2) its
Zone 4. Shallow (solid tine) and deep (dashed tine) resistivity carves are sbossn.
See Figere 9B for explanation of symbols.
Etc. SBComparison of the corr profile, gamma-ray, resistivity, and density-
poresity logs, cere porosity, and sedimentary facies for sandstones (9,912 lo
9,942 fI; shannelbelt Z; melt SFE No.2) in Zone 4. Shallow (solid line) and deep
(dashed line) resistivity cernes ere sbnwn. See Figere 9B for esplanalion of
symbols.

Tye Flovial-saodslone reservoirs 177

 Depositional
Environment

j; trI
SOpth
(Fr)
roo
Forcent Sandstone
Cere
oWts
Im)

0030
900istiu)ty
9iIM

u,uJII)t.IIuIII
ui.iuri..uuiii
IIIIIIIIL:'ulIIIII
uuIIulIIuIIIII
1111111 j.uIiIlII
uuiiiiii.,iiiii
IIIIIIIIEIIIIIIII
ava
Porosity

Depositional
Environment

Ovndsank
Gannrtra-Oay Log
lop
'so
Lag
Depth
Ft I

too
Percent Sandstone

o
Cora
oopis Resisheity
seoiR
Des
Porosity

uulIllIlIi ululi Sandstone

IUIIIIiII4IUIIIlI
IIIlIIIi(lIIIIlIi
Chanco) IIIIluIiILllIuIi
uuIIOhi%IIIuII
IIIIulliii 111111 Floodplain uuIÍuiiPUiiÍ Iii
uuiuuiiiiiiiii UIlIIlIIUiIII I

IIulIlIiMlIIIIi
uuiiiuiiiuiiiii III I1I1II i:
uuIllIll_kiluIlli IuiiiIiiklui III
IIiiiliiIiUili Ii iiiilUi lii II
.niuiiiruiiui Channel
Snoordary IuIullliIPiili
uIulIlIiNlIlJII

I
Contant
uuuiuiir.iuuiuii
IIIIlllI';!lIIll
9500 uIlIuIuIEuuIiuI
uiuiiitiiriii
IIlIIlIILIIflhi
UuIIlIIIUI4lIlII Eoplanatioo Of Cone-Description Symbol
uimuiuuitii
uuuiiiuiiuiiui 'y Planar-Tabular Cross-gods Water -Eooapn Feetures
uuuuijui.iuijti
uuiiiuii..ui iii Planar-Tangential Cross-Beds Lontioular Bed
uuiuiiii.uiuu iii
uu'u'iuiuuu'ql
.uIIIlIIu,uIIit Trough Cross-Beds ví'V Pebble; Mud Ctest

Floodplain
-.
'L
Porallel Laminations

Ripple Laminat)ono
-sg Burrows

Root Traoos

..
Ovnrbank
vAr ç1j SlumposllOoorstnnpenod Beds 44 Organic Dnbris
Sandstone

Floodplain
vero
.I.
rcz

Ftc. 9A.Comparison of the core profite, gamma-ray, resistisity, and density- Psy. 9B.Comparioon of the Cere profile, gamma-ray, resislisity, and density.
porosity legs, core porosity, and ordimentary ravies for sandstones (9,930 ta
porosity logs, Core porosity, end sedimentary facies fer sandstones (9,970 to
9,970 fI; base of clsaer.elhelt Y; Prairie Prodaotion Mast Ne. t-A) in Zone 4.
9.990 ft; npper part of channetbrtl Z; Prairie Prodootion Mast No. l-A) in Zone
Shallow (solid tine) and deep (dashed tise) resistivity verses are shown. See 4. Shallow (solid lier) asid deep (dashed line) resistisity Corses and an
Figare 9B for explanation at symbols.
rsplanation of core-description symbols are shown.

Tye
Fluviul-sundstone reservoirs 178
 A
ii la-t 98

I
B
Do-
t2-t98 HUSK CO
C

.12197/ rz-teo'° 099K CO

i
RUSH CO
NU50000CHES CO NACOG DOCH ES CO
NACO9DOCHE9 CO
H,-,,,'
D
// / / b,
//
S 12-199
2-t 99
lt-399
/
t t-399
r2-599,
t l-399

t' t' r 2-498 -u

, L
-
-3o96r

93 u- 12-498
t2493 -u t2-S99
2-498

t
_S595 ,.'r2-595
,, - 12595
IIu
L

-- 11-497
2-495 t' t r-497 t2-499 e'
/ 11-497 12-495 /
I

' S S
L

I
s' s' r2-492
12-49 t2-492 ru-496 s' ru-496
IS12-496 s'
s' s'
s' s' L
s'
'' 12-404 t2494 S

y
lt
l2494. .
r2-497 S t2-497 L
S
S
S - L
S t
ra-499
'I t2-489 L
I 12489
I
)2497

1 Mi u,

2 Km
12-798
12-788
Ìi t 2-798
ru-893
Eotrlanat{on t2-893

-
Than 30% Detleotion or
Gamrm-Oay Curve From Shale BaselIne
u,JGreater
Li I 2-797
12-797 S 2-707 't

Wall Panlorated or Chonnebat B

ASFENO.2 SWatLacaton

080lour reamar -5 Feet Contour Interval = 509mo

Contour Interval 5 Feet
Fso. 1O.(A) Net-sandstone, (B) density-paroxity, and (C) deep-resistivity (R,)
maps rar channelbelt B in Zane I. Nambers on the R, map give approximate
pradoctian values rar wells with available datO that are known tebe perforated
in channelbrlt B. Nate that values reported are far the entire Travis Peak
Formation and thereroremay notdirectly reflect production from channrlbelt B.
Prodactian data rar SFR No.2 (12-493) are diucnsued in the text.

Fluvial-sandstone reservoirs 179

Tye
asaasss sa.....s.._m_..a....._.
A
/
B C
/
/ e 104.729
/ i2-t90' 104 .729

I,/
2-190 12-197 S
RUSKCO
/ 'o

/
RUOKCO 12-197
12-190 RUOKCO

ff
N000GDOCHESCO NAC0000CHESCO
15// NACOGDOC H ES CO

/
93
/
li-3995
/ il-399.
I
I iz,ioo
f,
,
tI-399
S,
12-199
/; ff/
/
f,
/ I2-599./ / 12-59OS
f
// 12-498 / /
/
/ /
/
/ f
// //
S 12-493 512-408 2-493 2-490
/
/
// /
/ 512-595 I / / St2-505 I

// /
//
T2-595 I 304.7811 304.7811

/ / z-405.

/
St t-097
37427 / 12-4
137.42 ¡
/ \ /

/
I 111.367
IS
\ /
83.991 S 12-597 .12-402 I 12-597
12-4925 - j

111,367
512-496 12-496 I
12-496 3jo9 I

t 2-497 8
19 5 24 9,

'
12-494 9,
9, S 12-499 \ 502-499
9,

S t2-895 r2-0O5S
z-095 9,
9,, 9,

I Mi 50

Ï'
2 KIT,
12-798
12-794
i'.9r,,o,, S 12-700

\S r)' 428,926
8 4t2-093
l512-697
512-603
12-807
o0l9rl9l9rll
420.029
TIran 30% Dotleoti0501
Gerrom-RuyCurue Fr011 Stale Baseline l27g7T
T2_t65" 502-297
]Groaner
S SFENO 2 WelLocatan
S Well Penlosated ir Chavnelbolt Z

Contour Intentai = 5 Feet CorniOunIrtelval 5 Feet Contour Interval 10 05mm

Fm. ll.(A) Net-sandstone, (B) density-porosity and (C) deep-resistivity (R,)
maps for channelbelt Z in Zone 4. Numbers on the R, map give approximate
production values for wells with available data that ere known lobe perforated
je channelbelt Z. Note that values reported ere fer the entire Teaois Peak
Formation and therefore may notdirectly reflect production from channelheltZ.
Production data for SFE No.2(12-493) are discussed in the test.

Tyo Fluvial-saodstooe reservoiro 180


I
I
I
I
I
Fis. 12.(A) Borrowed maddy sandstone in Facies 2 irs well SFE No. 2 from
a depth of 9,905 ft. (B) Ripple-laminated, harrowed, organic-rich maddy
Facies 2 sandstooe in well SFR No.2. Pyrite has replaced organic material (see
Irns above the ping hole). Sample depth is 9,912 ft. (C) Calcareoas nodales in a
cooled and burrowed mudstone. Sample 56.5cm wide and is from the Amoco
CaIdwell G. U. No.2 well in Harrison Coaoty ala depth of 6,808 ft. Sandstones
and madsiones are ioterpreted as floodplain-soil deposits.
Tye
__.s_._....____ .__.__....____..._.a.__._._
Faciea 5Ripplr-Larnioasrd Muddy Sandeione
This (1.2103.6 m thick), muddy. floe- to very fixe.graioed suodvlones comonooly
overlie orare inlerbedded with fine.grained Facies 3 nod Facies 4 deposits. Their
internal steatificalion coo be extremely complex. Typically, this facies is ao upward-
fixing seqoence of nipple.trough tamixaled beds ovrelaix by sofl.sedimentdefornned
and ripple.latninated lo burrowed woddy suodstones (Fig. 7B). These xandslones can
form halb upwd.coarseoiog and apward.fioiog sequexces, aod they have lobale te
irregular flue ditneoxioes (Fig. 13).
Envi roornenlat !elerpretations
Fluvial channel bellaFacies land 2 are inleepreled as being sedimeots deposited
io she aclive and abaodaned poetices of braided fluvial channel belts. The vertical
neqoencex described for the SF0 No.2 and Prairie Mast No. A.l wells (Figs. 7109)
cannol be placed oeady irlo any Gavial clasnificalioo scheme (Moody.Staart, 1966;
Miall, 1978; CantandWalker, 1978; Root. 1972). bntexannioalion and intrrpretalioo
of three.dimensional sandbady geometry and internal stratification provide insights
into the deposilional processes that were active. lo comparisoo lo meandering Itavial
systemv, few examples vfbraidrd.slream depovilian have breo addressed. However,
among recenl studies (Chilalc. 1973; Campbell, 1976; Cant, t978; Galloway and
Hobday, 1983; Miall, 1977; Rost. 1970; Smith, 1970,1971; Walkerand Cant, 1984;
Dotava and Erik550n, 1989), agrrrmrat aboxl several points is apparros. These urn:
I) braided vyxtrms convint of broad channel belts thai contain mxltiplr chaxnrls;
2) preserved sedimentary seqxrncrn are variable and cyctic; 3) channel fills arr broad,
tabular. dip.rlaogate sand.badirn that nvhibil low thickorsn.to-widtb ration; and
4) basaI scones are generally Sal with law erosional relief.
The relatively shallow and wide Travis Peak sandstones possess many of these
Iraits. Within their lowermost occurrence (Zone 4 sondstonex), 0.3 Ia 0.75-m-thick
planar cross-stratified beds grade upward iota beds that arr massive appearing or
exhibit parallel lamivatioe. Grain size decreases concurrently with bed thickness as
the channelbelt lops, where cxeernl-ripplr lamination daminalen. Trace fauxils al the
tops of sandbodirs mark the poivs of channel abandaxmrnt. A vegetated floodplain
(Facies 4) rapidly buried the channelbelt xavdxtanes.
Basal Travin Peak sandstones (Zone 4) da not ceotain Ihr trough crosx-beddrd
channel facies described in Cant's (1978) Sassery Creek asd South Soxkatvhewan
examples. This perhapx implies that the Travis Peak channel belts were levs
chasnelired than rivers such ax the Sooth Saskatchewan. Sheet-flaw deponitsen was
more dominant in the broad Travis Peak chuorel bcltn (as indicated by planar ceoxs.
bedding and parallel luwixatian). er Ihn portion of she Tmvis Peak chanoel belts
rxawioed was located distally within the bonin and therefore damivantly experienced
migration of lingeid transverse barn (Smith. 1970, 1971; Rnxt, 1972, 1978; Allen,
1983).
In cbannelbelt Z of SF0 No.2 (Fig. OB). vertical sandstone continuity is brukrn by
a floodplain madxtanr. The xppee sandstone in chanvelbettZ ix typified by medium-
bedded, trough crexn-bedded, and current ripple-bedded nundntene that gradnatty
finen upward into ripple-laminated and bumewed muddy sandstones. A similar
contact inchannelbetlY (well 11.497, Fig. 13) is readily visible onlhrgxmma-eay leg
and in Ihr core. The differences io stratification styles between the two xandxtonen
(basal planar ceass-bedn versos overlying trough cress.beds and ripple tamioatiaos)
inchannetbetta Y avdZ imply initial channel abandonment followed by reaccaputien
of the old channel by a misar channel. Chien (1961). Moody-Stuart (1966), Rast
Fluviul-sundsloec reservoirs
(1972, 1970), and BeislOw (1987) describe channel mobility and eeeccapution of
chaoneln mithin braided channel bells.
Sedimentary sequences io the Zarte I channel bells differ from Ihose in Zone 4; the
changex indicate an evolution in fluvial style from broided ta bruided-meaudering
deposition (bed-loud to mixed-lard sedimenlutien). Fixern ceosn-beds domioale at
chaonel buses. and in Ihr middle neclions of channels planar cresx.bedn are oserluiu
by thinly bedded cuerenl-nipplr laminuliont. Episodes of rapid nethmeot deposilirn
am implied by intervals of planar croxx.bedx with steeply dipping bounding suefaces
(chute-channel deposition), overnlrapened forexein and verlical beds, and abxndant
walar.encape stesclsees. Chaaoel taps are ripple laminated and harrowed. Deposils
that reflecl low-flaw or channel-abandonment phasen (Facies 2) are thicker in
Zone I than in Zone 4. lnterhrddrd mudutoues wiinhin the sandstones may represent
post-flood clay drapru on point bars (Fisk, 1947; Bernard and others. 1970; Gagliano
and vas Berk. 1970)0e fixr-gmined channel benches (Nannex and Page. 1983).
The inlerbedded sequence of planar cress-beds. parallel-laminated beds, and
nwall.ncale ripple lamination resembles the sequence of structures described by
McGowen and Garner (1975) fon the modern Amite River. Louisiana. The Awite
River is characterized by short-duration flashy discharge, slabiliratieo of the books
(low channel sinuosily) by vegetation, mined.vediment load, and steep gaadieot.
Interpeetalions of sedimentary processes from the Norlb Appleby cores indicate that
similar conditions prevailed during tale Travis Peak deposirion.
FloodplainRooted and harrowed Facies 4 mudataxen were deposited in
espansive floodpluins that developed adjaceot to the channel belts. Carhonale
concertions and the absence of pyrite xsggeal shut lloodplainx were well drained
(Coleman, 1966). Facies 4 and 5 sandstones aad silty sandstones are isterpeeled le
have been depoxiled by Iraclion processes daring flood events bat later reworked by
biogenic processes in crevasse-splay or Iacastrmnc.dclta environments. However.
because of limited data axd uncertainties in discriminating between crevasse-splay
avd lacnstrmne-delta dvpoxilx ix ancirnl fluvial sequencen, these sedimeots une
referred toas overbank nuedstones.
The degree of 000dylaio development in fluvial sections sachas the Travis Peak
muy peevide dxcv ta dcicrmining whether depanilirn occurred in straight veesas
ain000s fluvial syxtemn; however, little afreemeol exists. Miutl (1977) coosidera
floodplain developmrsl lo be less exteosive io u braided system than isa meandering
system. Addiliexally, Friend (1983) stales 1h01 the overall proportion of fine.geained
sedimenls is notan iodicaliro of channel pollees, bai Cant (1970) pointed out 1h01 the
absence of floodplain deposits is commonly cuased by fluvial reworking raiher than
by poor decelepmenl. Smith (1971) reported shot the Pialle Riven floodplain was
30 times wider than the chavoet; thus, the presence of floadplaio sediments in ancient
dcpexilv is dependent en thy degree of fluvial reworking anden subsidence rutes on
Ihe alluvial plain. Therefore, ullheugh it is considered la have been relulively stable,
ihr alluvial plain in theEavl Tesas Basin mast have subsided al nufficiently rapid ruten
lo provide for prcnervolion of thin hai laterally evtcnsivc floodplain depoxils.
Suadbody Gerroerry
The majority of the channelbelt sandutenea correlated within Zones I and4 aro gas
productive. Ten channel belts arr present wilbin Zone 1, although noI all 10 ore
peexenl in any 00e welt. Three channelbelt saodulenes occur in SEE No.2 (C. B, und
A, in descending order; Figs. 14 and 15). Channelbelts Band C, thelmo apperroust
sandstones in Zone i, are perforaled. Pesl.xtimalasion daily production values arr
181
ma...aa...a RNNS
65 MeS of gao, 41 bbl waste, aod 3 bbl coodaosata. Io Z000 4, 12 chonoel balls are Brahmapslea River (thicknens-to-widlh eatia = 1:700; Coleman, 1969; Beistow, 1987)
tv-rol prosent, aod theeo of these clra080l bells acose in SEE No. 2 (X, Y, atrIl Z, io and ancient braided-channel deposito in the Morrison Formation, New Mexico
12.190 OUSK CO daocandiog order-neck woo perforo/od; Figo. 16 aod 17). Daily pOOl.sliwclalion (thiekoess-rrs-midth rutio = 1:740; Campbell. 1976).
NAC0050CHES CO predactioo for Zona 4 io 330 Mcf of gao, 150 bbl waler, and 5 bbl voodeesatr
(B. Rabiosos, pees. common). Pzrzoisy, Prrrnrabiliay, ansi Flaid-Saaapamion Relasianohipe
112.100 Chanoelbelt thicknesses range from 2.4 698.7 m; (average = 6m) io Z000 land
ni-399 from 2.4 to 13.2 ni; (avreage 8.1 w) io Zone 4. The gamma-ray lag character Net-sandstonr and log-focies mapa arr goneeallp considered to give a coarse
13.199 S 12-599 tv-603 betweeo 9,002 and 9,947 ft (log depsh jo well SFE140.2; Figs. 4. 16. aod 17) implico approsimotion of 1h ereservoar potential 0f a nandbody; however, in many instances
16e presence of three slacked, spwsed-fining 550dslooes ja 16e lower Travio Peak
-l5 Formalian (-58m abase she lop of the Callan Valley Formation). As indicated by the
and particularly in low-permeability reservones, this corollary does not apply. For a
low-permeahtlity sandstone In predare economically, O to 10% porosity mast ho
A rI-493 12-601
12-400 serrated gatnma-ray log nignasare, the sharp-based blocky sandstones ace separated presenl (O. Luffel, pers. commun.). Therefoee, net-foot poronily mops were made of
vertically by thickly bedded (0.6 m) shaly saodslooes aod oboles. Many nhsly breaks each channel belt asing 8 and 10% porosity-coloff saInes. These maps displayed
noted by gamma-ray logo ace actaally channel-lag deposito. mrd stackiog of these consideeably compten trenda (Pigs. 10 and 1 I).
r z-sos channel deposito gives the sandstones an ieregalar serrate appearance. lo the cored Few wella contained a nignificant thicknena of sandstone with 210% poroniry;
intervals, beds of clean sandstone vary in Ihickneos from 01310 6.3 m, whereas shaly Iherefore, only the nd-foot porosity maps repeesenling sandstone thickness with
- lO - ri-497
2.495
sasdolonen mrd oboles range from latesinations 0.502m thick lo beds np 6069w thick. poeosity are shown. Channetbelt B averaged 2.7 rn of sandstone with porosity
erz-Saß
Zone tie well SEE No.2 (Figs. 7 and 14) cossints of a basal 10.5-rn-thick sectiao 28%, whereas channelbelt Z averaged only 2.4 ni. For sodelerminod reasons, a
5 of istorbodded sandsrosen aod mudslonos that were deponiled in abandoned-channel, dcscrepancy exists between core- and tog-measured poeosity. Io 0FB No. 2. log-
Sf2594 r2-600s lacaslrine, asd floodplain environments. These fise-gmined beds overlie as 8.1-m- derived porosity averages 4.4 porosity units grealee than core pornnities measured at
t 2-492 r 2-597
thick channel saodstose (Fig. 7). Two slacked sandstones that hase a combined reseevoir presnaro. In channelbelt Z, log porositios exceed core poeouitiea by an
n 2-496 512-694 aveeage of 3.4 porosity unils in SF0 No. 2 end by 6.65 porosity esita is the Prairie
512-697 thickness 0612.6 m occae above. Sandstones ace sanable in thickness (1.5 to 5.4 m)
r 2.692 bol thicken opward. Madotones hove Ibicknesnes feom 1.2102.7 m. Significant shale Moot No. 1-A well.
S 2-596 breaks noted by the gamma-cay log al 8,254 and 8,200 ft (Fig. 7) are acloally layers The pOrotily map of chanselbolt B indicates that the thickest high-porosity
ït 12-497
.12-eon
of cloy rip-sp davIs with thickoesses of 0.15 and 0.6 m, renpeclisely. Channeln
scoured into the floodplain msdstoses and Ihn scour conlacls eec lined by clay np-ap
randulone occars in a prong-shaped oortkeast-nouthweat--orienled interval that lien
adjacent to the western asd eastern channelbelt margino (Fig. 10). Thickness nf
tv-655 clasts. Channel sandotones are dominantly planar cross-bedded. horizontally poroas sandstone decreases in Ihr vicinity of wells 12-199 aod 12.493 (SF0 No.2),
r2-499
S 12-896 laminated, and rippled. Some soft-sediment defoemation in appaeent. Ranted red and and thts trend continues to the nonlbweal through an area where the choonelbell width
gray floadplain madolones that cap the channel deposito farm reservoir seals and namrowa (node). The porosity-thickness value at well 12-798 indicates a porosity
S 12-095 vertical and lateral Said-flow barriers. Perosily-occluding quaelr cement asfments increase to the southwest of the nodal paint.
1 Mi the msdstone seals. Porosity Ihickness in channelbelt Z also is variable (Fig. 11). Thickest porous
Net-sasdslose maps foechannelbelt B, Zose 1, and cbannelbelsZ,Zonr4 (Figs. 10 sandstone occurs in Iwo lens-shaped areas that liete she nortkwenl and soulbeant of
2 KlO
and 11), depiel Ihevariable thicksessenand orientationvofthesechannel bells. There a poInt of brasching in the channel belt (ace ncr-sandstone map). A narrow norlheasl-
sandslones were deposiled by nameeous braided-to-meandering flavial channels thaI noulhwest-ortenlod trend of low-porosily sandstone separaten these two regionn. As
12.790 formed and migrated 6911km the 4.0 lo 9.6-km-wide channel belts. Channelbelt Z han In channelbelt B, a low-porosity area is preoont io a oaenom palor node in the channel
Exolanation SI 2.099
a oortheast-soathwesl orientation, whereas ehanoelbell B leends norlh-soath. Dolled bell (Fag. Il). Wtthtn the name chennelbels sandalose, decreased poronities et the
- Greater Than 35% Detleclion or e 12-093
I2-097 Sic-007 linen desole the appeosimate locations of Ihe channetbelt margin. chaunel nodes creale lateral barriers lowell commanicalion.
Gannena-Oay Corse Frani Shale Oasalioe
2-0O4 Wells in 140db Appleby field arc deitled on 640-acer spaciog, and the entent of Another aspect of reservoir qoality is shown by the deep-ersissivily () maps
individual channelbell nandstooes is sack that they can generally be coeeelated ines (Figs. IO and 11). Howard and Hunt (1906) hace shows that troditiooal methods of
A SF6 No.2 12-707
Well Lr000500 many aI 20 adjacent wells. Since prodactise sardsl000s enleod beyond the limits of log analysis Io evutuato light-gas saodslonen can be inadequate. The prodact of
Ihe study area (Figs. 14 asd 16), ills difficutl to deteemise meanisgfut thickness-to- porosIty uod waler nataralion gives the bulk-water volume of the mck (Asqoilh,
Sandstone Perforated
width relationships. In a oorth-soulh direction (parallel to deponilional dip), moan 1982). Therefore. the combination nf a poroas and tow-resistivily sandstone should
Con/Our lo/e/val = 5 Feel channel bells are continuous across the entire field (Figs. 15 and 17). One margin of be os iodivolion of a poor reservoir (high bulk-water selume; D. Luffcl, pers.
each channel belt is generolly present in an east-west cress section (parallel ta common.). Thon, the porosity and Rt maps give a qualitalise picture of the reservoir
depositional strike). Oropile the inability Io determine the posilioor of both quality oc potential in the Band Z channel belts. loterentingly, the resistivity trends
channelbelt macgins, some prediclions nf lateeal continuity based on sandstone thick- mimic the porosity and not-sandstone pallems. Boat reseevoir qanlity with e combi-
neos are possible becaase both margino of ehaenelbell Z eec present (Fig. 16). With sation of high porosity-thickness nod high rcsinlisity in developed in Iho widest
Fia. 13.-Net.sandstone map of a Facies 5 sandstone in Zone 1. This overbank an average thicknenn of 8.4 m aod width of 7.4 lan, channelbelt Z heno thicknesn-ta- poettons of the channel belts. Cumulative production data compared with the porosily
sandstone liesjaot below shannelbell B and ocoers between 8,290 end 8,297 fI (log width retieof 1,867. Otherchanoelbellsrange feom 5.7 509.6 min tbicknessasdhave and reacntrvrty mops generally agree that west prodadlion in from the thickest, porous.
depth; Figs. 7,14 end 1g) in well SFENo. 2. Thisoandstenewas perforated in well widths thaI enceed 5.6 to 8.0 km; thin sandstones are manI likely tobe more lateeelly and highly resistive intervals, bat becaase of the imprecise methods of reporting
11-399 from which 13r189 MaP of gao were prodneed. This well io now resteicled. loan obliqae orienlalion across channelbell C (Zone I. average lhickrlesn perforaliono and the practice of eeporliog production for an entire formation, theoe
abandoned. = 57m), the width is rqoal to approsimately 6.4 km. The enaclhoundary of braided comparisons csn be 0000idcred ooly appronimations.
channel belts is difficult to determine even in modem braided flasial environments
(Coleman, 1969); however, there dimensions agree well with meaonremenlo from the

Tye Fluvial-sandstooe reservoirs 182

A A
West East

CITIES SERVICE
STEWART CN0.1 AMOCO PRODUCTION CITIES SERVICE
AMOCO PRODUCTION
il-399 SA HOEDITCHANDASSOC RB McFadden Lee "E' Na i
o RS McFadden AMOCO PRODUC11CS4 AMOCO PAODUCI1O1I CITIES SERVICE
PRARIE PRODUCTION
Mast Na A-i
S FE. Ns 2

*
1 2-493
*
12-495
*
12-496
NW Hart Jr
12-597
B. Olount
12-5 96
0. Delaney
12-094 *
1 2-695

*
11-497
o * EXPNATION

FIoodplan

Ovenbonk Sandstone

.In 'a Channelbeli Sondsi000

Podora9ons

--
.-. Cored 11101051

-
In
VE. 264o

1u.-
Datum

.n
.

U A

1 0905 1.12 Ini. 053 05 0.8 076 Ini. 0.9 ni 1.4 Ini.

Fis. 14.East-westoriented stratigraphic cross section A-A' (location shown

in Fig. 2) illustrates the occurrence and geometry of channetbetl sandstones in
Zone!. Multilateral fluvial-ehannet sandstones occur in broad flat-tying tenses.
They reach a masimam thickness of 7.5 to 12.0 m, and their widths range ream
1.6109.6km. Sandstones are separated from each other vertically by floodplain
deposits, and mudstones inteefingering with the channel deposits resait in some
internat tithotogic heterogeneity. Discrete sandstone lenses may hein horizontal
contact dueto lateral channel migration. Gamma-ray tog corses are shown.

Tye Fluvial-sandstone reservoirs 183

......_.. .....s..Ussu .mN.
Diagenetic Effevis

In addition to the stratigraphic studies, peteographic and strncturat analyses have

provided insights into Ihn geologic controls an rrseevoir quality in North Apploby
field. Geomrtey and quality of Travis Peak reservoirs vary as a function of the B
depositional system and degree uf diogeresin (Dutlan, 1987; Dation and Diggn, t988;
B'
Laubach and others, t989). Tablet sammarizes average core values of porosity and North South
permeability al reservoir conditions for various environments. Mean porosity valsen NuIOCO PRODUCTION
PRAIRIE PRODUCTION
of the channel and overbank sandstones are statistically different ata 95% confidence M Sanor RO. MeFa0000
PRAIRIE PRODUCTION
tevel; however, na significant difference man deteemined for the mean valuen in flau Ud Na. i AMOCO PRODUCTION 2.407
channet and abandoned-channel sandstones. Pare types range from microparnu lo 12.190
o
NsIOCOPRODUC11ON
L F, ornavi
SA HOLDITCH paiD Assoc
SEE. No 2
RO MOFaddon
12.495
RO. MoP0110n
1 2-492 *
pnmary and secondary macropoens. Highest parotides tend to arcar ir the banal io
mid-channet portions of the channel botta (Figs. 7 and 8).
12-1 99 12-493 o *
Travis Peak sandstones arr, in places, natarally fracluerd. Pracinren in the low- * EXPl ANATION
permeability reservoirs arr deemed importons becaste they provide storage and
transportation pathways for the gas and they influence the success of hydraulic-
Fluodploin
fracture irealmests (Laubach and others, 1989). Large, vertical, natural fracturen may
estas singularly or in clusters thai occar throughout the nandbody. Where present. OvnrUank Sandstone
they create macropures, connect mains porosity, and are oeienied at approsimatoly
eight angles to the reservoir trend (Laubach, 1988; Tyr and others, 1989). Cvnvnelbnli Uavdsionn
Frac tures ase most abundant in the deeper, mare Iighdy cemented sandstones
(Luabach, 1988). but quantified estimates uf their three-dimensional distribution arr Pertomsons
unavailable. Reservoirs in Zone I are Ibis and separated by madutones; few natural
fractares occar in those sanduloues (Tye and nlhees, 1989). Productive sandstones at VE 26an
the baue of the formation (Zone 4), bowevee, are thicker and mare sand rich: these
contain a greater percenlage of quarto cement and are naturally fractared. The
suhparallel alignmeat of natural and caring-induced fracturen saggrsts that fracturen
Daino
created daring wellboer slimolalion also would assume an urirstution subparallel to
the natural fradares. Therefore, the contribution of nulural fractures io resonvair

Tanze 1.-Average core'plug calare of poroniiy und permeability ai

reservasr rosdiuosofor the chansrl (artier and abandesed) and
floodplain (averbanb oandososie and madorose) 000ironmenis.
Sampler ai-rfrom ihr S. A. Holdutch SFE No.2 and Prairie
Production Maos No. 1-A welts. Aoseriok denotes perme ability
values below analytical resatiatian (0.001 eut)
0.64 tri s.a rei. 0.62 Rs 1.22 Itt 050 Ri

Depositional Porosity Permeability No. nf

Environment (%) (nid) Samples

Fin, 15,Nnrth.snnth-nntrnted itratigraphir Ernsu section B.lt' (location shown

Channel Sandsiosr 5.48 0.0676 176 in Fig, 2) nf Znnr 1, Crust seCtion iss*bparalleltodrpasitiooal dip and illnitrates
thr stacked and vrrtieally separate arrangements nf channel belts.
Abandoned Channel 3.00 12

Overbank Sandstone 4.15 * 4

Overbnnk Mudsiono 2.95 * 26

Coisinurd on pago 106

Tye Fluvial-naudslone reservoirs 184
A A'
West East

AMOCO PRODUCT1CM4 AMOCO PRODUCTOS AMOCO PRODUCTOR

CITIES SERVICE SA HOLDITCH AND ASSOC. AMOCO PRODUCTION CITIES SERVICE CITIES SERVICE
PRORIE PRODUCTIOC 6.9 McFadden 6.0 McFadden NW. Hort, Jr.
STE WART CN0 I S.F.E. No.2 R OLOUrlI 0. Delonuy LRn ENO. t
*
Mast No A-1 1 2.496

*
12-4 95

*
1 2-5 97

* *
1 2. 590

*
12-694 12-09 5

*
11-399 li-497 12-493

Datum

EXPLANATION

Floodplain

Ovarhank SafldstOfla

Cvanoslbnll Sandsiono

PorisiaSons

Corud InturAal

- SacandoV Chassai Scoar

V.E 264o

1 O9ns, 1.12111i. 0.53 rrs. 0.0 no 576 05. 0.5 tri. 1.4 mi.

Fis. 16.Stratigraphic cross section A-A' illustrates the occurrence and
geometry ai channelbell sandstones in Zuna 4. Note the relative increase in
multilateral fluvial channel sandstones in Zone 4 compared with those in
Zone t. The braided channethall.sandslone deposits reach masimum
thicknesses or 80.5ta t3.5 w, and their widths range from 5ta 8 km. Sandstunes
are separated from each other vertically hy averbank deposits, and mudstunes
interfingeeing with the chaunel deposit s result in some internal lithologic
heterogeneity. Erasionaljuslapasition ofdiscrete tensen is greater in Zone 4 Ibau
in Zone I, thus indicating a higher degree of channal scour und lateral migratiun.
Gamma.eay log curves are shown.

Tye Fluvial-sandstone reservoirs t85

 qcatity io Noeth Apploby field is ancertaio bocauvo hydraulically induced fractcero
may eno increase commcnication belweeo the r000s of oaluoal fruclarro.

B B'
North
South Ocring Travio Peak deposition, fluvial Styles molDed from dominantly bed-load
braided systems near Ihr baso of the formation ta moro ftne-grained mixed-load,
PRAIRIE PRODUCTION fluvial syolems al Oso top of the formation. Paleogeographic rOconstractiono (Tpo,
PRAIRIE PRODUCTION RB. MoFadden
AMOCO PRODUCI1I RB. McFadden 1988) indicate that risiog sou level was the major proceso that caused a shift from
M Saner AMOCO POODUC31ON 12-49 7 braided bed-load to mixed-load Gavial uodimonlatioo. In odditior lo flavial chaogoo
Gas Unii No i
12-195
AMOCO PRODLCThY4
LE. Binant
SA HOLDITCH AND ASSOC.
5FF No.2
i 2-493
N.B MoFadden
1 2-495
1 2-492

* 12-199
* lower Travis Peak are arranged multilaterally and cover 164km0. However, barasse
064 nil.
* *
* *
0.8 tini. 062 1 22 Oli.
Fm. 17.Neeth-xooth-.oeje64rd stratigraphie cross section B-B' of Zone 4.
Croce section ¡s sobparallnt to drponitiooal dip nod illustrates the stacked aod
vertically separate arraogement of channel belts. Note the geeater lateral
cootiooily of Zooe 4 chaoorl hells compared with those is. Zoor I and Ihr
iocreased incideoce ofstacked chanoelbell sandstones that cee in direct contact.
io rosponse to sea level. Gavial stylos cao bocomo modified ¡na dowoslopo direction
and dariog basis evolution by variations io slope, sodimool load, baok resistance to
erosion, climate, or tcctonic regime (Miall, 1987). Channel bolts in the appor and
of lower Gavial gradients Ibas existed during lato Travio Peak depovilico, the
floodplaio mudssooes that separate upper Travio Peak channel bello are thicker and
more evtenvive than those in Ihr lower Travis Peak.
Flavial sheet-oandstooe reservoirs aro comprised ofahieraecby of channel deposits
that form sandbodios of varions dim005iono. Allen (1983) describes Gavial-
sandstone sheets in Iho Brownst0000 as hoieg composed of interlocking lenlicalar
compl050s. The dimensions of the Travio Peak channel bolts (average = 7.7 m
6.4 km) fall within the middle of the rangos described by Campbell (1976) and Maros
and nthees (1988). In the Travis Peak, secondary-channel contacts (Figs. SB, 16. and
Datum 17) arr recogoizoblo and coreetotablo on well logs and in core, and they imply the
partial reneespation of an earlier ekannol belt. These contacts are Ike nasise as the
third-oeder contacts described by Altee (1983). Chansetbelt eroecupation and bonis
EXPLANATION sahsidroce rosatI in their multilateral arrangement. McGowen and Gorree (1975),
Rust (1978a), and Beistow (1987) propose that the pvecenlage of fine-grained
Floodplain sediment present influences channel wigeation and therefore its steatigrapky. This
relationship is manifested somewbutby the greater vertical separation of ckannelbelts
Oaerbonir Sandstone A and B in Zane 1 than brtween the channel belts in Zoned; however, the lobent
migration of the channel systems thaI formed ckasnelbelts A, B, and C does not seem
Citannelbolt Sandstone to have boon inhibited by the presencv of floodplain modolnres. In oddition, Marzo
Pr ri o reilo n s
and others (1988) have demonstrated dial in a prosimol-to-dislal baRemo throvgk a
fluvial-Shoot sondsbane, saodstone asilo become moro individualized and
Cored Interval disconnected. A Similar decrease is vertical 000dstone cantinaity that was induced
by transgression of the Toavis PoAS Uavial deposits is evident in comparing Zonen I
Secondary Clrornel Soeur and 2.
Differences in fluvial drpssitional stylos probably have had little influroco on
SE-2645 variations io basiowido Travio Peak producAno t000ds. Upper Travis Peak sandstones
(Zane t) hone generally been considered to be more prolific thor those that are
slratigeaphicalty lower (Fracassa and others, 1988). This has barn attriboted ta u
slight decrease in porosity and permeability in the deeper sandstones doe to greater
quarts cementation (Dutson and Land, 1988). Although Ike drgree of quarte
055 vi cementation increases with stratigraphie depth (Dulton and Diggs, 1988), cement
abundaeco in Ihr Travis Peak does not correlate with grain size, sorting, bed
thickness, or vodimentary slraclare (Dattos and Diggs, pers. commvo.).
At the reservoir scalo. highest porosity within the channel belts in generally within
Ito 1.5mal the channelbelt baso (Pigs. 7-9), and although so statistical correlation
esisls, Ihn f realevl thickeens of porous sasdstonv approximately follows the not-
Sandstone trends. Porosity relationships are complicated by the occurrence and
uneven dixtribuliOn of natural fractores that croate loculiaed regions uf high porosity
and peemeahility. Zone I sandstones are not as evlensivoly fractured as those in Zone

Tye Flavial-sandslone reservoirs 186

 4 (Laubuch, 198g): however, despite containing un open-fracture network, resersote
quality of Zone 4 sandstones is poorer than in Zone 1, because lar Zone 4 sandstones
arr more tightly consented (DatIon und Diggn, 1988). Additionutly, assumtog a
Jurassic hydrocarbon scorse (Dutton and others, 1987), the high-sandstone content of
the floodplain mudstonea in Zone 4 may huso formed slightly prrmrable seals that
hase allowed gas to migrate opneetioa an become trapped in upper Travis Peak
sandstones.
Although indisiduat producing sandstones may cover 25.000 acres. (>10,000
hectares) maximum-drainage ateas in Nords Apyleby field are >80 ucrrn (Holdslch
and others, 1988>. Artificially crrated fracture half.lrngihs range from 30 to 60m;
(Holdilch and ethers, 1908), well below 1ko lateral dimensions of the sandstones. A
well would buse lohr located mithin 30m of a channelbell margin for the artificial
fracturo to propagate horizontally out of Ilse reservoir and into un adjacent mudstone
or channel bell. However, ussumiog the formation of circolar east-west-oriented
fractures, vertical fracture growth will connect us many as Ste to etghl vorlieully
slacked sandstones. Vertical communication could bra boon lo prodaclton or ktll a
well, depending on tbe amount of waler present.
Gun production from Travis Peak reservoirs in North Applrby field can be
optimized by increasing the wellbore cenlacl wilh hrgh.poreutty und htgh-
permeability vandulene. This can be accomplished by I) drtlltng wells al a clame
spacing; 2) placiug wells so that they exploit the Zonen of htgh pnreutly that
correspond la Ihr central partions of the channel bette or regions that are known lobe
naturally fractured; and 3) drilling borieontully oriented wells. Esploilauos of Ihr
best-qualily renervoie sandutuon is important sn conventional reservotr appltcutsonn,
but it in of paramount importance when producing from lom-penneabtltty reservoirs.
The Early Cretaceous Truvin peak Formation of the East Teem Batta comprinen a
peogrodational wedge of sandstone. nillstoan. and mudslone that unconformably
oserlien the Cotton Valley Group. Deposition occurred durtng a portad of relusve
nra-level rise, and low-permeability (>0.01 md) eeservotrn have formed sn fluvtal and
Al Norib Apploby field, aggrudulton of bratded-slrram
paralic sediments.
channelbrlt deposite resulied in a stacked sequence of ihia bal laterally conttsaoas
sandsionen. Reservoirs farmed where poeonity in sandstone was not entirely occluded
by cementation nr where nutsral fractures locally increase permeabtltty.
In vertical aretina, channel belts are blocky to upward-fining medtum. to
fiue.gruined sandstones. Typically, basal planar-tabular crass-bedding is avrrlain by
interbeddrd seta of ripple crons.beds and horizonlal luntinultons. Sandstones and
muddy sundvtoaen in Ihr upper perlions of channel hells arr ripple lamtnaled, soft-
sedimeol deformed (slumps, muter-escape structures), borrowed, and ranted.
Sandstone porosity und dnrp.resiulisity (R,) valuen qualitatively follow net-
nandslone occurrence in the ekanoel bella. Masimum ncl-sandniono, porostiy, and
resistivity valuen arcar in the central regions of the channel bells and entend along
depruittional dip. Porosity valuen decline al narrow points or nedea te the charnel
brite. Gas prrdacliea can be increased by allowing decreased well spactngs tu North
Appleby field undby locating wells aras te optimize eomplruoas in the thtckent high-
poronily nandstoae, which generally occurs in Ike central peettani nf Ihr tabular
channelbell sandutaunn.
......__....___ s...._ sm..s...-.a-m
Tyc
This study mas fauded by the Gun Research leslilitle under contract no. 5082-211-
0700. The cooperation of Amoco Production Company (USA), ARCO Gil and Gun
Company, Cities Service Company, and Prairie Producing Company is gratefully
acknowledged. Shirley P. Dation and Noel Tyler of the Bureau of Economie Geology,
The Unisorsiiy of Tesas as Austin, enshusianlicully provided sapped shut mude
Ibis study u reality. Ereilt R. Huai. Donald L. Luffel, and William E. Howard of
ResTech, Inc., patiently attempted se educate me on log-anatytin problemi in low-
permeability sandstonen.
Figures were drafted ondee she supersssien of Richard L. Diltun (Bureau
of Economic Geology) and Gary L. Garrett (ARCO). Douglas W. Jordan,
Reger M. Stall, Ellen N. Tye, and Noel Tyler are thanked far iheir commeatn and
etiticismn en earlier manuncripis.
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Snuib Trous: The University of Tesan al Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology
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Tye Flavial-sandslonc reservoirs 188


REGIONAL TO SUBREGIONAL FACIES ARCHITECTURE
NORTH WEST
OF RIVER-DOMINATED DELTAS IN THE ALBERTA
SUBSURFACE, UPPER CRETACROUS DUN VEGAN
'g
FORMATION
(in
JANOK P. BHATTACHARYA
Depar5rnnt cf Geology
MrMaster Uni Versiy
¡Thodlfen, Dosano, LOS 4M), Canadta1
Aanoe.uee: The Daooegae F000aüoo (mid-Cenomsoiso) comprises i thick chahs soedfe
deposihed io the Weit Alberi, fooeliod buio. This rosIge coosista of s complex eerie, of
iotrrbeddcdehsles,eilatonos,andssodahooeesodhanlsceosabdisidedioto se000 ullomombros
(A-G), rich supseeted by roideiporad flooding isolassi.
Allotocmbre E coosisha of f00, offhappiog. shiogled, hatesohithic srdimrnhsey soils Ihat
p,o0en,,rvely bj1i to lbs southeait. liolirh maps of the ssoditonus rnilhio hoi,
akiogles scorsi delteic morphologies vooaiotiog of rsell.deoelopcds aody depositiooal lobe, fed
by asudy disoibutneey chsooels sepesahed by msd,looe-doorioursit iote,chaonel aod joterlobs
sees,. The plao.oiem moapholofies and facies successions in she lobas sei hypicel of
psofrediof,hsee-drrnioated della frooti.
Soprepocirion of saodhodiro withrn rich shingle reoeula the astocyclic faohioo rn whIch the
sedirneorsey filled. The seil pasero and eVite of rorrlappiog deposirioosl delta
lobi, arr airnilae to those of the Mississippi delta dario5 the laatS ko,
There hase been few attempts at chaeacteriaing the facies aechitectuee of deltaic
depositiooal systems (Miau, 1988). Present geneeal schemes for definir5
aechitrctaeal elements aye primarily baoed on sandy fluvial depositional systems in
which reosionat suefacen arr importart criteeia io definisg the various architectural
elements. This otady was undertaken in order to iovroligate the nasser of deltaic
shorelisro io the Uppre Crelacroas Dansegan Formation in northwestern Afbeeta.
This study documents the thrre-dimrnsiooal facies relationships within these deltaic
depositional systems at a regional te subreginoal male. Both macmo-flooding
sarfacet nod eeosiooal surfaces tarer cesciat in separating Ihr architectaral nod
allooteatigeaphic units outlined below,
Allcstrahigraphy and Precisar Work
The Danvefan Foemalion rrprrsests a major clastic wedge deposited Onto Ihr
actively oafsuidisg West Albeeta foreland basis (Stoll, 1982; Stoll, 1984).
Paleontologic data indicate a mid-Creowasian age )Singh, 1983. P. 13), and
comparison with pablished Certaceous time scales (Ffaq and othees, 1987) suggests
depositien asee -1.5 Ma (Bhattacharya, 1988; Fig. 1). The Danvegas Fermatios
coures a solaI area of '-300,000 km5 and reaches 300 min thiclaseso io ecicreps (Stoll,
1982). II comprises a comples seeirs of inteebedded congIamoeatrs, sardstores,
Presrol address; Albreta Grolegical Sarvey, Alberta Research Council, PD. Box
8330, Station. F, Edmonton, Alberta, T6H 5X2, Casada.
Bhattachuryu
sihtstooes, and mndstonen oserlais by the ihales of the Eashapau Formation and
SOUTHEAST undoelain by the ohalen of the Shaftosbaey Formation (Fig. 1). The conglomerate
phases do sot extend info the ama of this stady (Stall, 1982; Fig. 2).
Previous inlerprelations of Ihr Dunvegan Formation indicated a broadly
deltaic sottiog (McLeaoo, 1919; StrIch andWalt, 1953; Stelck andothers, 1958; Stoll,
1982), although the only maps previously available were based on -100 m of
andifferentialed Duovegaa sedimeatu )Burk, 1963; Pig. 2).
Bhattacharya (1988) subdivided the Dasvegan Formation into noven allomembers
-o
(A-G, Fig. I). Each allomember (North American Commission an Sleatigraphic
C Nomenclataer, 1983) comprises a heterelithic package of intreheddod maduuones,
DATUM
Kl niltstones, und sandstones crpaeated by regionally widespread surfaces. The
Lots, Sim or et te tpstsn. altomembers wren drOned ou the basis of these bounding dioconlinaitiet (North
5O
American Commission on Stratigeaphic Nomenclature, 1983), which are inteepreted
as aaefacrs of major manor flooding produced daring major trasogreasior events
(Bhattacharya, 1988; Fig. I). Those sarfacen are roag huy rquivalenl io scale ta the
I, sixth-order sarfaceu of Miau (1988). The allumembers were further sabdtvided into
C ofttapping heterolithic progeadatianal anita teemed shingles. Each allomemher may
z S
contain ap to Soar shinglrs (these arr nambored is allomembers E and G is Fig. t).
Each allomember in interpreted ta represent a regressive sedimentas1, package,
l'i probably representing -200 ka of deposition, that was teesnioatrd by a widespread
G's
B. teaosgressios (Bhaltacharya, 1988).
z
Methods and Data
This paper documents the sotare of deltaic dopasiti050l syslems withis
- allomembor E of the Danvegan Formadas. The crilreia used to identify and
as
characterize these deltas include tbn recognition of soique sandbody geometries as
outlined by Coleman and Weight (1975), as well au the recogoition of distisct facies
successions and assombtagen, which ran he compared with esintiog facies models
nach as those presented in reniews by MialI (1904) aud Elliott (1986). This study
-'I ,_ - -"- deABOUT 055HtO-"W
builds on the approach used by workers in the Teseo Gulf Coast (Fisher and
C
FSU' - - - "
,...' ' ALLOMEMBER..00UNDBO DISCONTINOITIES
Malar Maros Floods5 Surfaca)
McGowen, 1967; Weise, 1979; Duncan, 1983), who dofined depolitionul nystems as
tberr.dimensionaI lithofacien assemblages that ase genetically liuked by similar
processes and esvironmenls of dopovilion. This study combines information from
sua' EROSION suRFaces
-< " -500 well legs and -00 coren in allomember hover an area 0f-30,000 km2, renalting
LAPOUT in an average moli spacing of -1.5 mells pee township (50 km2; Fig. J). The average
FISH ersolatios of aechitertural elements or componeots in limitod in Ibis otudy to features
of -50 km2, althoagh in producing areas, such as Simonette and Bigstone, the closer
SCALES
well spacing and concentration of rare informados allow finer eruolasiun. The
abundant cure information also allows dntailod correlation, which shown the lateral
Fsu. 1.Sehrmatic regional dip-oriented ernst srutian uhawing fucins relationships.
ailosts'atigraphy nf the Danvegan Farmatinn. The Dsnvrgan in sabdivided
ints scorn allomrmbrrs separated by transgressive surfaces (major marine-
finading surfaces). Nntr that shingles mithin overlying aliomembers duwnlap
onto uaderlyingfloodisgsarfacesandarz rspeeiallymrlldrvrlsped inaltomember ThirAneos. Extens, und Strasigruplty
E. Root symbols indicate ronmariae facies, light stipple indicates macinc
sandstone, and heavy stipple indicates channel fills prominent in the Simanette Ao isopach map of altomrmhor E (Fig. 3) shows that il is -30 m thick in the
area. Thr Doe Creek Marker, Kl. FSU, and Fish Braies asses eepreaent oorihwost portion of the map ama. It thickens as-65m east of the middle nf Ihe map
important marker hseiaons within the sveelying and underlying shale pucknges aeoaaod thins again lo the southeass te-20m. This defines an overall undulating pod-
(Kaskapaa and Shafteshney Formations). The cross section it hang on the Kl shaped geometry. Depositional dip, an determined from paIeovhunnet orientation und
marker. See tent for farther diseunnian. gross isopach trends (Bhuttachaeya, 19f 9a). is noatheast (-l34).
Steatigraphic relationnhips mithin allomembee E are comples, as shown is
Figore I. Allomemberh containn foorshingles, labeled 1104 from youngesttooldrot,
Cortsoed os page dub
Facies architecture of ejver-dommxuted deltas 109
 --
RIO R9 RB R7 R6 R5 94 R3 R2 RI R27 926 ROS R24

U
R23 R22 R21 ROO 919

ItT6
RIB RIT RIB RIS

T6

-- --ii
16 4

TE

. wJTI
TE

9
O
Fis. 2.Base map showing well logs, core control, townships (T), and rangen
(R). Each township measores5O km'. Approximate limit of sand deposition in
the so-called "Donvegan Della" (Berk, 1963) s shown in inset map. Oil fields ere
indicated with letters, B = Big,tone; S = Simonette; A = Ante Creek; W
Waskahigan; L = Letor; J = Jayar.
=

ARTA N___iI
---.-__
II:
59

57

56

I.... .
55
<\O a '' '':'
154
I 25w1 I
153

152
ONLY i
: L

UUU,:'"::'-i" 15I

Bhattacharya Facies architecture of river-dominated deltas 190

 which progressively offlap from northwest to southeast (Fig. t). The lower three
Rl0W6 F15W6
2oI I I,
620W5
RISW5 shingles towniap onto the top of altomember F. Their upper surfaces terminase
opdip agiront the overlying major maeine.ftoeding surface, which terminateu
allomember E, peodocing soplap. Novmariee facies in the upper past of atlomember
E, indicated by the root symbols in Figare I, thickeu toward the nerthwest and voggest
that this toptap probably represeots a surface of subaerial exposure and erosios. This
sarface eeprevee a significant hiatus ta the fas sorthwest, where il in marked by the
presence of coals und thin paleosots (Bhattaebaeya, t989a(. The contact between
altomember E and the overlying marine shales of atlomcmber Din usually marked by
TE a thin, shueply based, bietarbated sandy modotone. It may rasch 1.5 min thickneno
is places sod may indicate some additiosat erosion predaced during the marine
t000sgr050ieo, which tersoioates deposities of atlomember E.
A major fluvialty cul erosion sarface in allemember Ein indicated by the pretence
of a channel (middle of Fig. I, coarse stipple, Simonette aras). This surface teuneaten
portions of shingle E2 mrd dips so the southeast, wheee il becomes a correlative
conformity with the top of shingle E2. Sandstones of shingle El, io the ooutheavt,
onlap thin surface to the northwest (i.e., luodward), au shown in Figure 1. The other
shingles in ultomember E also are separated from each other by either flavially cut
erosional surfaces Ortest estensivo miner marine-flooding surfaces. These shingles
represeot the moot basic atlostratigraphic (er orchitectural) subdivisions made in this
stady and previde thr basin foe the maps of the vurious deponitionat syntemo within
altomemberk, which oredescribedhetow. Shingleboandasier arereaghty eqnivoleet
in scale to fifth- and ninth-order bounding surfucen of Miatl (1988).
T60
Sandbody Geometrico

Gross iselith maps of sandstones within each of the shingles in allomember E

reveal a series of overtopping, tobare ro digitale vusdbodien averaging 5 te 10m in
thicknesvbuterachingamosimumof-2g min placen (Pigs. 4-7). These tobes narrow
toward the northwest (tandward) and culminate io prominent uhoentning tundo up te
45 20m in thick nets is thingles El amt E3 (Figs. 4 and 6). The maps of each ohinglr
indicate the presence of several overlappieg sub-lobes (Pigs. 4-7). These sub-lobes
range from 750 km° up te -2,800 km5 in asen (aseas based on the 4-m centone).
Outlines of the nnndotones iv each shingle ase superimposed in Figure 8. which shows
the general relationship between mnjor lobeo in successive shingles.
50 Two major sandbedies lin mithin shingle Et (Fig. 4). Thene include u large
multilobate sandbody in the noatheastem half of the map area, which in apte 20 m
55
thich and covers un area of -4,000 km5, and u major shoestring sandstone (the
55 Simonette channel). The seaward margin of the southeastern sandbody is highly
95W6 81W6
irregular avd compeisea several vmeolh to digitale sah-loben. The shoestring sand-
body (Simonette chunnot, Pig. 4) barbees traced to the northwest for -70 km. lt has
50km 45 un average width of -4km nod raschen 17 m in thickness, Il splits and thins te the
southeast, where it merges with the southeastern lobes.
25miles 40 Shingle E2 (Fig. 5) eovtainn sever at major sub-lobes overaging -2,000 km5,

i
I
although welt-developed shocateing-ohaped nandslenen were net noted. In shingleE3
ISOPACH ALLOMEMBER E 35
(Fig. 6) two major shoestring sands are uppaeent, associated with a rather irregular
serien of overlapping lohnt te the earl. Shingle £4 lien largely is the northwest nett
CONTOUR INTERVAL 5m comprises two nemewhat inrgatar lehen (Pig. 7).
The sandbody geometries indicated is Figuren 4 through 7 strongly nuggets dettaic
I I I
RÌ5W5
deposilional systems. Three major anal cemponeets cas be recognized on the maps:
R25W5
I) toben, 2) channels, and)) interlebe and interchannet aseas. The major charnels
Eso. 3.Lsopaeh of allomomber E shows that it in pod shaped and rarsges from (shoestring snodo) split iste a distributary channel network, which is lam feeds Ihn
20 to 65m in thieknrss. Doto indicate dota points. Sor test for discussion. depesitioeal toben and sub-lobes to the seulheast. Thin in especially prominent in

Bhalluchuryu Facies architecture of river-dominated deltas 191

 R20W5 shingle Et (Pig.4). Laterally developed lobes along the edges of Ihn southern chansel
R15W5
in shingle E3 (Fig. 6> see inteepreted as possible crevasse-splay sands. Typical facies
successions through the diffeernt components of these depositional systems are
drsceibed below.

Vertical Facies Saccessions

In this section, typical facies soccesnioss through allomember E are described and
inleepeeled. Disconnion of sirene facies successions helps to characterize the
SIMONETTE nodcmentaey processes that operate in the various cnwponesls of Ike depnsiliooal
CHANNEL systems oudined above. They also provide u basin foe interpreting the lateral facies
relationships, which are explored is talee sections.
Sevro commonly occurring vertical facies successions have bees identified in the
sediments of she Danvegan Foemotion (Bhottaclsurya, 1989a>. Facies successions 2,
4, and 7 characterize attomembee E. Favi es succession t represents the sandy deposits
of a wave-dominated shoreface butin not common in allowemberE (Bhatlachaeya,
1989a>.

Facies aoccesoion 2 (river-dominated delta lobe)..Facies naccessios 2 is typical

of the sandy lob en shown in Figures 4 through 7. lt coursens upward irregularly sod
in commonly 10 lo 20 m thick, although il may reach 30 m in places. A typical
enample is skews in Figare Sa (shingle E2, well 15.3 l-62-26W5). Cues photon from
160 this well am shown is Figuro 9h. The favi es uuvcossion in this well in-11m thick und
begins with ssealified nitty marine mudslooes. These coronen upward into climbing
ripple cross-laminated lo cross-bedded sandslonen thai contais io-nilu esos seaccn ut
Ihr lOo. The learsition between mudniones sod sasdntones in marked by spectacular
soft-sediment deformation fealures, mostly load casts and ball und pillow structures.
The sandutunun contain noweesas shaly partings and may also show indications of
soft-sediment deformation. incladisg oversteepened cross-strouificution. The reeled
sandstones at Ihn lnp ore overlain by u Ibis carbonaceous mudstone, which is sharply
encelaje by pervasively biotarbated sandy mudslnse.
tn general, facies succession 2 dors noI show muse-formed sedimeslary sleoclares
and i usol unu ally buerawed.

¡nserprrtasion.Facien succession 2 is inlerpreted as being chueacseristic of

pregrading, eiver-dominolnd dettaic enciresmenis similar to thon e revsewedbyEllio5t
155 (1986>. The lach of barruwing in the slratifind silly nsudntunes al the baro suggests
Ihal the y were deposited loo rapidly for orgasisms to rewoek the subutrale. The
R5W6 RIW6 loadisg fealuren resulsed teem densily conIrauls un higher density sandstones were
episodically deposiled onto a water-laden muddy nubslcate. The i500daclion of
50km sondslones suggnsls prnvimity to u pregruding dello fronl (peoniwal prodelta>. The
uppee sandy pochen of the lacier succession suggesls eclulively cnniinooun deposition

liii! !o.iII
25miles oftendis thedella front. High-sedimensasionraten alar am naggentedhy Iheyresesce

i
I

of climbing-ripple ceoss-taminated sandsloneu. The nuerall increase is groin sire

upward, Ihe lack of wave-formed steuclures, thninterpeetedhigh-nedimentatios raIes.
GROSS-SANDSTONE ISOLITH und the Inhale geometey of Ihn associalod sandbody saggesl psngeodalion of u river-
SHINGLE Ei dominated della-frenI sandstone noch usina distribulory-moath bar, similar 10 that
desceibedinthe Mississippi (Fisk, 1961>. The musimam proneevedlhickoeunoffaries
CONTOUR INTERVAL 2m I succession 2, especially where capped by roots and coals, probably represents the
P25865 20W5 15W5 average waler depth insu which uhese delta-front sunds prograded and isdicales
Feo. 4.Gross-sandstone south map, shingle EI. Dots indicate data Po nts. several overlapping sub-lobes exhihiling irregular seaward (southeastward> wasisssum waler deplhs of apto 30m. The obuedonco of shuly inlerheds throughout
Two major shoestring sands are tren, although the more northerly (Simonette geometries, as drOned by the 4-m conloor. See Figure 16 for paleogengraphic the facies succession suggesln episodic sedimentation, perhaps related so fluctuating
channel) is better developed. These bifurcate to Ihr southeast, where they frrd summary block diagram of this map. discharge in Ihr associaled updip disleibulary feeder channel se perhaps due to

Facies architecture of river-dominated dellan 192

 changes in the sise of deposition. Bioturbated muddy sandstones, which cap the
succession, muek the transgression at the top of allomewber E.
4 R20W5
RIOW6 815W5 Facies succession 3 represents the deposits of prograding wave- and storm-
influenced dnttaic shorelines (Bhattschaeya, t989a). In addition so an irregular
apward-coarsening facies seccession, sandsteuet are commonly hammocky cress-
steatitTted and may shnw a higher degree of burrowing than facies succession 2. They
arr found in shingle E4.

Facies succeosion 4, fluvial-dominated channel filieFacies succession 4 is

typical of she fucies within the shoestring-shaped sandhodins. Is fines upward and
averages -15 min thickness. A typical example from Ihr Simonette channel (shingle
EI, well 14-6-63-26W0) is shown in Figuee Ifa. Photon of shit core are shewn in
Figure 1fb. The sandslone lies erosively on stratified silty madstones costuming
sandy gutter casts (Fig. 1fb). (These arr interpreted an being offshore sandy storm
deposits; Whitakee, 1973). The evasion surface is overlain by u thin istraforsoational
lag containing scutleeed siderite clasts and shelly debris. The facies succession that
follows is -13 m thick aod finen upward. It begins with fine-grained. cress-bedded
sandstones (highlighted in Fig. 10h) that alternate with and evnolualty pars upward
into very flue-grained, current-rippled sandstones. A few Asterosonta burrows are
observed in Ihr uppermost parts of the sandstone (Pig, lOb).
The sandstone is sharply overlain by stratified silty madstnnen that compete the
lower ponton of altomember D.

T60 Jnterprrtarion.The basal lag is derived feom erosion of the underlying marine
sediments. The upward fiuing indicates a progressive decrease in ennegy, whereas Ihn
sedimentary stenctares indicate a predominance of unidieectiooal fawn. The absence
of wave-feetoed feuluren suggests a lack uf marino influence, although the presence
of eure Asrerosoeta burrows may herald the beginning nf marine influence toward the
4Q top of the facies succession. Facies saccnssion 4 in simdar to fluvial sandy channel
filIn described by Walker aud Carts (1984), although 500wariue mudntones weer nut
observed here, This example uf facies succession 4 is interpreted an a flaviatty
dominated distributary channel that fed the seutheastem tobes in shingle El.
The contact between the top of the sandbody and the oveelying marine shales
represents the truosgeessive surface that separates allowember D from ullomemberE.
Facies successions 5 and 6 represent upward-fining facies successions
characteristic of tidally influenced ettuarine systems and tidal-inlet facies in
the Duovegan Farmation (Bhattachurya, 1989b). These are earn tu absent in
T 55 atlemembee E.

I I I I I I Facies ouccessioo 7, interlobe.Facies succession 7 in more irregatar than facies

R5W6 RIW6 successions 2 and 4 and does not commonly fine ne enarsen upward. lt may average
-15 min thickness. A typical evample is shown in Figuren lIa and t tb (shingle ES,
well 6-ll-62-3W6, 2,546 te 2,539 m). The facies are eharaclerired by stratified,
50Km mildly harrowed silly mudvlones ïnlerbedded with wave-tippled to ripple ceess-
latrsinuted and cross-bedded nandntones. The mudutones contain abundant sideeile

i 25miIes
I I

GROSS-SANDSTONE ISOLITH o.
SHINGLE E2 Flu. 5.Groxn'nandstnne isolith map, shingle E2. Dots indicate dala peinlu,
CONTOUR INTERVAL 2m The 4.m enntnur shuwn three majes tubate nandbudirs, although they do nut seem
I I I
R20W5 R15W5 In hr assncialrd with prominent shoestring sands, The tebe io Ihr middle
R25W5 narroms opdip (northwest), where it is rended by the himonette nhassaet (shingle
EI, Figs. 14a and 14h),

Bhallacharya Facies architecture of river-dominated deltas 193

 R20W5 and various types of pelecypods sod brachiopeds, includiog Corbata, Ltogala,
RI5W5
Braclsydonres, and oyssees, which have bees interpreted as being typical nf brackish.
waler environments similar lo faunas described elsewhere in she Ceelaceoun Western
Interine Seaway (Kaaffman, 1969). Altheugh net shams io thin example, facies
naccession 7 may cestino reeled, coaly, soemarise heeieoos elsewheee (e.g., well
14-36.64.2, Fig. 15h). Reals, coals, and oyster beds ace mare common is the apper
parts of this facies saccessiau, whereas stratified nitty msdsloses containing
Ineceramus (a marine clam) are restricted mostly to the base. Crous.beds io Ilse
thicker sandstone (middle of Fig. Il al-8m) contain this muddy partings.
!slerprelatian.Fucien naccession 7 is interpretad as representing deposition in
165 resleicled-marine, inteediuseibutary-bay, and delta-plais environments similar In
those described by Elliott (1974). The transition from !nocerannso-bearing mod-
ulases below iota more nosmarise facies above indicalon as apmard-shallowiog of
depositi000l escirosmesln. This may result from the progressive isfilling of those
bayn by shallow-marine mudstoseu. Cross-bedded or cancel-rippled sandstones may
indicate cronos so splays associated with the laterally adjacent chasneln. The presence
of mud drapes muy inthcale that these sandstones more loser affected by tidal currents.
The brackish fauna and prenonce of roots and coals indicate shallow vegetated-swamp
and marsh enviran mesta.

Lateral Farter Variatioo

T60
In Ihn following section, cross nashorn Ihenugh porliosl of the depaniliosal
syntems represented is allomemhor E arr describod asd isterpeeted. Them cross
sections emphasioe the lateral facies relationships aod point out the degree of facies
heterogenesly that esisto. The localion of these cross sections with respect lo
Dansegan depesilional nyslems is shown in Figure 8.
Cross section A-A' (Figs. 12a and 12h) illasleales the majan straligraphic and
lateral facies relationships down depositional dip through ollomember E. lt passen
through lobes in shingle E2 and El and trannecls Ihn Simoselle channel. The well.
log cross section (Fig. 120) shows she offlapping stealigraphic relationships that mere
achematieally depicted its Figure 1. The shingles peograde to the soulbeant as they
downlap orlo the top of allomember lt. Allhoagh upward-coarsening cycles oxear al
the top of allowembee Eis every well, correlations show that they do not all belong
lo Ihr same nhisglr. lsdividual sasdstosen io the lobes can be corerlaled for a
T55 masimom distance of between -20 and 45 lan spdip.
Figure l2b represents Iba corresponding core cmss section. Well-developed
I I I I I upward-coarsening facies successions occur in maul of the wells andare typical of
R5W6 RIW6 faciexuaccension 2. Thr correlation of then e successions between the Simonetle area
(e.g.. well 7-5-63-26) and Ihr Bigslnne area (e.g., well 7.30-60.21). however,
emphanires 1h01 the sandslones that cap these coarsening cycles are sot laterally
Continuous "sheet" sandstones. Rather, they repreneos Complex lens-shaped
50km I nandbodies brlorgiog 101mo diffreesl shingles (E2 and El, rnspecsivnly), which arr

i I 25miles
GROSS-SANDSTONE ISOLITh
SHINGLE Ep
I

o,
CONTOUR INTERVAL 2m
Fm. 6.Gross-sandstone isolith map, shingle E3. Dots indicate dass OintS.
The map indicates a major northwest-oriented shoestring sandstone n the
southwest and a second (but wider) shoestring farther north. Lohate sands to the
separated by a significant erosional surface la Ihn northwenl that underlies Ihr
Simonelle channel (El). Thin surface dips to the southeuul, where it evensually
becomes eosfortnablr with the lop of E2 (egal 2m in well 2.25-60.22). Sundstnoes
is shingle El are shown orlupping thin surface bolween melln 10.34-61-26 and
10-22-60-22.
Numerous shaly interheds avene is the wells in the Bigslone orna. lo addition,
R20W5 R15W5
R25W5 sumeroon erosional surfaces are indicaled by mad rip-ap horizoss (e.g., well 14-16-
outheast narrow npdip into these shoestrings. Sob-lobes attached to the sides 60-21. Fig. 12h). The tentative ceerelalion of the shaly beds indicates lateral
of the southern shonstring may represent crevasse-splay deposits. eonlinaity of the xaodstonen of -201045km, as oullised rarlire. Coerelalion of Ihr
miser erosion xuefaces was not atlempled and way imply a finer scale of lateral

Bhollacharya Facies archileclore nf river-dominaled deltas 194

 4
RIOWG FthW6 R2OWS R15W5 heterogeonily io a dip direction than cao be uddressed in this study.
Cross Section B-B' (Figs. 13a and l3b) illustrates the correlations and lateral facies
eelalionshsps along strike across the Bigslone (El) lobe. Shingle El displays a
comptes internal nlraligraphy. The tandy portion consists of a weien of overlapping
sandy leones separated by namerous madsione inteebeds. Sandstones within shingle
El Ibis toward either end of the ceoss Section. These sandstones dip toward and onlap
against the upper surgace of shingle E2, which einen toward she northeast and
southwesleodsofthe cross section. Thissorfacedefineta widrshatlowvaltey. within
Tb
which lie the sediments ofshinglcEl. Thorn inno indication that this valley troncales
lowering markers. Sesease gassrl.shaped gamma logs characsrriorshingleEt inmost
of she wells between 6 24 55 23 and 16.1.61.22 and indicate irregular upward.
coarsening grain-sire trends.
On the accompanying core cross section (Fig. 13h), upward-coarsening facies
successions occur io wells 7.11-60-22W5, 2.25-60.22W5, and 132560 22W5, an
indicated by Ihr arroses. They aro typical of facies ssccrsnioo 2, as described
previossly, allhough reeled horizons and coaly beds were not noted. In genreal,
uundstonen shin toward the northeast, Ike thickest sands occurring io well 7-1 l-60.
22W5. These type 2 faden successions pass laterally into sype 7 facies successions
in well 16.l-6l-22W5 (shingle El), which dors not contain any thick sandstones in
El esceps alike base. Both croen seclions emphasier the latrrul piechosi between Ihr
sandy facies sueeensions Io Ihr soulhwrst and shone te the noetheasl. They also
emphasire Ihr lateral hetreogenrisy of nandnlone beds brtwrro wells. Althosgh some
T o
of Ihr sandy beds within shingle Et can hr leaded along strike for a masimom of
35 km,many arr difficultlocoeeelatrrvrs osee 10km. The facirs succession in each
of the wells contains numerous shale eip.sp units, indicating probable erosional
surfaces. These surfaces were difficult to coerrlate from well lo wrIl and, as
mentioned earlier, ssggrss a bore ncale of loteral heserogeneily than can hr resolved
here. Tho dashod linos (Fig. 13h) indicate tentative correlation of the thickets of the
nhaly beds.
The underlying shingle (E2) iv characterirod by a welt-developed upward-
coarsening facies succension in well 16.l-6l-22W5, also similar to facies

The lack of in-nils eros tracen or coals saggruls tIrai shin porlien of Ihr El delta lobe
was deposited prrdominaollp nubaquroasly. TIse cemplon lateral freien relationships
and presence of osmerous overlapping sand lenses separaled by shale anita suggrsl
that depositi on was episodic. This may have been a result of flodlualisg discharge in
55
she Siwoorsto feeder channel or of swisching of the delta sah-loben. The shaly
interbedn probably represent significant permeability barriers.
R5W6 RIW6 Cross section CC' (Fign. 14a and 14h) illustrates the corrrlatioos ard facies
relationships ocrons the Simonette charnel (shingle El). The cross sections clearly
illustrate the chanreliord calare nf Ihr Simonette channel belwreo wells 14.35-62-27
and 6-9-63-26, where is cats into Ihr irregular upward-coarsening fasics suce rasions
50km prrserved in Ihr adjacent wells. Correlation of Ihr basal erosion surface indicates an

i I 25miles I undulating geometry.

The crer cross seclioo (Fig. 14h) nuggenln that the Simonette channel is sandier
than the associated downdip lobe Osai it fends and may suggest that il is more
GROSS -SNDS1DNE ISOUTH a homogeorous. although tome mudstenr io indicated in well 9-6-63-26 (Fig. 14a).
SHINGLE E4 Multiple erosional remIs are irdiculod by 1ko persener of numreoun inleaferonalional
CON'TOUR INTERL 2m 915W5
lagn, noch as in meli 7-6-63-26, although thrnr could not he traced wish coofideocr
R15W5 R20W5 brsmeen welln. Thoso mndnlenrs und erosional surfaces muy bins ala grratrr degree
FtC. 7.Gross-sandstone south soap, shingle E4. Dots indicate data points. of lateral heterogeneity than could be resolved al thin scale of study. The facies
The outline of the 6-m Contour indicates two sandy lobes that narrow npdip successions across Ihn channel (writs 7-6-63-26W5 aod I t.5-63.26W5, Fig. 14h) are
toward Ihr northwest. typical of facies saccession 4 and contain nenreal cross-bedded, graded, sandy beds

SSSS
Bhutlacharya Facies architecture of river-dominated delios 195
 RIOW6 R 5W6
/ R25W5 R2OWS
containing mud rip-ups. The facies SUCceSSiOI55 in the adjacent wells (wells 6-35-62-
27W5 and 14-35.62.27W5, Fsg. 14b) are more similar lo facies succession 7. Thick
RI5WS sandstones arr completely absent in weil 14-35, although a cunde upwaed.cnarsnning
I I I
is seen in welt 6-35.
Cress sevens DD' (Figs. ISa and 15b) illustrates the correlations and facies
relalsenships in the delta-plain environments nf allomember E In the noethwest. his
oriented along depesitional strike and transects two chasuctized shoestring
sandstones. The El channel (Simonette channel) cats mie shingles £2 and E3 in welt
il-22-64-2 andin about 17 ai thick, althongh it ives rot cored in this well. The
T65 shoestring nandssnnr in shingle E3, indicated in Figure 6, in penetrated in meS 3-6-61.
4 (again, not cored). isis about 18m thick and indicates significant cension into the
distai portins nf a sandy lohn belonging lo shingle E4 (Fig. 15h). The southern edge
nf Ibis channel is cored in well 12-22-60-5 and is typical of facies succession 4. The
underlying erosional surface is correlated with a rooted ceuly horizon in the adjacent
well te the southwest (welt 12-7.59-5, Fig. tsb), although the channel ia no longer
present su this well. The channel in-5 tuns wide. anis aten indicated on the isolith map
(Fig. 6).
In addition to the mujer channels, Isenmueisn facien are aise present ut various
places uleng the cross section (e.g.. welts 12-7-59-5, 12.3 1-62-2, and 14.36-64.2,
Fig. 15h). The facies successions in the wells between these twe majnr chounetized
sandbodins arc irregular and arc similar to facies succession 7. Coirelaliens in the
middle nf the cross section shom that Ihr furies relatienships are comples and indicate
a high degere of lateral discontinuity sud intcrtongaing (Fig. 15h). Several
T60 interpreted deltaic lehrt cul by thin distributary channels are shown at vannas places
as the crnnn sectimt (e.g., melts 14-36.64.2 und 12.7.59.5, Fig. 15h). These lehen
pinch oat laterally.

This section summarizes the deltaic interpretation of allomember Land presents a

senes nf ysleegeegrayhic recenntructiens bused en the lateral facies relationships
described and interpreted above.
DnlIan tn allomnmbrrb see mostly river dominated. Thin is indicated by two major
lises of evidence:

- I 50km
25 miles
T 55
I) The sandbedy geometries (Figs. 4-7) arr similur to other nncieutard modern riser-
dominated dollan (e.g., Coleman and Wright, 1975, their Sg. IS-I). The highly
lobate to dtgttatc shape Of the sundbodies is altomcmbee E indicates that buninal
processes were insufficient Insignificantly redistribute delta-front sands.
2) Interpretation of the delta-freut lithofacies (facies succession 2) indicates z
R5W6 o predominance of flunial processes and high-sedimentation rates. The effects of
marine processes (e.g., storms and waves) is the interpreted delta-front sandstones
are low, und the sedimentary structures do not indicate a high dcgree of
[1 SHINGLE E sedtmentury er biotogical reworking. Some sedimeuln in the inleryrefed
Interdtntrtbnlzry.bay fills, however, away from the aneas of masimnm fluvial
SHINGLE E2 discharge, do show seme stonai and tidal influence, as might be espected.

[Ti SHINGLE E3 Fis. 8.Saprrpnsitinn nf deltaic loben in chingles nf uttnmember E haced an

grnvs.sandstnne isnlith maps (Figu. 4 In 7). Sandy lobes shOw a relatively mw
SHINGLE E4 degree nf nnrrlap, unggenling that ihr posihinn nl snccreding deltas is in part
I t I I I I controlled by the pnsitinn nf dellas ta underlying shingles. This unggrstv that
R20W5 R15W5 transitions between shingles (i.e., deltas) resulted 1mm antncyclic prncrnsns
R25W5 pmnbably retaird in river annlsinn. Lncations nf census sectiens discnused in the
test also arr shnwn.

Bhzttacharya Facies archileclure of river-dominated dcllas 196

 FACIES LEGEND
5 3) 62 26W5
11924-1937m)
FrA. 9a.Facies succession 2 is interpreted as the deposit of a prograding
river-dominated delta Front. This example is from a core throagh well a
15-31-62-26W5 (1,924-1,937 m). Shingles E3 and E2 are represented by npward- ooffxho,e TRAN909ESSION
coarsening facies saccessions typical of facies succession 2. See Figure 9h for core vovmcvno
photos. Ser test for further explanation.
RIVER-DOMINATED
DELTA d.stflbutory'
mouth boF cv

-cvev diceva Gear è COòc/Fc

c,00r-cradcs cuvaudo
prOmoI
p,sdelts O
D
at M 5cv
/prodelts/

it
Fsu. 9hCure photos from well l5-31-62-26W5 (1,924-1,937 m). A minor Ocb/oivv,PRO
marine.flooding surface marks tbe transition between E3 and E2. The sop of
hG MG9iRvc,
allomemher E (E arrow on right side of figuro) is indicated by a major wonne-
flooding surface marked by-lOom of hioturhated sandy mudstonr. Note well.
developed root traces (R) in cross-budded sandstones at the top of the upper
succession. See trot for further explanation.
a

Facies architecture of nver.dominated deltas 197

Bhattacharya
 46 6326W5
ll962-1900w1

Fao. lOaFacies succession 4h interpreted as a typical upward-lining, sandy

channel fill. This example is from shingle £1 in well 14-6-63-26W5 (Simonette
channel). See Figure 9a for facies legend and Figure 10h foe core photon. See test
foe furthee explanation.

Distributary

Channel

Fas. 10hCure photos from well 14.6o13.26W5 (1,962-1,980 m) Bottom of

eure is at towre left (1,980 m); top is apprr right. Gle = gniter east; Axt =
Aocereooessa bnrrow. The sandy channel fill ix sharply uverlain by a flooding
surface marking the hase uf allomembar D. See test fur further esplanation.

ea
EROSI
gasisa lug.2'

Bhattachacya Facies architecture of rivcr-domioated deltas 198

 611 62 3W6
(2546- 2559m)
a 15 Fis, liaFades succession 7, interpreted as interdistributary bay-Ott
deposits. Example is from shingle E3 in mutt 6-ll-62-3W6. WetI-devetoped
TRANSGRESSION
npward.coarsening and npward.ftningfaciessnccessionsarrnotpresent. Typical
brackish fanna inctadr Corbala,Lingu(a,Brnclsydouees, and oysters. The facies
succession is interpreted as representing a broadly upward-shatlowing
depositionat environment, such as might develop during progressive inrilting in
an intertobe area ut a major detta system. See Figure Ra for facies legend.
Flu. libCore psoinc from welt 6-gl-62-3W6 (2,546-2,559 m). Helerulithic
sandy rippled mudstones tie in she tower portion of ibe core and Contain a few
borrows. Muddy partings in the thick cross.brddrd sandstone (hightighled) may
best possible tidal origin. Minor upward-coarsening facies succession is seen in
the npper portion of the core. Facies interpreted as interdistributary-bay rIt.
TRANSGRESSION See test for discussion.
oh nit st t 'n e
Bkaltncharyu Facies nrckileclure of river-dominuled delIos
Figure 16 shows a three-dimensional block diagram eeeunsleucling the intecpeeled
paleogeography aod facies architecture 0f the Duovogan Formalion at Ike 15mo of
deposition of shingle El. This reconsleuCtion is basod on the sandbody goometey
(Fig. 4) und Ilse facieorelationskipsobserved io cores uodcross Section (Figs. 12-15).
The Simonette channel meandered from the oorlk through flat marshy uplands and god
1ko birdfool-ohuped sub-lobes of the Sigstene della to thu noothoasl, whore it
bioforcutes into a dislributuey network. Much of the thinner sund is interpreted us
boing depooiled subaqucously (Fig. 16). The area lu Use noflhwesl was largely
osposed al this time und Ike presence of coalified wood frugmeots, palensols. and
coals indicules the presence of forests.
Tke schematic core cross onction shown io Figuro 16 shows typical vertical facies
succensioun through the different architectural components of this interpreted river-
dominated dettaic depositional syStem. These isclude sandy channels (location A).
sandy lobes (location C), and msddy intortobe areno (location B), which collectively
grudo into finer grained silla and muds of the prodellu region (locution D) to the
500theunl.
Similar paleegeogeuphic rnconnlruclionn are shown for each of the shingles io
Figure 17. The areas of nondeposition und erosion la the northwest lee interpreled as
representing wooded alluvial-plain environments. As the shingles progeaded to the
southeast, this aren of nondopotilion espanded. The delta-front and dislributaey
channel sandstones ulso progressively migrated southeastward an the deltas
pregraded. The inlorlobo asd intercharoel areas compuso 1ko dcposils of
isterdisseibutary-bay und other della-plain environments, which geadebnsinward ines
mudslonc-dominated pmdella deponits lathe southeast (Fig. 17). Sorne aspocls of the
ioloeprotution and geometry of them components (i.e., facies assemblages) aro
discussed below.
Discussion of Corrsposesln (Facies Anoernblages)
Loben..Depositionat lobos io deep-mater river-dominated deltas are
cttaeaetenistically birdfool skapod. whereas those deposited in shallower malar lend
tobe smoother and morn continuons (Fisher mrd Meflowon, 1967; Ellioll, 1966).
The della-front sandstones in atlowember E ace interpreted os a complex series
of overlapping distribalary mouth-bar sands, probably deponited is u similar
envirenmenlun those of the deep-md shout-waler deltas of the Mississippi della plain
(Fisk, 1961; Coleman and Prior, t9R2). The width of individual Dsnveguv mouth-bar
or delta-front sandslones mithin u given shingle range from -3 kw in the easterumost
estensivo vfshingleEl to several leon of kilometers (e.g., shingteE2 und Ike soulhem
portion uf shingle Et). The lower valuen are inlerpeeted to reflect deposition of Ike
eantnmmnot sub-lobe of shingle El into water depths of probably -30m (relatively
deep water), similar to the modem Mississippi biedfootdelta. The considerably larger
values probably reflect deposition iota shallower muter environments.
Although the delta-front sands appear labo fairly estensivo, the numerons nkate
breaks may email in poor-reservoir quulily. Delta-front sandstones produce gus io the
Bigntone area (Fig. 2).
Inlerlobe.lnterlobe meal donut contain thick sandstones andare dominated by
wudviones. These areno are chueacteriaed by the greatest luterai heterogenoity of
fuetes, reflecting the cumples interaction of a variety uf depositional processes,
tuclading fluvial, storms, wavesaod tides (similartothosedexcribedbyElliott, 1974).
The Dauvegan coastal plain wan probably essentially Gal, and 1ko demarcation
Csntivard espace 201
199
 a0 .', %
en"
ss,.
SIMONETTE
't
'.a
a,
85roi'a

coi'
085
(t'
ts
,
0
re
1

$2
'
re'
re

I,"
sl M
t.
cè't'
q,t reO l
ci
BIGSTONE

'V
4,
up
re0
a,'SO
CU'S

,,t.
S
S

4,
na

4,
,

meters 't. t. 's. Ms r

'V'e' 'V
Datum

o
ir
cored
nterval
'About 100km >
I
A' Esa. 12a.WeIt tog crosS unction A-A', oriroted down depooitional dip. The
cross Section iS hung co the top of attomemher E and extends for -loo km. Alt
wetl traces are gamma logs. Verlicat lineo represent intervals shown in
b accompanying core cross section (Fig. 12h). Stipple ioicatessondstone. See
rigore 8 for location of cross section. Sen text for interpretation.

DATUM

meters
I0 FiG. 12h.Core cross section A-A', oriented down depositionat dip. The cross
section is hong on the top of attomembee E and entends for -80 km. The
nnpatterned areas in welts 10.22.65.22, 2.25.60.22, und etsewhere indicete
interpreted tithotagy from wetl.tog patterns where core data were miosing.
5 Correlation between the Simonette and Bigstone areas soggests that the sands
are not continuons sheets. The internat stratigeaphy of the dettaic sandbodies
indicates many skate breaks, The sands are tocalty cnt by channels (e.g., welt
14-6-63.26). Wett 2.25 ties with cross section B-B' (Figs. l3a and 13b), whereas
O
wett 4.8 ties with cross section D-D' (Figs. ISa and 1Db). See Fignre 9e for facies
legend. See text for fnrthre esptanation.
Bigstone

Bhattacharya Facies architecture of river-dominagecj deltas 200

 // , /
B B between the marine and nonmarine envi000ment (she bayline) was probably
extremely imegalae, especially io inlerlobe ocras. This transition oonr was peobobly
E. broad and consisted of sholtow, vegetated salt-water marshes infested with Lingala,
a Bt-achydonses. asid oysteen and interspersed with brackish tacusoincenvironmeots.
lo an esploration coolest. Ibis represents Ihr area of Ihr woesteesenvoir polestial,
raI
although these areas may he the locus for subsequesl channel deposits and for coal.
s so so
© " .° ,' 'p s ,n uo51,'te

.Dutum
i
meters Chsarroel.Thc mosl distinctive fealuro of Ihr Danvrgan della-plain facies in the
60 major, crosively based. chanseliecd sandsloorn. The Simonctto channel wan
ebsereed lo bifurcate dowsdip. indicating that is wan probably the trunk stream thaI
fed the dislribnlary-ctsaosel setwork associaled with the Bigulone delta. tt is possible
lo estimate the original chassel paleomorphology. Masimum probable channel
40 depths can be rslimated from the sandstone thicksesnen, which range np lo 18m io
shoestring sandstones of allomember E. Sandstone midAn are more likely to reflect
rho width of paleorivee valleyn (or meanderbelt width) rather than Ihn actual channel

w:
(or thalweg) widlh, andin the Duovegan are usually -5km or less. The channels hase
20 baro traced for lengths of up to 70 km. Facies successions Ihrough Ihr obassels
indicate a sandy upward-fining association. Mad-filled channels, or csluarmne facies,
are relatively uncommon in the river-domioatcd deltaic systems of the Dunvngan
0 Formation bel were soled io places. In an euploratioo coolest, these chasneln,
especially where they cul iota muddy, older, interlobe areas and where they are
overlain by tranngresnive marino mudstones, represent the most attractive exploration
cored targets. Oil and ganare produced from channnlized sandstooes in the Simooettr area
interval (Fig. 2).
< About 75km > Scale arid Comparison with the Miooiooippi Delta
B e0.22w5 2-25 0O-22W5 32560 22W5 I6.r.6I.22w5 B' Pto. 13a.Well log cross srction B-B oriented along strike through shingle
El (Bigstone tobe) and hnng on the top of atlomember E. The top of shingle E2 Probably the best stuthed of all modem river-dominated deltas is Aal of the
defines a hroad vuttey.shaprd depression into which the sediments of the Mississippi. The river-dominated nature of D005egan drpooitional systems io
b meters allomember E merits comparison with Ibis system.
Bignlone lobe (shingle El) are deposited. The El sandstones onlap the sides of
this "vatley" Note the composite Balare of sandstones io shingte El. See test Cor Io Figure 8. the oullinro of naodbndies io alt of the shingles arc oupesmpooed,
farther esptanation. See Figure 13h for cored intervals. Wett 2.25 ties with A-A showingarelatisely tom degree of overlap. Figmr 18 shows amap of the deponitionat
(Fig. 12). See Figure t for locatioo of cross section. Iobns of the Misnissippi drlta plain deposited mithin the last 6 ka (after Frazier, t9h7)
suprnmposrdovrramap of the study area Thnarealestentofdeltacompteses within
the Mississippi iv similar lo the areal esImI of dettes in Ihr Dunvegun and averages
-1,500 tan5 (compare Fig. 8). mete aro seme similarities belmeon the thicknesses of
some of the older shoal-mater deltas of the Mississippi end those of the Dunvegan.
The thickness of the Teche delta comptes (including prodelta sholes) averages
BIOSTONE LOBE
between 10 and IS m (Penland and others, 1987), which is comparable to the
thicknesses of lohale portions of shingles E2 andE3. The Bigolono delta. so contrast,
lies furthest seaward of any delta complen in the Dunvegan Its sandhody geometry
and lateral sod vertical facies relationships arr the most similar to bar-finger sands of
Fto. 13h.Core cross section B-B', oriented along strike through the Bigstoae the modere Mississippi (Fisk. 1961), reaching 30 m in thickness, and may reflect
lobe (shingle El). Blank areas in wells 7.11-60.22 and 2-25-60-22 represent depositioo io deeper waler (Le, 30 m) than any other delta in the Dunvegan
lilhnlogy interpreted from the well-log trace where core data were unavailable. Fortoation.
Delta-front sandstones are interpreted as thinning toghe norlheast as they onlap The sodimools of allomemherE comprise -50% sandstone The Mississippi detta-
the valley defined by the lop of shingle E2. Arrows indicate upsnard.coarsening front deposita, io cootrast. comprise -75% mud and sillslone and -25% sandstone

I
facies successions, typical of facies succession 2, Note abundance of soft.
sediment deformation features and mud rip-up horizons and the lack of
ABOUT IOkr'r> hummonky cross-stratification or wave-rippled sandstones in all of the wells.
Cross section hung en the top of allomember E. See trot for further esplanatisu
and ser Figure 9a for facies legeud.
(Fish, 1961). The Mississippi River transports ooly -19% fine-and nery fino-grainrd
sandstone (Wright, 1985) Shifting distributary chunnels io the Duovegan probably
deposiled considerably more sandstone and produced more widespread sandbodies,
which appear more similar ta the shari-mater deltas of the Mississippi delta plain
(penland and vIbres, 1987: thlioll, 1986) These differences in nundbody geometry

Bhattachorya Facies architecture of s-iver-dominaled deltas 201

 arc lhcrcfcre probably more indicative of changes in Ike type of sediment supplied
C SIMONETTE CHANNEL ralhcr shun differences io the degree of fluvial influence.
Aclsvn progeadation of the Tocho dclla complex took place over a relatively shoes
period 0f-3,3 ka (Penland usd others, 1907). One nhmglo (or delta complex) in liso
a e< t)uuvcgao Formalioo, is coslrani, may represent deposition over a considerably
r' ç,) la ;5:s
lougre period, ou 4-vorder of tens of thousands of years (Shaitacharya, 1988). This
r0 \5< an(d t, O
ç,
iç
ç
''
43
\b ç,
02 Ftc, 14a,WeII-log cross section C-C' across the Simonette channel (shittgle
El) hsing on thetop ofallomemberE. Thesundychamiet ofshissgle El erodes into
iuroeprrled gerMer lime muy allow worn lateral shifting of subouvironmrnts, also
rrnuliisgso more widespread sandbodies (Fig. 8).
meters shingle E2 begweesi welts 14-35-62-27 and 6-9-63-26. The channels o5 kto wide The bassnal setting also is different. The Mississippi dotta wan deposited on an
Datum
E2 bat up to 13 m deep in well 3.6-63-26. Channel sands (e.g., well 10-6-63-26) actively subsiding passive contincntal margin facing the opon ocean, whereas the
exhibit bell-shaped to blorkyprofilesongamma logs,whereasinterchannelareas Dunergan was deposited iuta u shallow epeiric sea and onto Ihr Alberta foreland
show funnel-shaped to irregular profiles (arrows in well 6-9-63-26). All well basin.
£3 traces ace from gamma-ray logs. Stipple represents sandstone. See Figuee 14h
for cored intervals. See test for further explanation. Ser FigureS for location Controlo on Deposisiiau
uf cross section. Well 10-6-63-26 ties with A-A' (Fig, 12a),
The history of the deposition of deltas in ullomembee E records the progressive
o infslling of the Dauvegan sea (Fig. 17) immediately following u relative riso in sou
level that lonnsnated dcponaiou in tho underlying allomember P. The infilling of this
F newly created accommodation resulted in peogradation of shingles E4-El. The
cored dovrtopmeut of seporalo sah-lahm within each shingle alang strike probably related
'EAbout 55km > I ist erva to die process of river avnlsioo and delta smitchiug, suggesting an aatacyclic cooteol
(Bhaitacharya. 1988). The overlapping nature of the shingles and the changes in
pontoon of major river systrmn also nsggost antocyclic controls. The "valley" in
which the Bigntose delta (shingle El) is inteeprriedio have fonned. largely ana rrsalt
nf Ihr compaction of anderlying mnddy facies in shingle E2, in not interpreted to
C 6356227W5 435 6227W5 7 6 6326W5 115 6326W5 I8-6326W5 result from a major relative drop in sea level. Allomrwbre_boanding, Iransgeensivr,
C1
major marine-flooding nurfacen, in contrant, aro interpreted to rosnll from
atlocyclically controlled relative risen in sea level, probably canned by a rate increase
b

L
O is tectonically indoced basin nobsidener (Bhallachnrya, 1989a). This contrasts with
the ruslalicatly driven changes in Ihr Missisnippi delta plain intcrprrlrd by Penland

r
and others (1987).
roe

/ Thin siudy han divided the Dasvegnn Formation into a necios of ssccessively
Ftc. l4b.Cnre cross section C-C' across the Simonette channel (shingle El).
Blank regions in svelto ll-5.63-26W0 und l.g-63-26W5 represent lithology
.EABoul 5kw > interpreted from the well-tog trace where core data were unavailable. Cores
through the channel in wells 7-6.63.26W5 und ll-5-63-26W5 show typical type
4 facies successions, Irregular facies succession in well 14-35.62-27W5 is typical
of interdistribulary and inlerinbe arras (facies succession 7). Upward-
coarsening and upward-fining facies successions are indicated with arrows. The
cross section is hung on the top ofallomember E. See test for further explanation
and see Figure 9a for facies legend.
Bhattacharya Facies archilcctnre of river-dominated deltas
smaller intervals. Allomembers and shingles erpreseni genetically related
heireotithic sedimentary packagen bouodrd by physical narfaces reyrewniing timen
of nondeponition 0e erosion. Farther suMisision of the shingles is based on the
recognition of broadly cootigsous liihofacien assemblages, which are interpreted in
ienns ofnpecificcoinponrols inariver.dominateddelsaicdrponitional system. These
components are noi interpreted as being distinctly separate, and for the most pant
probably have gradational boundaries, as suggested in Figaw 16. The cancepl of
boandreg surfaces as osilined by Miau (1988) may therefore noi he applicable in
designating these Islhofacies assemblages as architectural comyenests ne elements.
In addilion, many of the subdivisions made in this siudy at the altomomherand shingle
scalo are bused on flooding narfacns and nel nrosiooal surfaces, as is more commos
in fluvial deponitional syntems. Thene sorfaces are at the name scale as the fifth' and
ninth-order surfaces defined by Miall (1988). Farther archilecineal subdivision has
nOlbeen alirmyted in thinsiudy, although ii may bepennihle in nome ofihepeoducing
pooln within ihr Dunvegan. A final summary of the orchiirciueul asd allostiatigeaphic
hierarchy of oeils recogniord io this study follows:
Co,a,rard vn page 206
202
 D'
D
st
a

DATUM
40
30
20

I0
o
Cored interval
< ABOUT 100km

Fm. isaWell-log cross section D-D', oriented along strike. The cross section
io hung on the top of altomembrr E and extends for a length or-100 km. Alt welt
tracen are gamma togs. See Figure 10h for cored intervals. This cross section
penetrates predominantly restricted marine to delta-plain sediments of
allomomber E. Channels are seen at different stratigraphie levels, and two are
prominent in nllomember E (coarse stipple): E3 in well 3-6-61-4, and Et in well
11.22.64-2. The latter is correlated with the Simonette channel to the sontheast
(Fig. 4). See Fitner $ foe location of cross section. Well 4-t-63-2 ties with A-A'
(Fig. 02).

Bhatlacharya Facies architecture of river-dominated deltas 203

*M*.. b
Is'
I'
rd I'
Is
Is'°'L
Is
a0
Is
D'

DATUM
DELTA LOBE

CHANNEL
4NON MARINE

LOBE LTH

About 65km- Fo,. 15b.Core cross section DD, oriented along depositionat strike. The
facies relationships between the two major channels (El and E3) are complex and
indicate inDIting of shallow inleedistriholary-hay environments. Blank regions
in the wells indicate that the lithotogy has been interpreted from welt logs io Ihr
ahsence of roer dala. See text for discussion. See Figure 9a foe focies legend.

Bhattacharya Facies architecture of river-dominated deltas 204

 A. CHANNEL BINTERLOBE C. LOBE O. PRODELTA SHINGLE E4 SHINGLE E3
u
o

Prodelta shules
Pnodelto and interdeltaic sandston
Dello-tronI und thstribctary sundslo
DuIto plum

AIIavial plain

T 150km I
o
SHINGLE E2 SHINGLE Ei

PALEOGEOGRAPH Y
SHINGLE Ei

Pta. 16.Block diagram showiug paleogeogruphic reconstruction of shiugle

El based on the satsdbody geometry (Fig. 4) and the various sorti-10g and core
cross sections. The Simonelte channel meanders through flat marshy uplands in
the northwest and feeds Ihr birdfoot.shaped suh-lobes of she Bigstone delta
(heavy stipple). Much of she thinner tond is deposited suhaqueonsly (tight
stipple). As abandoned obaunel lies tu the southwest. The schematic core cross
section shows typicul vertical facies associations through the different
architectural elements of this river-dominatrd deltaic depositional system.
Etc. 17.Paleogeographic reconstructions hased on gross sandstone isoltth
maps and facies assemblages, shingles E4Et. Note that sandstones within
successive shingles lie progressively farther seaward into the basin. The wooded
alluvial plain becomes larger with euch succeeding shinglr. Tbe actual probable
shoreline configuration is interpreted lo correspond approximately to the
contact between the heavy and light stipplr and is highly irregular. See test foe
farther explanation and discussion.

Facies archilectare of river-domioated deltas 205

Bhaltacharya

..au..ua.UU mø.... .SU....a


BATON
ROUGE
MISSISSIPPI
DELTA
50ko I
lOx. 18.-Depositiooal lobes of the Mississippi (to scale) superimposed o.. as.
outline nf the map area. Mississippi lobes are on the same areal scale as detta
tobes in the Dunvegan Formation. Compare with Figure 8. See test for
t) The Duovegan Poematioo reyresoots a major progradationai classic wedge ap te
300 m io llrickoevn and cnvneiog 00 area of -300,000 km5. lt was pmbably
deposited over a period of -1.5 Ma (Stoll, 1982; Bhattacharya, 1988).
The atiomembcrs repeescot regressive sedimeotary packages that range in
thickness from S ta -80 m bouoded by transgression major maeioe.flaoding
surfaces that have hero correlated ever as mea of -30,050 km' (althoagh they may
be considerably more evtennive; Fig. 1). The ailomembers probably reprenest
deposition over a period of -200 ka (Bhattacharya. t988).
Shingles represent offlupping heterotithic onits that may reach a mavimum
thickness 0f-30m tad cover areas averaging <30,000 kot5. Shingles comprise the
deposits of majar detlaic rompieses and may represent deponilion ovrrayeriod of
a few tent of thousands of yenes.
Several dislioct companeotv (lithefacies assemblages) ace recognized within
the shingles. These include sandy lobes, Aslribulary channels, und muddy
interchannel and inlerlobo environments of the delta plain. The major sandy lobes
within each shingle average Sto tOm in thickness and brlween -750 and 2,800 km5
5)The randy lobes are interpreted as highly river.domisated deltas, and facies
heterogeneity within the lobes is correspondingly high, as indicated by onmemus
shaly intrrbedv and minor erosional surfaces. Lateral rvtent of individual lenv.
shaped sandbodies io the delta.front lobes muy reach several tens of kilometern
beth apdip and along tsritan, alshoogh thin cootinaity maybe broken by minar
erosional surfaces or shale breaks.
6) The tobev arr fed by sand.fitled channels that entend Portent of kilometern and that
reach apto 20 ra in thickness and 5km is width. Istemat complexity within the
channels has sot been addressed in thin study hut maybe detennined with furlher
detailed investigation of the peodacing units.
Bholtacharya
7) Facies relationships within the ioterlobe areas alta may be evcrcdingty complex
and indicatr the highrxtdegeee of lateral heterogeneity in sIsear deltaic drpouitiooal
uyulrmu.
The author thanks DeR. G. Walker for supervising thin mock as part of the author's
Ph.D. research. The Natural Sciencex and Engineering Reveurch Council (NSERC)
provided financial support through strategie und operating grano to Dr. Walker and
tttroaghpostgradvatescholarvhipv to the author. Base maps and melt logs mene kindly
provided by Petro.Caoada Resources, and accrus to corn material max provided by the
Alberta Eoergy and Resources Control Board (ERCB). Calgary. The thoughtful
vuggrstiovv of the reviewers, Richard Langford, Dennis Kerr, and Noel Tyler,
resulted in great imyrovrmentv to the original manuscript. The support of the Alberta
Research Council io preparing the figuren alto is acknowledged.
Bo.xnavnaera, J.. 1988, Autocyclic and allocyclic tequencev in river. and wave.
daminaled dellaic sedimeutn of the Upper Cretaceoun, Daseegan Formation,
Alberta: core enamptes, in Jamrn, D. P., and Leckie, D. A., edn., Sequeocr
Stratigraphy, Sedimentetagy: Surface and Subsurface: Canadian Society of
Petroleum Geologists Memoir 15, p. 25-32.
1989a, Altoatoatigraphy and rivrr. and mavr.dominalrtt depoviti000l
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McMastur University, Itarstitton, Ontario. Unpubl. yb.D. Dissertation, 5080.
t989b, Entuurioe channel fills in the Upper Crrtaceoau Duovegan
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of Clastse Tidal Deposits-A Core and Pral Workshop: Canadian Society of
Petroleum Geologists, Proceedings, Second International Research Symposium
os Clastic Tidal Deposits, p. 37-49.
Bvutc, C. P., In., 1963, Structure, isopach, and furies maps of Upper Cretucroas
marine successions, West-Central Alberta and adjacent British Columbia:
Geological Survey of Catada Papee 62.31. lOp.
Cet.esa.uza, J. M., <vo Puson, D. B., 1902, Deltaic eoxiroomentx, is Schelle. P. A., and
Spearing. D. R., eds., Sandstone Deponiti000l Environments: Amorican
Associutios of Petroleuns Geologists Memoir 31, p. 139-178.
<sso Wuteor. L. D., 1975, Modem river deltas: variability of processes and
sand bodies, in Broussard, M. L., ed., Dritta, Models foe Evploeation: Haustos
Geological Society, p. 99-150.
Dnnv.xn, E. A., 1983, Delineation of delta types: Norias della system, Prie Formation,
SeulbTexas: GatfCoaxtAvnociation of Geological SocieliesTranvactions, v.33.
p. 269-273.
Es.s.sesre, T., 1974, loserdistnibutury bay sequences and Iheir georviu: Sedimeototogy,
v.21, p.611-622.
t986. Deltas, is Reading, Ft. G., ed., Srthmenlary Environments and
Facies 2nd edition: Onfoed, Blackmetl, p.113-154.
Ptsueo. W. L., ano McOowrv, J. H., 1967, Dopesitienal uyxlrmu io the Wilcox Droop
of Testa and their relationship lo the occurrence of oil and gas: Golf Cotai
Association of Geological Societies Transactions, y. 17.0. 105-125.
Facies urchitectsre of river.dominaled delios
Ftac, H. N.. 1963, Ban finger sands of the Mivsissippi delta, in Peterson. J. A., and
Osmood, J.C.. edn., Gromrtry of Sandstone Bodies-A Symposium: Amrrican
Associalion of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, p. 29-52.
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development and chronology: Gulf Coast Associatioo of Geological Societies
Trounaclioss, y. 17, p. 287-315.
Ha5, B. U., H.snoenuos.. J., asso Voss., P.R., 1987, Chrosology of fluctuating ura levels
viser she Triasnic: Scieocr, V. 230.0. 1156-1166.
KAUrrMAN, B. G., 1969. Crrtacrous marine cycles of the Westens Interior: The
Mountain Geologixt, v.6.p. 227-245.
MvLuoav, F. H., 1919, Crrtaceous, Lower Smoky River, Alberta: Geological Sarvey
of Cunada, Summary Report 1918, Part C, p. 1-7.
Msxu., A, D., 1984, Drlsan, in Walker, R. G., od., Facies Models: Geoscience Canada
Roprint Series lp. 105-118.
1988. Facies architrclnrr is clastic sedimentary bovins, in Klrinvpeho,
K. L., und Paolo, C., edt., New Perspectives io Basin Analysis (Frontiers ir
Sedimeutology): New York, Springrr.Verlag, p.67-81.
Nereo Amcotcxn Crvss,osstev ON Srnartvuaentv NoMuveLarvor, 1983, North
American slratigmphic code: American Anvociatico of Frlroleum Geotegivls
Bullrlin, e. 67, p. 841-875.
Pcns.a.xo, S., Scour, J. R., ano McBusev, R. A., 1987, Deltapluin drvelzpment and neu
level history is Ihr Terrehonne coastal ergios, Louisiana in Coastal Sediments
'87, Wulreways, Pert, Coastal sod Gcran Engisrzring Division/American
Society of Civil Engineers. New Orleans, Louiniuna, p. 1609-1705.
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Alberto: Alberta Research Council Bulletin 44, 3220.
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Dasveganoceeas Zour from the Peace River area of Wessem Canada: Rrvcarch
Council of Alberta Rrpurt Na. 70.81 p.
ann Wvssva. R. E., 1958. Lower Cenomanian fomminiferu
from Foam River nera, Western Canada: Research Council of Alberta,
Geological Division Bulletin 2, ParI I.35 p.
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Dunvegas Formation of Ihr Foothills und Plaiss of Alberta, British Columbsa.
Dintricl of Mackenzie and Yukon Territory: Geological Survey of Canodo
Bulletin No. 328. 1240.
1984, Certacrouv sequences of the Foothills of Ihr Canadian Rocky
Mountains, in Stoll, D. Fand Glans, D. J., rdu.,The Mesozoic of North America:
Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 9.p. 85-107.
WAI.xco, R. G., asas Cvsor, D. J., 1984, Sandy fluvial systems. in Walker, R. G., od.,
Facies Models: Geoscience Canada Repeins Series t, p.71-90.
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Mif ccl Formation, Maverick Basin, South Tonan: Gulf Coast Ansociusios of
Orological Societies Tranvacsioss, v.29g.252-214.
Wsor.vneo, J. H. MCD., 1973. "GaIter CanIn," a new name for scoue.and.fstl statclarcu
with enumples from Llandovenian of Ringerike and Malmoya, Southem Norway:
Norvk Geotogisk Tidnskrifl, n. 53, p.403-407.
Wotossr, L. V., 1985, River deltas, in Davis, R. A., rd., Coastal Sedimentary
Eovsraomenss, 2nd edition: Springrr-Verlug, Nrw York. p. 1-76.
206
 ARCHITECTURAL PATFERNS IN LARGE-SCALE
GILBERT-TYPE DELTA COMPLEXES,
PLEISTOCENE, GULF OF CORINTH, GREECE 2 kefi
N
GIAN GABRIELE ORI
Dipattineaanto di Scïtettza Grohngtzhar,
Uteivri'nità di Boiogo.a,
Via Zamb,,rtt 67,
40127 Bofogan, Italy

MARCO ROVERI
buleto pro la Geologia Marina,
CNR, VAt Zareahoeti 63,
40127 Bologna, Italy ... ............ ............
AND

GARY NICHOLS
Depw'tttsetat o/ G0]dogy,
Royaal Hollotetay taed Bad/tod Nate Collage,
Vtticoroity of London. .-..o' .

Egham, Surrey TW2O OEX.

Untitrd Kiregdoes
Alluvium arid modern beaches \ / \-_,\-
AmreAyr Laage-sca]r (Athen-type letta deposita wen ne the ansahen. Sida of the Unit of Coroth Figure 2 F,gure 3 o'

in Getane They a0000alated chatee] to the nety steep mangos of l.stno.tao]t Hooka. The delaale
cemp]rnrs tessin. at nerv think )tgto 700 w) keetet package, that pata into cettoatart sesta.
n tien, pasa teto thin-bedded t,,tbidite,. Topee] deposits are wet pensatorI sad sto the keys to
it]eepretieg the tan-delta bodies in set]ntectnenl treats The feomee,, pattern u dnc,stnd o tennis ot
eeenmmcds500, Isst ,a the netted] trite nu de anulable lot the s,dinteatsttna. lettere three ja an
s000,nmdast]On, the topan] enneroantent i, bypassed sed. geoneta]oa]ly. toptap botndaeies tintine With
,tceeasing snton]modat]oe, float,] ogset testa ste tnee.ed; they pass dnsndip teto the torete] Orda. A]
htghen at]onmndehne saIsis. ]eaangeeastoe depnstta atete. If anenmnateantio, a ton 598. the
]annttgresaiee sediments see droented sed teee,et bett, toen ne top.
INTRODUCTION
The Gulf of Corinth Basin in southern mainland Greece s an extnnstonai bastas
related to late Neogene to modern nxtension in Ihn Aegean region (Ftg. 1). Ono of
the ment stoilting features of this basin is Ihn pretence of steep margins on winch
Gilbert-type fan deltas accumulated during the Pleistocene and which are still
forming loday (Brooks aad Freentinos, 1984). There is a remarkablo similarity
between the oidor fan-detta bodins and those forming today (Ferestinos and
others, 1988): they oit consist mostly of geavel-sizo deposits and form bodies that
ruhend ont inlo deop water (np te 700 or 800 w deep). The older fan bodies have
brou nplif ted and their topant beds are now at 600 to 1,200 at above sea-level a few
kilometres feom the present-day ooastlinn (Ftgs. 2 and 3; Oes, 1989). Tho exposed
toenset beds form single ants of cross-stratified gravels np 10784 an thick (Pig. 4).
The large-scal e Gilbert-typo deltas of the Gulf of Corinth are the sedimentary
peodaot of streng extensional mevemenls prndnoang steep fault scaeps ninth vnry
high displacements. In other onamples of Gilbert-type deltas (ng., the Motnora
FIG. 1.Thn GnIf of Corinth with the major ntosaeteaoal fralssres of the
urna. The faeatioa.n of Figs. 2 and 3am shown.
Conglomerate of Ori and Roved, 1987, and thn Crats Basan deltas of Colds, 1908)
delta bodies am stacked one on top of the othee; they are the results of repeated
small movements on the faults. Fan deltas can be confused easily wnth the bratd
deltas which, together with f nn deltas, form the family of coarse-gramed deltas
(MePhorsan and others, 1997). Braid deltas do not show thr charactenstacs of a fan:
they ave not ocmi-circular in shape, they do not show sharp changes w gradient, and
they are geneeatly not formed against tnaeginal faults (On and Ricei Lncchi, 1983).
Fae deltas aro alluvial-las bodies which boild oat into a standing body of water,
and the dettaie deposits of the Gulf of Corinth show many of the fn.nftsres that
characterize lose fan-deltas: 1. when free to expand laterally, they show a fan
morphology in plan view; 2. they ame fnrmed agamst margsnal faults; and 3. they
Raised beaches and terraces
Foreset beds Kerinitis
Fan Delta
Topset beds System
I- Fault
0
Calcareous basement Paleocurrent
FIG. 2.Geological sketch nf the Kneitaifis fmi-delta synt cm. Fur location
see Fag. 1.
show changes in gradient between the river ansade Ihn valley and the delta sarfaco. that trends approximately east-west perpendicular to the compressive tectonic strike
The examples of fan deltas in the Gulf of Corinth are thy result of very rapad and of the Hdllenides. The basin is pan of a sot of major fusIls and basins related lo
dramatic movomente of the faults that provided the steep scary agamsl winch the Aegean extension, which affecled the whole Hellonic peninsula (McKenzie and
Gilbert-type fan-delta bodies dovefoped (Fig. 5). Jackson, 1986). Tho major faults of the Gufi of Corinth Basin ace located an Ihn
The aim of this paper is to show the ieternal and external geometnes of these sonthern tide; on the northern side only small antithetic faults occur (Fig. 1).
large.scale fan deltas and to relate thom lo relative changes of the sea level Entensionat fnniting has been active tinco the Miocene. Ploisloccue fan-delta
peodneed by either tectonic or eustatic effects. deposits (the subject of this paper) are uplifted apto 1,500 n above oca level in the
hanging wall of the master faults (Fig. 6). The bade fleer in the Gulf of Corinth is
GEOLOGIC SETFING peesently np to 800 w doep.
The Miocene to Pleistocene deposits of the southern side nf the galt can be splil
The Gulf of Corinth is a deep half-gonbera basin, Miocene to Hotoonne n age, into two cycles, corresponding to two tectonic photos (Gel, 1989). Tho deposits of

Archilecloral pallore of large-scat e Gilbert-type della deposif s 207

Ori, Roveri, and Nickels
 .s..a........... ...a. _.__.__ms_.
Keats Fan Delta n'en' Dip &rieisation
Dip Iliiwuination Topset: aggrading fiaotol deposits
-'S'a' of torrent beds Topset: transgressioe deposits, mainly
,'e Inferred oldirst tauS marine reworked
2 km ut 2M phase
Fault
fKrias Fan Delta

r
DERVENI

IJIII

Pmport day depnsits

I I

Taraces and young fan dnttaS

Slumped blocks of
Fo reset the substratum
2nd
i ILIAS
phase Botnoniset FAN DELTA
deposds Thin heisted SYSTEM FIG, 4,Stuhematin section of the large-seule Ian-delta systems in the
turbiditnu J Flr.stonrue depocita
Topsot

Foreset
ij FAN DELTA
ini:::: 'rse''''
BOttOrrrset J SYSTEM
Ist pirase
deposits
M MAVRON A: Slacked bodies B : Siegle body wtlh complex iopsel beds
Caloarrous basornnnt
Locus Leous Erosion Deposition
of erosion et deposition
FIG. 3.Geolegir map of the Evrostiai and filas faa-delta systems and the
odjoitsiag arco. Cemparr the dimensions of the andraI faa deltas with the
snbaereul porteous of modrea fan deltas, Por losrotioa sor Fig. t.

the first cycle consist of alleviaI ned shnllow-watrr (lacasleiee to maeiee) deposito.
Fas-delta systems formed dsniag the seoond cycle of deposition, which iecledes all
the Pleisloeeee fats deltas ned the modere Gilbert-type delta sodimeets (Ftg. 1).
These deposits are coeLrolled ned affectent by two sets of Inulto 1. the major
estcasioenl fanils, parallel to the basis aals, which gave eine ta listric blocks dippieg
lattdwaed ned agniast which the fas-della bodies lie; aed 2. Iraesfer fatdtn, almost
perpeedicitlac to the majne faalts, which formed blocks titat acted as latoral
coelmemeets foe the delta systems.
SEDIMENTARY FACIES
Gilbert-type deltas have boce recogeized te noverai envirosmeets aed structural
tcttiegs (Nemeo ned Steel, 1988)r they may noose is hikes or is sens, sed they are
usually associated with esiesdoeni ee strike-slip faaltiag. However, the mais
characteristic of Gilbert-type fan deltas is Ihe tripartite atsoriation of lopset-f ornent-
bottomed sirotaI palIeres (Figs. 4, 6). This geometric lentece depends on the Seoeral fault
L II
preseeco of morphoingie steps atad ne abuodaet seppi y of flaviatifr coarte-graieed
deleites. The dimeesioet of the delta, atad, is particular, the thickness of the sets are R Fault Fault
controlled by ihn height alike tmderlyiog step.
The step con be produced basically by two mechanisms: sea (lake)-levet rises, or
melt movemeats, le the case of the Gilbert-type deltas of the Gulf of Corioth, the FIG, 5.Comparison hermosa typical Gilbert-type della complaces, with
considerable thickness of the foretell is the delta compleses isdicatos that fault vertically-stacked fomento, and the Gilberttype deltas related to large-
movements were the mechanism for the formatioe of the step (Fig. 5). However, amplitude fault mosnmrnlu.
the isteenal morphologies of each faa-delta body form architeelural paeeres that
cae be attributed to base-insel changes an a scale which could be the result of
either iecionic or rustatic effrois.
This paper is based oe the siedy of fose Gilbert-type delta systems is the Gaff of
Corinth (Ilias, Evrostim, Akeata, Fig. 3; nod Kerioitis, Fig. 2). However, many other

Ori, Roveri, and Nichols Architecturai pallore of large-scab Gilbert-iype delta deposits 208

Fies. 6The Eveostini faa-delta system topoet strata rest at 1,000-1200
w above sea level, whereas bottomset beds are at 500 m above sea leve!.
Changes of dips m the foresets are dne ta the lateral migration of flavia!
channels on the delta top and are flot connected to neconformities within the
topset beds.
Ori, Roveri, and Nichols
[_,,
.m..*.
similar examples are observable at the southern rim of Ike gulf. The Eveoslins tan-
detto system (Fig. 6) is a very well-exposed Pleistocene sequence that preserves its
oeiginat somi-eircntar shape. The top is flat and is composed of lopset beds, which
are al person! 1,200 m above sca level. The Olas system is less weil exposed, but
contains a thick saquease of distal lnrbiditic deposits. The Keeirntis fan-detto system
is well exposed in a valley section and shows detailed internal geometries which,
anforlueatety, are ditticult lo observe because of the iaaceessibility of the oatcrops.
The Akoal.n fan-detta systems are younger and eau be divided into a nnmbee of
subsystems of different ages; the youngest subsystem is still active and the peeseol
feedre riere is dissecting the uplifted older subsyslems.
Alt the fan-detta systems show taege-srair iuctincd stratification eangiog in
thickness teem 100 m 10700 n, and averaging around 500 m. The thinner sels ace
in the Akeala tan-delta, which aecretest oea shallow-water platform fee a part of its
history.
Topaet bede
Basically, Iwo types of topsel facies can be recognized 1. poorty organizes! and
poorly sertes! sediments, and 2. well-stratified und modeentety welt-sorted deposits.
The rost type consists of ctast-snpported conglomerates arranged in strata 1-2 m
thick with eeotional bases. The stratification is laterally discontinuons und forms
concave-np lenses. The sediments ace mederalety to poorly sorted, and extensive
imbrication indicates pateoflow toward the gull in all cases. This taries is
interpretes! as a flaviat-channet fill in a braided-stream environment. The second
taries consists of well- to moderately-sorted conglomerates and sandstones.
Slratificalion is horizontal and single beds show gradational contacts, tu pteces, tow-
angle wedge-shaped cress-stratification occurs. This facies is interpreted as fluvial
gravels reworked by marine-wave action in shoreface-to-toreshore settings.
Gradations between the two facies are observobte in a few places with the fluvial
deposits underlying the wave-reworked sediments.
Minor (as far as the volume of sediments is concerned) facies also associated
soldi the wave-reworked sediments includo- I. stractureless etayny saadslone with
oysters and barnacles in life position, interpreted as tagoonat deposits accumulated
in abandoned arcas or during teensgeessive periods, end 2. single sots of relatively
tow-angle (less than 16') inclined conglomerates.
Foreort bedo
Foreset beds underlie the tepset bodies and extend taterully far beyond the
mappable limits of the topsel beds (Fig. 3). The foreset beds dip at angles apse 35'
in the upper part, diminishing downdip te merge with the nearly horizontal
bottomsel beds. These ore particularly well shown in the Eveostini fan delta (Fig.
6). Single feeeset beds are 30 te 100 cm thick and are composed of organized
conglomerate with minor sandstone. The conglomerate ts imbeicated with Ike 'a'
anis parallel to pateottew. tnverse and normal gradsug are common and the strata
display stighdy erosional bases. Backsots, i.e the form of 10- le 40-cm-thick sets of
apslope-dipping cress-strata, are very commoe within the foersets. These bachsets
are considered lo be formed by depesitionat sliplaces magealtag u the ap-flow
direction, in much the same way as antidanes migrate and accrete in upper-flow
regime conditions.
The characteristics of these foresel gravel beds indicate that the mechanism of
the transportation and deposition of the gravel ou the steep delta dopes was one
Arcititectorul paIlero ef large-scale Gilbert-type della deposits
insolviog cohesiontess-debeis flow dominated by laminar-shear and dispersive-
pressure effects.
Bettorrseet beds
Betlomsel strata arc nearly liorizentat stud are beth thicker bedded (t-5 m) and
coarser than the foreset beds. Cenglomeeates occur in facies similar te those
occurring in Ihr forcsets, except fee she presence of massive beds, more than 3 m
thick, of organized conglomerates. Frequently, large scours filled with
conglomerates and sandstones are observed. These scenes are 5 to 100 m wide and
lIetO m deep and arr eloagaled parsOn! to the puteotlow.
The thickness of the strata, the coarseness of the doposils midi rnspect to the
foreset beds, and the scour fcatnres snggnsl deposition as a result of a dramatic
decrease in the hydraulio energy. This hydranlic change cerersponds te the change
of siepe angle at the base of foresets. The presence el large soeurs in the
boltomsels is probabty dur to the erosion produced by the very fast-moving
cneeents flowing down the teertet, as observed by Prier and Bernhotd (1009) in
modern cearse-grained deltas (obste channetn).
OE0McTnY
The Gull of Corinth fan deltas arr remarkable becaase of their targe size. The
dettate compleuns are several times thicker than any other Gilbert-type delta
described (Fig. 5). Overall, the fan deltas were constructed by the vertical
aggradation of topsot and bottomset strata coapind with the lateral progradatian of
the foresel (Fig. 4). Thus, single fan-dette bodies may be thicker than the set of
inclined stratification in the foreset. Unforlimately, the contacts between the earliest
deposits of an individual delta and the substratum are not well exposed in most et
the deltas examined. Where the contact is trou, a esegutsrrccio eau be observed at
the boundary, a chaotic accumulation of large blochs that probably termed dnring
the early stages el faulting (Fig. 4). Foreurs beds, and in places bottomed strata,
rest directly en these deposits.
The toreset thickness in the early stages of the evolution et a detta can be
deduced only is the Eveectini lan-delta syslem. te lles case the set thickness can be
seen lo be more lIsas 400 w. This indicates that the downlantting associated with an
individual Gilbert loreset was el the ordre el 400 es in this case. The youngest
feretrI strata preserved in the Evrostini fan delta forma single set 700m thick (Fig.
6). An increase in the thickness of the sets has beco obsorved aise es Ihr Olas and
Kerirntis systems. The topsrt unit is very thick in the Eerestiui system (ap to 500
m) as a result of the vertical aggradation et subaerial deposits dnring contienous
subsidence. Other lan-delta systems have very thick tepsot deposits, although it is
not possible lo demenstralr their exact thicknesses.
The topset deposils are composed et a nnmber of stacked bodies separated by
major erosional boundaries or stratigraphie discontinmties (Figs. 7-10). In contrast,
the loersel and bottemset deposits do not coetain disceutinuities and are the result
of wore continuous sedimentation (Fig. 12). Fluvially dominated lepscl facies are
organized into tequrnces bounded by wave-reworked deposits (Fig. 7). fa the
Kerirntis fan-delta system the only major diucootinoily in the toreset is e huge
slnmp scar filled with stratified conglomerates (Figs. 9, ti). This slump soso does
nel correspond to a major discontinuity surface, but is attributed to earthqaahe
activity.
Ftavialtopset deposils are considered te have been deposited when deltaic
209
 N_......
A

Transgiessice
deposits
Transgressor
deposits
agtieri

FtC. 7.Sketch of o detail from Fig. 6, nhowrng topant steutal patterns.

Transgrensivc deposits rest on top of both aggradational fluvial deposits and
bypass surfaces.

B
progradatioo was motched by vertical accretioo. They are usually seen to pass
downstream iuto the foresets as eontussoao bedded ooits (Figs. 7, 8A). Wave-
reworked deposits, os the other hand, do sot pass directly oto foreset lacios, but
are usually truncated by later topset und foresct strata (Figs. 7, 8B). These
relationships, and the wave-dominated facies, ssggest depositioo daring
traosgressive events.

Architectural patterns arel their cauoeo

Gdbert-type della compleses mimic, ou a smaller scale, busio-margio Fus. 8.Topsut - formel relationships. A. Topant brai n passing seaward
sedimentary wedges; the steatal configuration and general geometry are simïar to (murhed by areown) into foresut beds. Thin is a typical feature forming
simplified pictures of progradiug continental maegiss sees in couventiosat seismic- during vertical aggeadatiou (Evrostini tau-delta syntem). B. A tranngrensivn
reflection profiles. On this basis, we will try to apply some et the coeeepts and surf ncc cutting foreset beds and overtain by traungresnive deposits. The 'X'
trehniques of seismic sequence steatigeaphy (Vail 1987( to define the architecture of indicates foroset butin above trauagrrsuive depositn (lilas fan-delta system).
these detta systems.
Topset beds are considered to be of greatest sigeifieaoee in this approach
because here the variable factors that interplay daring the growth of the whole
system leave their majcr imprints. Unconfoemities, lateral facies changes and
verttcal stactaug aceangemeuts can be observed in the lopset beds, but urn not
recognizable in the equivalent foreset und bottotnset strata (Figs. 6, 7(.
Transgeessive and regressive events (wlevee the caoses( produced a variety of
facies aud geometries in the topset, whereas in the deeper parts of the systems
(foreset and bottomset(, these events did oct baer au appreciable impact ou
sedimetstation. Re-sedimeotatios on the fronts of the modern Gilbert-type dekan in
the Gulf of Corinth is toiggered by earthquakes, rather than other factors
Costisued or, puar 213
Ori, Roveri, and Nichols Architectaral paltere of large-scale Gilbert-type delta deposits 210
 FIG. 9Photomoic (A) olId Iho drowh. (B) of the Kenmijo fo.. delto
tyotem ohowi..g topoet to foretet fociet. For loelion eee Fig. 2.

Architectural pattern of large-scale Gilbert-type della deposits 211

Ori, Rocen, and Nichols

aa......a.**SSSSSM
 Slump scar fill Bounding surface
'II Bedding

Paleoflow direction
Fig.l 1
'i

1lF

Major erosional
surf.ce (1)

- Fig. lo

Equivalent of (1) Beach deposit s

Fanglomeratic stacked bodies Foreset/topset interfingering Foreset stacked bodies

Fig. 9.Cotinned.

Ori, Roveri, and Nichols Architectural pattern of large-scale Gilbe ype delta deposits 212
 (Fereetinos and others, 1988). The key to aodersfanding Ihn topsef dyo.nmios seems
to be the coacept of accommodation (Posanscntier and othoru, 1988), that is, the
vertical space made available by rotative rise of the base level (in oar ease the vea-
level) above a previous depositiooal surface.
Changes is accommodation clearly depend osa comber of variables sock as local
tectonics, regional subsidence, eustatic changos, and sediment rnput and compaction,
aed the interplay of fhese is still poorly known. The aecommodatson carve for o
particular case is the only objectivr parameter available and should be used as the
basis for further interpretation (Fig. 13). A simple interpretativo approach can be
used to assess a single variable as the cod member of a coutinaum interplay. la our
approach, the facies architecture wilt br considered in relation to changes in
accommodation, the oeil of which is the vertical spare added m a Otee mlervat. A
high accommodation rate corresponds to o period of vertical accretion by fluvial
deposition on the topset, il there is sufficient sedimrat input to match the rato of
transgression (Figs. 7, 8A, to. 13). If vertical spare is not added, but progradation
still occurs, aondepositioeal or erosional surfaces arr formed m the topset and
toplap terminations of thr forest units occar (Figs. 7, 88, 13). When the
accommodation rate is low, lransgeessivr drapes cache formed (Figs. 7, OB, 14).
So far, we have discussed depositionat events, and have not taken into account
the drgeadational phases. Dugradational phases are rare in the Gulf of Corinth
Gilbert-type deltas and usually occur at the end of the life of the dettas. In these
cases pateovatleys are entrenched on the top of the delta. Only one degradational
event has bren recognized in the Evrostini fan-delta body. The paacity of strong
degradationat evento io probably doe to the very high regional subsidence.
Oar esamples show different architoclural patterns dint eau be correlated with
accommodation curvos. To interpret these curves we have chosen two end
members oval trctonism and eustasy (Fig. 13). Eustasy has bees rroogntard as u
major factor in the production of spare available for sedimentation (Fosamentier
and Vail. 1980); local tectomsm is also important, especially in an area such as the
Gulf of Corinth, where frequent earthquakes cae produce al least t m of vertical
displacement on a singlo fault. Sediment inpat and regional subsidrnre are
censidered to be steady and uniform throughout the time. The rost assumplion s
justified by the observation that the relief oldie source areas (partially inherited by
the earlier building of the Hrllenides erogenic belt) remains remarkably ugh m
spite of tens of meters of changos in base levels.
Several basic configurations of the topset beds can be recognized n the Gulf of
Corinth deltas. These are, of course, only a few cases ruleapolatesl from the large
number of stratal configurations present indie four Gilbert-type deltas rnvrsltgated.
The example in Figure l4A shows a slow accommodation rate (It . T)
wilnossod by an aggradation of flavial deposits, followed by a sadden mcenaue ('17.
P) in accommodation due to a marier transgression. The toed aocommodatton is
given by the thickness of lransgeessive deposito plus the height of the loresel
produced in the regressive phase. This configuration could be due to t. a local
tectonic phase, which caused an enhancement of the regional subsidence, followed

FIG. 10.A single deltaie body from the Kermitin fan-della system (see
location on Fig. 9) Foreset beds (F) pasu upward mto topsct aggrading
deposits (TA) composed of fluvial facies accumulated daring progeadation
stages. Topset deposits composed of wave.reworked facies (T) were
accumulated later during teansgeessive events. Note the erosional base at the
bottom of these deposits.

Ori, Roveri, aod Nichols Architectural pollero of large-scale Gilbert-type delta deposits 213
*aNaNm.. by a rapid return lo normal, regional subsidettee valons, or 2. slow sea-level rise
followed by a still stand.
fo Figure 14B, a fast arcononodation rate (T' - Ta) follows a stillstand phase (To -
T') with sediment bypavsiotg and a consequent formation of toplap terminations.
Dnrmg the T' - P phase, flavial deposits aggrude above the bypass surface, and
pass into nearshore and starved shooelacn doposits. As in the previous esample, fast
progeadation (T' . T') twvues at the end of the accommodation increase. The
architeceaeal pattern can be explained by 1. a shorter and stronger tectonic phase,
or 2. a very rapid sea-level rise.
The case shown in Figure 14 is similar to the previoas cases. The major
difference is the upper regressive phase (T' - T'), which is characterized by
accommodation and conseqncnt topsel aggradation. lodging from the development
of the latest lopsct beds, this can br explained by 1. a tectonic phase with a gradaal
waroeg or 2. a long-toron ecstatic oscillation.
la the example shown in Fifxee t4D, accommodation (T' - T') follows a
stillstand phase (15 - T'). Thick aggradalional lluvial deposits characterize the lopxet
beds. The bypass surface is related lo a time ixtcrval (T' - P) in which thero was
no accommodation formed dneiag topsot aggeadalion, and corresponds to toplap
termination in the distal part of the system. The architectural pattern may be
explained by either t. small tectonic pulses, or 2. short-term eaxtatic oscillations.

CONCLI)SlvtNs

Gilbert-type delta complexes offer a good opportunity to use the concept of

seqnenee straligeapby in the field. The steatat vonfigttration of the stacked fan-delta
systems makes it possible to reconstruct the accommodation curves through time. lt
is clear, however, that the bcst evidence for change in the spare made available to
sedimentation lies in the lopset facies. If the analogy between Gilbert-typo deltas
and the continental margin is in someway accrptable, it is clear that the
nnderstandieg of relative sea-level changes shoald come from the study of the shell
and parche environments rather than feom deep-sea deposits. lt is also evident that
Ike best approach is lo correlate sleatal configuration with accommodation corvos,
because euslatto sea-level changes and tectonic movements cannot be reliably
distinguished in active tectonic settings.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the mapping snppors of F. Alvisi, P.

Bianconi, M. Cremona, G. Ferroni, C. Matti and D. Martini. Thanks are also due to
F. Massar, and S. Dalla for ssefsl discnssioos in the field. This paper was greatly
improved by the comments of iD. McPherson and W. Nemeo. A.?. Feeraresi
drafted the illustrations.

FIG. 11.A hirge-main slump none (Y, oreown show the bouc) un the
forennt of the Kerinitin fno-delLu system (son loention ou Fig. 9).

Ori, Roveri, and Nichols Archilecloral pallere of large-scale Gilbert-type delta deposits 214
 KERINITIS FAN DELTA
B (Eastern Area)
A
C

-- Bedding (foresets)

- Base of sequences
Topset deposits

FiG. 12.Liec drawing of the e teromost part of tite Kenuitis system

(ossly partially mapped m Fig. 2). Sivalificatiou patterns parallel and
perpendicular to paleoflow ne shown.

Ori, Roveri, and Nichols Architectural pattera of large-scale Gilbert-type delta deposits 215

Dllflco
FIG. 13.Schematic reconstruction and interpretation of the eyclicity of
the Gulf of Corinth fan deltas. Regional subsidence is considered steady and
an interpretation eau be made using two end-member controls: tertonism
and enstasy. However, the eyclicity is considered to be the product of
changes m accommodation. Regressive events (with the formation of the
REFERENCES
Berces, M., axe Feoe,trrocs, G., 1984, Teetoaics oed sedimrntotios io the Gulf of
Corinth and the Zatcyuthos and Kefatinio chausels, western Greece:
Tect000physics, y. liSp. 25-M.
Core, s, A., 1988, Faoll-eoolrollrd marine Gibert-lype fao delios: Geology, y. 16,
p- 1031-1034.
Feucosysos, G., Parasoeoc000u, G., aso Cosceo, MB., 1988, Sedimeet traosporl and
processes On ao active ssbtearine faalt escarpmenl of an asymmetric graheo.
Gulf of Corinth, Greece: Marine Geology, v.83, p. 43-01.
McKeoz,e, D., see Joonsos, J., 1986, A block model of dislribstod deformation by
faulting: Geological Society of London Journal, V. 143, p. 349-353.
McP,oasos, J.G., Ssos,aooa.o G., ase Mccca.o, RL, 1987, Fac-deltas aud braid deltas:
varieties of coarse-geaiaed deltas: Geological Society of America Bellelin, v.99,
p. 331-340.
Ne.ssec, W., see Soso., RJ., eds., 1988, Fao deltas: sedimeotolegy and teetome
settings: Glasgow, Blackie, 'trip.
Dot, GD., 1989, Geologic history of the extensional botito of tIte Gall of Corinth
('Mioeeue-Pleisteeene), Greece: Geology, y. 17, p. 1031-1034.
ase Bruco Lucen F., 1983, Aneiest fas delta systems: Abstract Voltmse,
4th Regiooal Meetiug, International Associatioe of Sedimenlologists, p. 117-119
aso Rosent, M., 1987, Geometries of Gilbert-type deltas and large
chantretx in the Meteoro Conglomerate. Meso-Helleoie basin (Gligo-Miocene),
central Greece: Sedimeototogy, v.34, p. 845-859.
Ori, Roveri, and Nichols
/urrrcsc000anN
H!
Vrac, sotad eu,, et
Su Su
foresef pattern and loplap relationships) are duo to the lack of space
available for the vertical accretion. Tranegressive events (with the formation
of wave-rewnrked topent strata) are prodneed when * large amount of space
was added. See the variability of these patterns in Fig. 14.
ososo :c.scc':
roc
Posao,ovros, H.W., Jeeves. MT., ase VoR., P.R., 1988, Esslatic coulrols on clastic
depositiots t - Cooceptotat framework, io Wilgsx, C.K., Hastings, B.S., Kendall,
C.G.St.C., Posameetier, H.W., Ross, CA., and Voto Wagoner J.C., cdx., Sea-
level changes: an integrated approach: Society of Economic Patoontologisls oed
Mineralogists Special Publication 42, p. 109-124.
0.5e Vas,, P.R., 1988, Esstatie eootrots os elastic deposition H - Seqaetsee
h
and Systems tract models, in Wilgus, C.K., Hastings, RS., Keedall, C.G.St.C.,
Posamrotirr, H.W., Ross, CA., and Van Wagoner J.C., eds., Sea-level changes: .53
oo mtegcotrd approach: Society ofEconomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Special Publication 42, p. 126-154. teses ado, D
Pete,, DB., oso Boevscco BD., 1989, Sttbmarise sedimentation on s developing
Holoeeer tan delta: Sedimentology, v.36, p. 1053-1076.
Vats., P.R., 1987, Seismic slratigraphy interpretation osing sespornee stratigraphy.
Part I: seismic stratigeophy interpretation procedure, is Bally, A.W., rd., Ados
of seismic sleatigraphy: America Association Petroleum Geologist Short Coarse
No. 27, p. l-10.
FIG. 14.Facies and architectural patteenu in the fan-delta deposilu.
These eaamples show the wide variety of facies and geometries that occurs
in the Gilbert-type deltas. A, B. Traasugreanive deponita consist 0f beach
deposits overlaiu by starved deponils composed of sandy mndstonc with
oystors (and other fanna) in lilo position. C, D. Fluvial topnetn accnanalated
during periods when there was little accommodation. See tent for discussion.
Architectural paIlero of large-scale Gilbrrt-lype delta deposits 216
 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF FAN-DELTA
COMPLEX IN PENNSYLVANIAN SANDIA FORMATION,
TAOS TROUGH, NORTHERN NEW MEXICO
KRISTIAN SOEGAARD
Programs in Geoocienceo,
Tho Uni 'or-oily el To.eao at Dallar,
P.O. Boe 688, Risytsardeon,
Tesas 75083-0688
ABSTRACT' tdenhifieatiots of arehitenl,oat elements mthss utlsn,al'tnts sad the atbaqteotn peehen of
Belated fan-dolai mngtsmeeale sn;tn a fondameetal lo eeaoleisg depcnttioeal perorases and defieteg
the geometry or tue-dens eomplesra its the Peneayttantae Sandra Formatton. Taon Teonglt. eertheen
Nom Memo,.
Amehhtrenonal elemeels of allosiat-tan estrgtamneuten see defined by third- atta to,,tTh-ttednn
tetosd,eg eefaean and fall nro tmo nategonire Tabainn bodies neesetueed erereatly by toteoedant.
patallel'ateahtted eenglomeeate bed, eepeetent nemefired sheetfteod deposita. The armad categoey of
arehithetoral elements ajan eooa,tta of paeallel-athatified eonglomeeute beds. Homeeee, these mas
teneteieate against the tosser tRied- ne tourth-nedee teosditg surfaCe. f)Iaeoedunt. paealtet-aOatifird
couglometate bran oneopy ehastrel ompleses and enfoha u de aaarmblagr of nOsotonea tnteeontty
Intentai geometry of altooial'faa ehanflels ta related lo etraneet-fiti meohas,aus
tOeponita teen the aubaq000m peetins nl fan deltas tensiat of lentio,l eoeglomeente and
sandstone bodies eneaned by dark-colored baaieat msdat000a. Conglomreate/aaodatone ream
ola nemea of ataoked aebeedinate roars, eneh nf nrhiett ta e000leped by fifth-ceder boarding asefama.
Sabmanee mid-tan channelS see ostlined by third' urd fourth-order hoosdiag nuefatea and are nutted
by higlodeetity. gesoity-eon, depentls. The fringe of ssbaqueoss msglOmeente and naedatore jenaro
toaatttsofstset,ed. tatreully mnaintem beds tomponed of remplete ned iseompleto Botmr aeqoaeeea
Booma neqtenons meee deposited by dilute turfltdity Roma on submaune tomer-fan lobeb neto med-fan,
ettsntneta ,,eeeeeueuated
Reo,on ni d,tsh eRaeatti ne the ntboetist to, nl letin mple5ea aed
eeeognision of related s,rbmseine-fae deposita rOhe Sanata Foemstioe raarot be made term stodies of
neuicut sequences bot ser banes. nuthee. opes aeettteebsnal'eleneeel analysts e mnjuaetten asile
peceent-oeiented lacten noalyata.
INTRODUCrION
The fundamental premise to theec'dimensional facies analysts of elastic sedinnents
is to ondine and identify aechitecturat elements of depositsonal systems at varions
scales in outcrop, and/er subsurface, and to rase this hieraectay el architectntoaf
elements as building blocks for reeonstestcling the geometry of eneleonmonts,
,°,actnitrcltaraf elements, in turn, are outlined by a hierarchy of borsndiug surfaces
that envelop architectural elements ut different scales,
The objeotive of this paper is two-fold. First, architectural elements arc nssed for
rnsolving depositional processes on the subaerial alluoial-fan surface of a fan-della
comptes. Second, the utility 0f adopting a hierarchy el bonndmg surfaces (and
rotated architectural elements) for dieses-fing the anatomy of internally comptes
conglomerate nud sandstone bodies from the subaqueous portion of fun deltas is
outlined.
The fur-delta complexes are fenm the Peuusytvaman Sandra Formatnon m the
Taco Teregh, northern New Mesica. A variety of coarse-grumed delta types Inas
Seegaard
born identified in the Taco Trough, iucfndiug fan deltas and braid deltas (Soeguard,
1906; seo McPherson and others, 1987, foe terminology). Dixliuetion betrveon fun
deltas and braid deltas in the Tuco Trough is based primarily on archttectraral-
element analysis and is critical to nuderstanding evolution of the trongh, since the
two conese-gruineol delta types are characteristic of eery different tectonic setliugtt
(Soeguard, 1990).
nEGtONAL GEOLOGIC SETI'ING
The Taco Treagh is a relatively small, elongate uorth-soulh'trendmg basan
located in uaethem New Mexico (P'ag. 1). The trough mas teotomeally active during
ttedimeutation and developed in responso to orogenesas m the ancestral Rocky
Mountains in late Paleozeie time (Caney, t980a, b). Tho Taos Trough u canval wath
other actiee basins associated with the ancestral Rocky Monutams, such as the
Paeudox, Denver, and Psnadarho basins (Kfuth and Coney, 1981). l'an-delta
rompIeses in the Taco Trough are similar in character to oil-peono fan deltas m the
'Granite Wash' of the southern Anadarko Basin (see Outran, 1982).
The teeslern margin of the Taco Trough is defined by the tJncompattgre Uplift
along the Pieuris-Peeos FantI (Fag. t). The troagh is bounded to the cast by a
passive positive element termed the Sierra Grande Arch (Roberts and others,
1976). The Pecco carbonate shelf outlines the southern portion of the basin whIch
in earn terminates afasust tho Pedernal Uplift (Sutherland, f963). The northern
boundary of the Taos Trough is presently defined by the Cimaeron Arch, although
Casey (1900a) urgaes that the Taos Troagh and Contrat Catorudo Trough to the
north may have been conurelnd pericolicully (sor Lindsey and others, 1906).
Two discrete orogruic elastic wedges are present m the Taos Trough: 1,
Morrowax-middle Desmoinesiau Sandia Formation, and 2. late Dosmomesian-
Wolf cumpian Sitmgee dc Cristo Formation (Casey, 1980a; Catdweil, 1987; Soegaard,
1990). The Sandia Formation, which is the subject of this paper, consists of farst-
cycle srdiments derived from grauitac highlands in Ihr Unoompabgre Uplift te the
west. Canean feldspathic conglomerates in the hundas Formation were deposited as
responso to rastward therastieg by the Uncompahgoe highlands along the Pacanas-
Peces Fault, leading to deyrlopment of the Taco Trough fereland basin (Soegaard,
1990). During active thonstiug in Atokun and early Desmoinesiau tame, rapad
subsidence eccorred in the meseern paulan of the trough, resulting in steep basm-
margine gradients along which fan-della seqatences aecumalated. Feldspattnc
conglomernlns in the faa-delta complenes interi ingre with black basinal mudstanes
Io the cast and south (Fig. 2), which in tern halerfinger with shallow-marine
carbonate sediments of the Madera Formation to the cast and south (Sutherland,
1963; Casey, t980a). Together, silioiclastie sedimcuts in the Sandia Formation and
carbonate sediments in the Madera Formation make up the Magdalena Group.
Following cessation of thrnsting along the Picuris-P000s fault in und to late
Dvsmoinosian time, the Taos Trough became infilled, and braid-della complexes
prograded across the troasgla (Fig. 2). Diminnation of the Uucrmpattgre highlands led
to redneed silicielastie input, which enabled accumulation of shallow-manne
carbonates in the Madera Formation in latest Desmoauenaa nme (Fag. 2).
Rejuvenated orogeuic activity in Misnourian through Wotfeampoan time resulted in
deposition et alluvial feldspathic conglomerates and mudstones u the Sangre dr
Cristo Formotion (CaIdwelt, 1987). Detritus in dio Sangre de Cuoto Formation was
derived from the Cimoeron Arch to the north, which was upldled in responso to
eompressioo in the Marathon Fold Belt (see Ross, 1986; Caldwol, 1987).
Architectural elements of fon-delta deposits
j
AR Eis
NEW
MEXICO
¿- FACtES TERMINOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY
The palnoenviroumentat analysis of fan-delta deposils in the Sandia Formation is
boned on a hiecarchy of facies and corresponding bonnding surfaces. The
classification of bounding surfaces employed here is similar to that of Mied (1988,
1989). In thin paper the definitions of third- and fearth-ordrr bounding starinces are
medified te ensure a broader and more objective application. Also, the hierarchy of
bounding surfaces is inlegroled with facies terminology.
Firsl-order bounding sorluces envelop facies such as cross-beds. Facies provide
information about flow conditions ut a given point in time. Seoond-order bounding
106u Taps surfaces onaline cosets of geneticaly-eelaled loores, which eompnse fartes
oeqnencee Facies sequences indicate chaegin' flew wath respect to tamo. These
defmilions of first- and second-order boundaug surfaces arr unchauged from Mml
(1988, f989). Third- and fourth-order bounding surfaces envelop targer seule
architeolneal elements constituting (acier osooeiationo. These aechitecltnral elements
comprise the building blocks from which paleonns-ironments are reconstesacled. la
XI'
s
the bounding surface hierarchy scheme of Miall (f988 ond 1989) dard- and leonada-
3ga
oeder bounding surfaces are related strictly to macroforms. Since moeroforms,
which are particularly common in alluvial environments, une only eue type of
architectural element, Miall's definition of third- and fourth-ordor bounding
surfaces is restrictive. Moreover, tying died- and fourth-order boundmg surfaces lo
a specific architectural elemrul, such as alluvial macroforms, results in a genrtic
_A0t-
n e
-'.:------
Toss
conaOlatioa of the bounding surface scheme. In this paper the definition of third-
order bounding snefaces is estended te inclade any architecttaral element with
aniform composition of facies or facies soq000ees. Fer enaonple, a discrete channel
Lus_in inlilted by a succession of facies, suck as concIs of Irough cross-bedded sandstone,
Vegas passing upward into ripplr ecess'lafed sandstone, and capped by mndstone,
would be enveloped by a third-ordee bounding st,rlace. The trough cross-beds
would be separated by first-order boanding snrfaces whereas transitions betwncu
different facies within the channel-fall would be designated second-ordre surfaces.
PE CO S EXPLANATION This definition at third-order bounding surfaces os eonssstcnt wtth that of Maul
SHELF
(1989), both in terms st scale as well as the relationship belseecn the thard-ordee
Younger Cooer
architectural clement and its surrounding sedtmeets.
Sangre de Cristo Fm. Fourth-order bounding surfaces outline a couples of stacked architeelnoal
Magdalena Gresip clementi composed internally of oimitar facies associations. Agam, tIns defnmSon of
fourth-order bounding snrfacrs is consistent with that of Mmli (1988, 1989)
Pracombrian Basement nithoogh, in this papee, fourth-order surfaces are not restncted to the upper surface
of macroforms. As def'med here, fourth-order boonding surfaces may also eneelop a
Contours. hey, of Precambrien
complex of stacked, similar, third-order chaonel falls.
Basement (Into. 500 ft.) FaIth-outer bounding surfaces outline rntire depasitional environments m whack
PECERNA
UPLIFT il O
E-aa-a I-a
lo
-i
2Imi genetically related architectural elements wathine the enenronment are encompassed.
Filth-order bounding sartaces may envelop channel complexes consisting of several
dissimilar architectural elements, such as attselal macroforms, channel lifts, aud
10 0 10 20 30 ¿0 km point-bar depesils.
Finally, siolh-Order surfaces separale depositional eregooeqaencer whose
distribution is generally dictated by allocyclie effects (sor Howard, 1978). Both
FIG, l,Sabsnrfuru and geolugie map uf late Pafnueuie Taos Trnugh,
lif da- and sixth-order bounding surfaces are similar te those of Maull (1908, 1989).
northnrn Nnw Mnninu, Principal straelnaral elnmnnfsannueiatnaf with that
froagh are ilnatmateal, Snbsumfaaon data from Fnster and Slipp (1961) aSad
Ruberf n and others (1976), The Magdalnna Gmunap inclndns both silirinlaslie
sediments of flan Sandia Fummalinn and carbunutn sediments uf the Madera
Formation. X-X' represents Ineation of cruna seetion in Fig, 2,
217
 FAN-DELTA COMFLEXES IN TAOS TROUGH the lower dard- or f000th-ordtr bounding surface (Fig. Sa). More frequently,
channel elements arr filled by concaveupward, parallet-stralified couglomerutr
Fax-della complexes ocespy the central 918 m of the Sandia FormaTion i0 Ihr beds, which truncate the bounding surface at a shallow angle (Fig. Sb). In this case
NW ¡RES
RITOS
HOLMAN
HILL
MORA FRONTAL
THRUST SANGRE cc CRISTO FORMATION SE csposed northwestern Taos Troogh, and arr confined to the western margin ot the beds laureate against the upper bounding surface at a more obliqne angle. In the
X baum msnsediatcly east of the Picuois-Pecos fonio (Fig. 2). Thr fax-della complex is third sed fistol class at channel-fill deposits, parallel-stratified conglomerates are
sobdivided into three facies associatioes t. Parullet-stralifird conglomerate facies more akin to planar cross-bed loresets, which are truncated by the lower bounding
MADERA FORMATION association, 2. Dark-colored mudsloee facies association, sed 3. Lenticular surluce at a high segle (Fig. 5e). lo Figure 5e the planar loresets pase npward into
conglomeratejsaxdstone facies association. lower angle, parallel-stratified conglomerates. This internal geometry is analogous
lo tho lopset-foerset couple ata Gilbert-type delta.
Parallel-otralified cooglorszratr, alluvial fao Iotei-pretation. Parallel-stratified conglomeralrs are deposited under upper flow.
reglmc conditious, in which coarse detritos is transported as bedload (Harms sed
SU B SURFACE Deocriptioo. Parallel-stratified conglomerates occur in oeils np to 32 m in others, 1982). Numerose courts el laterally ostensive, tabular and parallel-stratified
ttuekness m the exposed northwestern portion of the Tarn Trough (Fig. 2). The conglomecates aro deposited by unrestricted thretfloods on the distal reaches al
conglomeeale-ncb bodies arc laterally coulinnons in a north-south orientation featureless alluvial-lan uxolaces (Bull, 1972) or within the proximal reaches et
parallel ta the Picoris-Pecos basin-margin fault. Geometry sed totoral exocet of the ontwash fans (Boothroyd sed Ashley, 1975; soc Hoggs, 1902, for terminology).
parallel-strotified conglomerates are not revealed by outcrop parallel lo flow, Similar alluvial-lan facies are documented os the subaerial portiou at modern fan
f
/ N
allhoagh Ac conglomerates estend u minunum xl 51 km eastward into the basin
tram the bordee fault, sedare not toen 19 kot into the basin (Fig. 2).
deltas (Wescolt und Etheidge, 1900; Hayward, 0905)
The Sandia alluvial-tan surface was incised by channels, that canttituto the
tulpa The conglomeralrs are peorty sorted (to - 1.11.4a) sciA mean grain size rauging second architectural element within this lucies association. The internal geometry of
from 4-10 mut sed clatIs reaching 25 mm in diameter. Clasts are equidimentional channel-fill deposits, outlined by parallel-stratified conglomerates, is diagnostic of
I COLFAU and almost esclusively monomineealie. The paeallot-sloxlified conglomerates contain the nature of channel inlilling (Casey, 1908a).
f CO. 62-60% quartz aod 32-38% feldspar (primarily miceoctice) framework grains. The Symmetrical ehaunels, in which parallel-stratified conglomerates truncate ugainst
TAOS
o CO-
conglomerates are drvoid ol allogenic matrix sed coutain O-2% deteital mica. both elsaunol margins, signify idillio0 during sniuor flood events when bankloll
Individual laminar are between 5 and 30 mm thick and arr mainly composed ot discharge was not achieced (Fig. 5a).
ç- alternating coarser and less coaesc-grainral pebble layrrs. Grading withio lamivae is
D Channels in which parallel-stratified conglomerates are near tangential with the
4 uncommon and pebble imbrication is absent, the lutter a consequence et clast lower bounding surface, and truncated by the upper bounding surface (Fig. Sb) are
shata- - infilled asymmetrically, primarily through lateral accretion learn channel margins. In
The parallel-stratified conglomeeutes are sobdivided into two facies associations order toe singlo lateral-accretion sels to extend from the chaunel hase lo the upper
SEDIMENT INPUT FIG.3 / separated by fourth.order bounding surfaces. Distinction between the two layes channel margin baskfnll discharge is required at the time of deposition (Figs. 5b, 6).
ti)
o Sipapa .1' assoctatious is bused on the relationship betwecu the parallel-stratified
conglomerate beds sed the lower lonrth-oeder bounding surface. In the simplest
Moreover, lateral accretion from channel margins can only be accomplithed if some
degree of channel sinuosity existed. However, highly sinuous channels are not
500 SHALLOW-MARl NE CARB. tris Rita's MORA CO.
Lit case, parallel-stratified conglomerates are concsedant with Ihr lower bounding implied here for the Sandia alluvial Inns.
a-
suetace (Fig. 3, IdI). Moreover, these architectural elements are tabular, extending Gilbert-type lorosels and topsets associated with the third channel-fill class art
VE 20 m BASINAL MUDSTONES F 10.6 more than iú ut across the length el outcrops (Fig. 3). ludisidual parallel-stratified inferred to sigeity the greatest water discharge (Fig. 5e; see also Casey, 1980a).
BRAID-DELTA COMPLEX
Ir
D
oirn'(1, O Cre lo conoJomcratr beds are up tong cm in thickness (Fig. 4) sed are laterally Continuous Ceaese-groined "della" loresets develop where n rapidly moeing, aon-channrlized
throughout their architectural element host. Parallel-utrutifird conglonscrute beds sheelltood flow suddcnly deepens as the flow enters a channel, thereby resulting in
Kmi i i
O
015 ARRlB'ytaae ore either truncated above by fourth-order bounding surfaces, which define the a reduced flaw competence. A sitnilar flow transition, leading to della-like loresots,
15 10 5 0 FAN-DELTA COMPLEX o ÇooL
base of overlying channel etemeulu (Fig. 3, Ib]), ce are concordant with overlying exists in meandering-stream systems with variable discharge. Here chote channels
third-ordcr bounding uaefacos (Fig. 3, dfl, which outline the base of similar enter the principal channel during high discharge, leading lo large-scale, wedging,
architectural elements composed of internally concordant, Lnbulao, parallel-stratified planar, chuto-bar loresets (see McGowrn sed Garner, 1970).
conglomerate beds. In the case where internally concordant, parallel-stratified The existence of abundant channel-till deposits withie the alluvial-fan lacios
FIG. 2.East-west cross section of Sandia and Madera Formations in complex is shown. Geographie location of alluvial-fan outcrop taries map in conglomerate beds are Irsecated above by a similar tabular arcbitectnral element, association of the Sundla Formation is atypical when compared to modern alluvial-
Tase Trough. Temporal and spatial distribution of fan-delta and braid-delta Fig. 3 and submarine-fan outcrop facies map iii Fig. 8 are illustrated in inset. thereby outlioieg a discordset angular relationship, the two units are separated by u fan deposito. Hrwnrd (1978) has indicated that incision of alluvial-fan surfaces may
rompieses along wnstrrn macgsa of basin is illustrated. Stratigraphie Location of cross section shown in Fig. I -
18th-order bounding surface (Fig. 3, Ial). occur as a result of increased Water discharge or scarp retreat and lowering of relief
position of facies maps from subaerial and subaqneous portion of fan-detto The second type of aechilcclaeal clement ix delined by parallel-stratified within the source region. A third explanation tar dissection of the fan surface by
conglomerate beds that tetaucate against the lower third- or foueth-ordre bounding channels is base-level lowering in response to a sea-level fall. Heckel (1986) has
surface. This awbilectural element is lcnticutae in shape with u coxcavv-apwaed demonslealed that high-frequency, glacio-enstnlic sea-level oscillations with
basal bounding surface that outlines channel fills with widths et 10-300m, sed opto Milankovitch peesedicitics existed in late Falcazeic tinte. These high-troquency sea-
t) m in thickuess (Fig. 3). There scpaeatc types of channel-fill elements are level fluclnations would have enabled the occureence of several sea-level lowslands
identified on the basis of internal geometry of parallel-stratified conglomerates. during deposition el a single alluvial-lan srquenco in the Sandia Formation, such us
Rare enamples of parallel-stratified tabular beds truncate against both margins el throne depicted in Ftgstro 3.

Soegaarsl Architectural elements of fao-della deposits 218

 Dark-colored muds! one: basino! sediments

Description. Laminated. daek-colored mudstonex dominate the stratigraphie interval

assigned to the fan-della complex. Near Sipape, II kot from the Picoris-Fecon Fault,
mudntones constitute up te 69% of the fan-delta complex, aud increase to 92% within
the exponed poetion of the basin-fill xaccensien 23 kot from the border fault (Fig. 2).
Mudotonen contain primarily terrestrial organic matter. Total organic-matter Content on
average in 0.7% (Fekeso, 1988). The mudxloneu nro devoid of bondie marine fauea, such
ax bracbiopodv and fusulioido, which are abondant io rtwkx of equivalent ago in the
southern Taon Trough in the Pocos shelf region (Sutherland, 1963). Likowioe. abuedaot
biolucbotioo it absent within thin facies anseciatioe.
Interpretation. Fine graio size, well-developed lamination and lack of marine
benthic fauna indicate thaI mndstonev were deposited from hemipelagic snspention
in a dysarrobic te anaerobic, relatively deep-tooter eueironment (nro bnclyk, 1987).
Abandant teercsteial organic manor suggonlv vigeificant iopot from fluvial discharge.
Dank-colored mudslonex occupy the baninal portion el the fan-detta comptes and
constilntr viesttzlty the ondee soecesxioo of the complex in the cenIno! porteon nl the
SOU T H
NORTH
20m
-o;-
(C)
o--
FIG. 4.Parallel-stoatifled conglomerate beds nbiqmtnns to alluvial-fan
deposits in the Saad'ia Formation. This example in from sbeetllood deponuto
ix. Fig. 3.
FIG. 3.Photnmosaic, fouies map and fauies-map interpretation of
alluvial-fan cnnglnmcrates from subaerial portion of fan-delta complen.
Location nf furies mops shown in Fig. 2. Based on palengeogeophic
considerations, palenflow was to the east-southeast and, therefore, into the (at
figure (see Cnsey, 19800). Inclination nf Strata doe te Late Ceetaceoos
Laramide tilling, which resulted to average regional dip of 26'NE tuant
provides schematic illustration nf hierarchy of bounding suefaces as defined
Inset: _.a,_(Q) (d) () (c) FIG. 5
for alluvial-fan conglomerates in Sandia Fnrmation. Parallel-stratified
conglomerates, which ore concordant with the lower bounding surf aun, were
deposited during unreslzicted sheetflnod events and nutlinc the alluvial-fun
bl
FIG. 5 b surface. When two arehitectunal elements containing sheetflnod deposits are
- Limit of Enposure
o _ - -SHEET-FLOOD DEPOSITS
NNANNEL inclined relative to ene another, so that the lower bnnuding surface of the
upper architeetnoal clement truncates parallel-stratified conglomerate beds
in the underlying depoxitional element (a), this signifies a reaerongement of
(dl s, CHANNEL COMPLEX the alluvial-tan xnrface A rearrangement of thu allovial-fan surface implies
that macreforms above and below the discordant surface did not coenist at

.
the tione of sedimentation und, theref mee, are not gcnctically related. The
F 1G. 5c bounding surface separating discordant sheetfinod depositional elements is
Posti S defined as a fifth-order surface (a). Fonrth-nrder bounding surfaces
oS DEPOSIIS separate unrestricted sheetflood deposits from stoeamflood deposits
DEPOS1 SHEEiOD contained within olluvial-fnn ephemeral-ehanuel elements (b) Third-order
SHEE°°° bounding surfaces separate similar architectural elements, such an single-
chanuel elements within alluvial-fan channel cnmpleues (e), or
--Limit of Exposure -- - -- superimposed concordant sheetflood deposits (d). Finally, first-order
bnundiog surfaces separate superimposed parallel-stratified tabular
FIG. SAlluvial-fan channel elements from Fig. in which the spectrum
of internal geometries of strata are illnuteated. tufereed channel-infilling
cooglomerate bedo. process fer each nf the three channel types is also shown.

_.._.__...._a *SRMN
Soegaard Architectural elements of fao-della deposils 219

FIG. 6Large allnvial-fan chamad (CH) ehnraetnriaing banhfnll
depos.tior.. Note lateral acerotion sets (LA) and right-to-left migration of
channel asia. Channel deposit is 16 m thick and approxirnntnly 250 m wide.
Sec Fig. 2 for location of allttvinl-fan chasse!.
FIG. 7.Pkotomosaie of northern hail of snbaqneons fan-dotta
congtomeratr/sandstone eomplou, passing laterally into black basinal
mudstones. Facies map interpretation of subaqueous fan-detta
Soegaard Architectural elomrels of fax-della deposils
Lenticular conglon,erose anal sandstooe complex:
subaqueous ¡an-delta association
Description. Looticalar conglomerate and saodstone complexes >20 na thick aod
opIo 340 m in seidth, ore encascsf by she black basieal-madctooe facies asxocialior
(Figs. 7, 0). The tcoticular coegtomerate/sanststoee complexes are restricled lo the
western part of the Taos Trough and occur within the same stratigraphie section as
the mont distal portions of alluvial-fan complexes. Conglomerates and sandstones
are poorly sorted (oc l.lø) and have mean grain sizes ranging from 0.6-4.0 mm.
Mnnimnm einst sizes within lenticular bodies are in the medium-pebble range.
Unlike the parallel-stratified nllnvial-fan conglomerates, which are essentially
desoid of detrital matrix, conglomerates and sandstones in the lenticular complexes
contain 5-t2% altogceic clays. Moreover, black madstone mssnclasts are very
common in the conglomerate and sandstone beds.
Lenticular conglomerate and sandstone complexes are separated into a series of
discrete lenses based upon boundnsg-snrlace relationships and primary sedimentary
structures. Fifth-order bonuding surfaces ondine discrete conglomerale/sandslonr
bodies containing all constituent depositional elements recogniaed willsin the
teoticolar conglomcsalc/saudstouo complex (Fig. 8). tu Fignre Ou xix major und
three mmor saperimposed discrete lenses constitute an entire lenticular
congtomcrate/sandstoue complex. Individual lenses are bctwecn 2 and 6 m Ihick
and 40 to 280+ m in width. Within individual couglomerate/sandstone lenses
fourth-ordcr bounding surfaces wparate two principal lacios associations: 1. a
channel complex composod o! laterally discontinuous couglomeratr beds, aro
contained within moro or loss well-defined channel etements (Figs. 8, 9), and 2.
na ore contin000s sandslore urntx, which extend for >60 m lrom the margin of
channel complexes and ultimately terminate at higher, fifth-order bounding surfaces
(Fig. 8b).
The channel complex consists el congtomerate-size material and cccnpies the
central portion of cooglomerale/sandstone lenses. Two types of channel elements
are identified. The liest possesses well-defined channel geometries with concave-
opwaed erosive lower surfaces that truncate underlying steala (Fig. tu). This
channel element is outlined by third-order bounding surfaces and is mIlled by a
variety rl facies, mcfndmg massive, normally graded und inverse-to-normally
nongloninratc/sandstone romplen is illnstrutnd in Hg. 8. White arrows depint
location 0f measured sortions in Fig. S and white hash marks represent 1-m
intervals within the sections in Fig. 8.
graded conglomerates (Fig. 9h). Laterally diseontinoous, line-geained saudstenes,
sdlstones or modstoues freqaentfy cap conglomerate beds und are scoured by
reerlying conglomerole nuits. Mudstone veneors may also drape Ihr base of
channels (Fig. 9k). Conglomerate beds with similar internal straciures are separated
by first-order bounding surfaces, whereas dissimilar facies arr separated by second-
order surfaces (Fig. 9h). These lower order sarlaces either trtmcale against the
basal, third-ordrr bounding surface at both esdx, or may be truncated against the
upper third-order bounding surface at one en J (Fig. 9h).
The secood type of channel element tcilhis the channel comples has highly
irregular upper und lower bounding surloces and dons not outline well-def med
channel geometries. Internally, these poorly developed channel elements are
composed of a single depesitional nuit of either manier er trough croc bedding
with ill-defined forrsels (Fig. tu, r). Individual dcpositiounl units arr np Io I na in
thickness and bee e erosive lower contacts.
The scored lacies association, consisting el laterally continuous beds within the
lenticular eonglomerale/saudstone comptes, is composed of cosrw- lo line-grained
sandstones that extend from the central channel cumplen onlward lo the fringe of
the conglomerote/sandslone lens (Fig. Ob). These sandstones eouwil ol complete
and meomplete llonma (1962) sequences, including T. T,a,, T. T, aud T0
divisions (Fig. 8).
Interpretation. Abundance of complete and incomplete Bouma sequences in
sandstone and sdtstoue units, and obseecc of abnndanl, wrll.dreeloped, traction-
generated stmctures within the lenticular conglomerate and saudstonr complex are
inlerpreted as sedimentation by gravity-flow processes. A high allogemc-clay
content in couglrmerates corroborates the tenet of deposition by gravity-flow
peocesses. The abue4anl clay matrix and lack of wuvo-generaled structures further
imply that deposition tools place below rllectier wave base.
The close proximity of these lenticular congfomerale/sandstoue complexes with
allueial laus in the northwestern Taos Trough signifies that the lenticular
couglomerate/sandstouc complexes represent the deeper water, sabaqueens portion
ola fan-della system.
Architectural rlrments within the submarine depositional system ore outlined by
third-, fourth-, and fifth-urder bounding surfaces. Filth-order bounding surfaces
contain all depositional elements identified within the subaqueous fan-delta
Co,ajnard on paco 222
220
 FIG. 8.& Cross section of northern half of subaqueous fun-delta
conojomerate and sandstone complex encased by black basinal mndstones.
This north-south cross section ix constructed from the photomosaic in Fig. 7.
The outcrop is parallel to depositional strike with flow east mto the figure.
Hash marks between section location arrows delineate meter increments
within sections and correspond to the hash marks shown in Fig. 7. Nine
stacked conglomerate/sandstone lenses, enveloped by fifth-order bounding
surfaces, constitute the entire conglomerate/sandstone complex.
Relationship between mid-fan channel complexes and lower-fun tobes is
illustrated. B. Single congtomerote/saadstoue lens in which the internal
geometry of beds within mid-fan channel and lower-fan tobe deposits is
itlastrated. See Fig. 2 far geographic and stratigraphie location of
submarine-tan deposit.

EXPLANATION FOR SECTIONS

EXPLANATION POORLT-DEVELOPEO TROUGH CROSS0EeS
CROSS LAMI5ATIONS
FOR CROSS SECTION
I sTeucTueELESs BEDS
LOWER-FAN LOOE MUOSTONE INTOUCLASTS
MIO-FAN CHANNEL PRINCIPAL SCOUR SUOFACE
SECTION LOCATION OCUNOINO SURFACE
OUXI000 ELUSI DIAMETER
SHORTHAND NOTATION OF LOWE 19X2)
5T
FOG INFERRED OEPOSITIONAL PROCESS

BASINAL MUDSTONES

AcchilecOural elemenos of fao-della deposits 221

Soegaard
.......... geometnes (Fig. 9a, e). These thich couglomeralic units were emplaced as high-
deosily gravity flows (see Lowe, 1902) or eohesioidess debris flows (see Postma,
1986) within the mid-fan region. Trough cross-beds signify traction-load
+ sedimentation during the initial stages of a liquefied flaw (Sr el Lowe, 1982). Poorly
developed foresets within these cross-beds are dueto limited avalanching associated
o with beifform propagation within the gravity-driven Dews. Alternatively, trough
cress-beds may signify scour-and-fdl depesitiou withont the presence al submarine
gravel dunes (Postma, 1906). Pronounced scour at the base of trough cross-beds
supports a scour-and-fill anigiu (Fig. Ri and e). Trough cross-bedded conglamerate
occupies the central and deepest pardon of mid-fan channel compleses, where flow
o competence presumably was masinsized (Fig. Sb).
Tranution from one liglh-Oeder architectural element to anether represents u
change m depesitionaJ environment (or repetition el the same environment) with
respect to lime. Verlicul arrangement o! depesitionat environments commonly
results from allogeede effects. Thou, Walther's Law should not be applied withoal
caution to facies transitions across fifth-order bounding surfaces.
Bounding surfaces of sise!' order or greater ondine dopesitional megaseqoeucet,
winch are several tens to hundreds of metres thick. Although these highest-order
bounding surfaces have not brou described in this paper, it is assumed that
depositional sequences enveloped by sisth-order seduces, er greater, are different
in age from adjacent sixth-order depasitinoal elements. The scale und inferred
stratigraphie relationships of these higher-order architectural elements are

o-
Inversely-graded and internally slasicluoctess conglomerate beds, aching consistent with definitions for depeumtioxat oyoteruo tracto in soismic-strutigraphic
10m significant erosional relief at their base, represettl traction-carpet sedimentation (S analysts (see Miteham and others, 5977; Posamentier and Vail, 1988).
of Lowe, 1982). Graded bedding capping the traction-load and traction-carpet
o The bouedmg surface hierarchy outlined bere provides u systematic way in which

0.5
-. S5 "
s3

s23
depesits signifies suspension sedimuntation caused by frictional freezing as liquefied
flows lout momentum (S of Lowe, 1982).
Nou-ehanudlized, laterally continuous beds, competed of complete and
incomplete Bouma sequences, were deposited within a lower-lan tobe setting. A
falsare geometry is interred for the uon-channetizrd tower fan based on the
architectural elements may be defined al all scales. Moreover, a genetic link
betweeu the smallest depesitionat units and the targesl architectural elements in
sedimentary baxinx may uow be conducted within a well-defmed framework.

15 50 0 FLETE
s2 MUD
51h,0c55 lenticular geometry el the nun-ehaunetized part of this fifth-order architectural
ait0Cae CINGL. element. In the prosimat pardon of lower-lan lobes, mid-fan channels scour into the
MUD S2 U) SAND
SAND lobe surface.
53/ lt thoold be noted brrr that neither lower-fan tobe deposits nor mid-lan channel
1.0 elements are identified by eoarsening/thickeuing-upward or fining/thinoing.apwurd
/ sequences, respectively. Rather, the two subeuvironments are interpreted on the SUBAERIAL
MUD FAN DELTA
DRAPE
basis of geometric analysis of aechitecftaral elements and reconstrnctiou of
MUD vI ve CONUL depesilianul processes.
SAND
o DISCUSSION
y':LSTEiSL
'uccuErtes SECS
1.0-1 -
Fan-dotta comptrses in the Sandia Fermatiou consist of alluvial-fan congfomeratea
m VEo 2 and related, subosamior-fan conglomerates uts! sandstones that ave enclosed by dark-entered
l4ID.FAs
fi mudstouet of basinal nfftuity. Within conglomerases aus! sandstones of these fan-delta
compleort, a spectrum of architectural rtomrun bus bevo identified at various scales SUBAQUEOUS
0 (Fig. 10). Those architrcsaeal elements, in tarn, ore outlined by a hierarchy of bounding
sudecoc
FIG. 9.A. Gnomcteic elements associated with unid-tan channel complcn for chamen! in (B). Arrows lu (B) puinl toward critica! buemding surface
m subaqueous portion of fan-detta complex. B. Dntuilnd map uf wnIl-dcfir.nd
chamen! element with mud doape along chamen! base. Location of chamen! in
relationships discussed in lent. C. Poorly developed trough eruss-bnds within
thick lenticular eunglomnratn in mid.fan chamen! complex. Son Fig. Rb for
As defined, first- and second-order bounding surfaces separate similar facies and
genetically related, bat dissimiar, furies, respectively. Both first- and second-order
buanding surfaces outline elements that were deposited during short-lived events.
Trous

01x00 OPE
\ \ nustsal.
OUI500ÑES

(B) is illustrated by stipplee! pattern se (A). Naln ensima! exaggeration of n2
complexes. These include chaunelizod conglomerates assigned lo the mid-fan
poeteon of a submaeine fan, whereas laterally continuous sandstone beds were
deposites! within a lower-lan lobe setting (terminology al Mutti and Ricci Luechi,
1972). Coexisting mid-lan-channel conglomerates and lower-fan-lobe sandstones
ne cuntameat within the same fifth-order depositional olemeul and are separated by
a fourth-order bounding surfaces (Fag. Su, b).
Two types of chamret elements are identified within the mid-lan realm. Well.
developed channel elements enveloped by third-order bounding surfaces, are
iufdled by multiple beds and commonly hice a mud-draped base (Fig. 9h). The
location of detailed facies map within conglomnraln/sandslonn cumplen.
mud-draped chanuol floor implies that opeu channels esisted during the dormant
stages ou the mid-lan regioc. These open channels may be analogous to submarine
"chutes", described by Prior and Boruhold (1988) in moderes "submarine fjord lass
deltas", ve "gssllies" described for the Upper Jurassic of East Greenland (Surlyk,
1987). Multiple beds occupying the channel elumonts indicate that submarine
gravity flows were preferentially funnelled down through theme open channels in
the mid-fan reglen.
The second type of submarine mid-fan deposisiunal element consists of single
thick (03-1 w) eougtomcoale beds that do eat outline small-scale channel
e nons E L
flurs!- and fourth-order buanding surfaces define meseseopic and mucroseopie
depesitionol elements, such as channels oe channel complexes. Fer crumple, in the
un ut n
submarine-fan deposits in the Sandia Formation, fourth-order bounding induces Flans
envelop either mid-lan rhaunef comp!oses vr lower-fan lobes. Since mid.fau
channel complexes occupy the proximal portion of submarine fans and lower-lan
lobes the distal portion el snbmariue fans, both depesitionat elements consisted in
Lone
time. Thea, dard- and fourth-order bounding ssrfuces doline urchitrcfural elements Ott. U T E
r unotel T E S
used in reconstructing depositional palceenvieonments in accordance with Walther's
Law.
Fifth-order bounding surfaces envelop all meso- und macroscopic architectural FIG. lll..-flnpoxitioral mude! for fan-detta complus in Sandia Formation.
elements existing wiltsin a given subenvironment at any point in tiene. Both mid-lao Spatial dislributior of utluvial fan, submarine fan and basinal mudstonen is
channels and lower-fan lobes in Sandia submarine loes are contained within Ihr illustrated. Also showu are principal architectural elements associated with
same depesidonat clement defmed by fifth-ceder bounding surfaces (Fig. Sa). the subaerial need subaqueous portion of the fan delta.

Soegaard Architectural elements of fan-delta deposits 222

 CONCLUSIONS
Architeclural-element analysis of tho sobaerial and subaqneous portion of fan-
delta complrxrs in the Sandia Formation provides not only detailed informataon
concerning the geometry of deposilioaaf elements within the fan-delta comploxes,
but afso information regarding dopositionaf processes within the system.
The subaerial alluvial-fan portion of fais deltas was characterized by exclusively
vphcmvrul discharge. Channel-fill geometric elements ussocialed with alluvial fans
indicato that ephemeral discharge varied from minor flows eonfmed to channof
floors to major floods during which time most of the fan surface was iuuudatcd.
The subaqueous portion of fan deltas is composcd of submanec-f au
conglomerates and sandstones deposited within dark-colored bannai mudstoucs
adjacent to alluvial faux. Submariue fans consistrd of a chaunclized middte fus and
lower-fan lobes. Mid-fan channels were characterized by opon gullies through
which high- and tow-density gravity flows were funnelled. Lower-fan-lobe deposits
were lenticular in geometry and consist of aor-channefized fow-drnsity terbidile
deposits.
Rcceguitioa of suharrial and subaqsrous portions of faa-dclta complexes in the
Sandia Formation is not predicated on analysis of vertical neuves but is baird,
radice, upon integrating deposiional processes and architectural rfrmonts scithia
fan-dcf ta compleses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper beaclilled greatly from the reviews of John G. McPherson and Gian
G. Ori as wrfl as Andrew D. Miall.
nllrEnENCES CITED
Bvi,eneosv, J.C. eve Asuren, G.M., 1975, Procesen, bur morphology, and
srdimentaiy struvtarnx ou braided onlwash fans, uortheastcrn Gulf of Alaska,
ix Jopling, AV. and McDonald, B.C., edo., Glacioftuvial and glaciolacuslnine
sodimentutiun. Society of Economic Paleontofogisls and Mineralogists Special
Publication 23, p- t93-222.
Bourse, AH., 1962, Sedimenlofogy of seme flysch deposite Elsevier, Amsterdam,
168 p.
Bevi., W.B., 1972, Rrcegniiiun of alluvial-fan deposits in the struligraphic rrcord, ix
Rigby, K.J, and Humblia, W.K., odi., Recogtulion of ancicut sedimentary
rnvirosmmrnts: Society of Economie Paleonlologielx and Mineralogisls Special
Publication 16, p- 63-83.
Csi.eneu., KR., 1987, Depositionol history und pafrotvetomc implications of the
Pennvytvuaian-Permiaa Sangre de Cristo Formation, northern New Mesico:
unpublished 68.5. thesis, University uf Trias at Dallas, Richardson, Trans, 150
Czar, J.M., 1980a, Depositional systems und basin evulution of dir laIe Puleozoic
Taos Trough, northern New Mesicc unpublished PhD. thesis, University of
Tenas at Austin, Arstis, Tesas, 236 p.
Soegaard
19806, Depositionzl systems and pzlcogcographic evolution of the late
Palnozric Taos Trough, rorthurn New Mexico, in Fouch, TO, and Magathan,
ER., odi., Paleozoic paleogeographic evolution of west-central United States
Rocky Mountain Suction., Society of Economic Paleanlolegists and
Mineralogists, West-Central United Stales Puleogeography Symposium t,
Denver, Colorado, p. 181-1%.
Overos, SP., 1982, Pcnusylvanian fan-delta carbonate deposition, Moheetie Field,
Tusas Pauhandlu: American Association of Putroleum Gvrlogints Bulletin, r.
66, p. 389-407.
Fueren., SR., 1988, Potrology and diagenesis of Pennsylvanian arkosic sandsloucs,
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Precambrian rocks of New Mrsico: New Mcsico Bureau of Mines and Mineral
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H.susu, J.C., Socrnssne, JE, sie Warnen, RG., 1982, Structures and sequences in
classic rocks. Society of Economic Palcontolugists and Mineralogists Short
Course 9,251 P.
H.avncru, All., 1985, Coastal alluvial fans (Ian deltas) of the Gulf of Aqabu (Gulf
of Elal), Red Sea: Scdimentary Geology, v.43, p. 245-260.
Hecem, PiI., 1986, Sra level curve fer Pennsylvanian enslatie marine transgrnssive-
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Genlogy, v.14, p. 330-334.
Hewum, AP., 1978, Alluvial fan srqnrncr aud mvgasrqnrnce models: with
examples from Wcstphalian D - Slvphnnizu B coulfields, northern Spans, ix
MiaU, AD., ed., Fluvial srdimenlology: Canadian Society of Peteuleum
Geologists Memoir Sp.669-702.
Hones, SE., 1982, Shretflncsls, shrelwash, sheetflow, or .7: Earth Science
Rcvicws, e. lOp.59-'16.
Kacni, CF. axe Corer, PJ., 1981, Piale tectonics of the Ancestral Rucky
Mountains: Grrlrgy, e. 9, p. 10-15.
Leacnev, DA., Cairn, R.F., ase Sovu.mae, Si., 1986, Minium and Sangre de Cristo
Formations of southern Colorado: a prrgnadiag fan delta and alluvial sequence
shed from Ihr Ancestral Rocky Mountains, ix Pelersou, TA., ed.,
Paleotecionics and Sodimentation: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Memoir 41, p.54l-S6l.
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MeGonwv, J.H. awe Guarne, LE., 1970, Pbytiographic fratnrev and stratification
types of courra grainrd peint bars: modcrn and ancient esamples:
Sedimentology, y. 14, p. 77-111.
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p. 331-340.
Archileclsral eirmenfs of fan-della deposils
Mise, AO, 1988, Ruwrvoin heterogunritius 'in fluvial sanitsloucs: lussous from
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Taira, A. and Masoda, F., rda, Sedunenlnry facies in dir active plate marges:
Turma Scientific Publishing Company, Tokyo, p.3-lS.
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hydrocarbon esploration: American Association of Petroleum Geologists
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inlradaction to lacier analysis: International Guolegy Review, 20, p. 125-166.
Fosssrcvncu, 11W. ran Von, P.R., 1988, Esstatic controls on clastie dnpesition Il -
sequence and syslems tract moduls, is Wilgns, C.K., Hastings, BO., Kendall,
G.St.C., Posainentiur, H., Ross, CA., Van Wagoner, J.C, eds., Sea-level
changes: au inlugrated approach: Society of Economie Paleuntolugists oid
Minrralogisls Special Publication 42, p. 125-154.
Poma, G., 1986, Classification for sedimenl gravity-flow deposite based on flow
conditions during srdimcnlatioe: Geology, y. 14, p.291-298.
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fan dultas and related high-gradienl systems: modern examples from British
Colombia, in Nuinec, W. and Steel, Ri, eds., Fan deltas: sedimeutology and
tectonic netting: Blackie and Sous LId, London, P. 125-143.
Ronrsrn, J.W., Barnum, LI., zas Wccnun, Hi., f976, Subsurface Paleornic
slratigraphy of thy nurthrastrrn New Mexico basin and arch complex: Ncw
Mexico Geolugical Socinty Guidebook, 2716 Field Cunference, Vemmego Park,
p. t41-152.
Resi, CA., 1986, Palrozoic evolution of southern murgen of Pvrxman Basin:
Geolugical Society of Amvrica Bulletin, v.97, p.53S-554.
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Pronation, Taon Trough, northern Nrw Mexico: depesitionul und Irclonic
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Svin,sn, P., t9S7, Slope und deep shelf gully saudstonrs, Upper Jurassic, East
Greenland: American Associaliou of Putrulrum Geologists Bulletin, s. 71, p.
464-475.
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Sutherland, P.R., edo., Geology of part nl the southern Sangre dr Cristo
Mountains: New Mexico Bnmuau of Miaus and Mineral Resources Memoir 11,
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Wrscovr, W.A. aan Ennnuseu, PG, 1980, Fan-delta snslimentology and leclonic
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Pctrolrmn Geulogislx Bulletin, v.68, p. 374-399.
223
 SEDIMENTOLOGY OF A SEQUENCE BOUNDARY
WITHIN THE NONMARINE TORRI VIO MEMBER,
GALLUP SANDSTONE (CRETACEOUS),
SAN JUAN BASIN, NEW MEXICO
ANDREW D. MIALL
Geology Doparforrortl,
Urrir'rroify of To,ornf o,
Torornto, Octtayio, Careada MSS 3B1
A050a.scr me Gallop Sasdatoor of t000hnat Ne.. Mexico constata oía sani,. of aaodalox, tolgono.
depoSIted ra ataaedplaia o,oaooamoaa. icateebedded arith froe.grsrned ncaaie, aadrareats of rho Macona
SItar,, The oppo000al tosgxe motodea ahales and litar aaodat0000 of lhn'r.,to,ta,tnt Galtop' and a
prominent aaxdal000 00.1. the Toando Member Th, larron baa boor. maceVaded a. flotar in ungo.
Eanheomook by other teseaootaesn interpretad the Tomloro ax the basal nembea of a oaaagoessrxe
aaqoe000. nehreh i,clad,a in to appen part opecontanree 0101f deposita of the oppeo Maxroa Shale
The eosttaaio, Gallop 000tai aone ourdeant of mann, reflatarare sed aroaenpnerod bene a. a
baok.baaaien tidal-fiat on tagoceal dayanrt. The 000elyrxg Tonnioio M.mb,n io Coniai in ita oncee pant.
bal sorse aoct.Oax along the 000St axa ao.auh 050k of Sao Joan Baara rontio tIdal ad ot Ihn
upper part of the member, A ptot000ttt hoxadoag amfate sapanarea fitrotal from ttdally .xOremd vedo
ra aotn, loSalrtros, sad rl ja saggested beer that tIria ra the esitiOo of the mata aeaoxm b000deny.
machag the time of maromom nogeesalon 'l'ho saccnaaioe op ro Oxa bounding aottaro a that of a
eegtesatoe. sraandplaic ro totoral parnaaq000m. Ab000 the aootace. tidal deposito, probably r,prna0010rg
cstsatnue aaad aboala. tons the bann of s tracagarmix, srqannm.
tfaaimam reganaaron may cerned Ore Ilmo of 0.1,51 000x0, sca 1,0er Itone000n. rhcec la 50
cndepeodaar oxideart of aro-leonI changs. Ca,nnrr modela Inox prapeea to rapIna chang, io foliar
0000nofartor apace eath nntereem o drang, lx hase Iroel oar flaof. and so attemartoo model of
rcgional a0000trism sod na011ttrag nrneaana ta serxtrnonraoppty caxsei hr toted ox. aS a mechataiam ter
the geaeaat.oeot ftoatal tocgooa n fotelaed baanta.sooh m the Tronolo Member
INTRODUCTION
Sotpaonce stratigeaphy ni the study of the oednerd succession of fados dopostlod
daaring the traasogeessiona atad engeossions that rossaIt foam colativo claaaigns ita hoa
level. Coeeolation of sotgxences within and bolineen basins leads to the devolopmonl
of local and regional charts of saa-lovel change which can be interproted in tonno of
fcctooic atad/roe eustatic controls. Recent developments in soqaonce stratigraplay
have sorvod to revinalie' thu sltady of voetical lilhofacios profiles as interpeetive
tools. They hayo also ,oeealed dan inadeqaacy of conventional liilaostoaligeaphic
somonclaftaro and Ihn good foe a different approach fo stratigraphie subdivision,
rcsxlliasg in the dofixition of the xnconfo,naily.boandod anis.
Dopositional modelo fo, soqraenco dovelapanont sxggesl simple lwo-dianenoioaal
progradational and rotrogeadational coastal prisms (e.g., Posamotalice and othoes,
1988; PosamestliOr and Vail, 1988), and mauy publiohod stradins confiam lito general
applicability of vxch mxdols (e.g., sor mamy examples in Ncamxmedal and others,
1987; Jamos and Lochie, 1988). Howovrr, many local variations in coastal
steatigeaphy can decor along sleilco in rospoaso to chaages io local subsidence cales,
m shoroliac configuration, and in wave. and lide'eegimo, and bocauae of the
pecsonce of the moaths of dyers and tidal chaaucls (Namtatedal and Swill, 1987).
Those load to morn coorples xoqaence aachilocfxros.
Miall
This study was undoelahen to esploro the delailod facies arclaitectaro of a flavia!
f ongran that was deposited chaing a regreusiee phase of seafuence development.
Stodies by Campbell (1975), McCubbin (1982), Nnmmedal and Swift (1987) and
Namsmedat and others (1989) have shown that the Gatlnp Sandstone of the Sois
Joan Basin in noethwesl Now Mesico consisla mainly of a senos of shallow-marine
and marginal-marine sandstone tongttes interfmgering with opoa-mariaae mxdslotses
and siltstanos. Thu sandstono tongues recoed sovreal regressive phases, but only al
Oho top of the Gallup Saatdstone did a regression load to the drvelapmenl of a
wtdespeead nonananne sxccession oxtendang aceoss the San Juax Basin. Earlier
noxmarino phases may have been developed aromad the margins of the basin bnl
foc the most part mero not preserved (D. Nummedal, pers. commun., 1989, stated
thaI seme oxfceops of flovial sandstone thaI correlate with lower longues of the
Gallup have now boon mapped).
The flnvial longno at the top of the Gallup Sandslono is refereed to as the
Tornino Member. Facies studies repented bere reveal a varied vertical succession
and a comples paleoeureent pattern. At each location the vertical profile through
the Torrivio Membee is ddfcreat, and oc regional paleoflow patterns can be
recognized, l'bis seggeses that there was a thaeo-ditnemsional complruty to tha
paleogeogeaphy during Torrivio deposition, and iadieates that the idealized one- and
two-dimensional soqnence models that are now becoming popolae most be untad
with exteemo caution in the interpretation of aetna! ancient esamplos.
REGIONAL SETTING AND PREVIOUS WORK
The Gallup Sandstone is one of several pecdomiaanity manioc sandstone units
deposited in the Western Intoner Seaway during the Ceflaceons. It is well exposed
along the west and south odes of San Juan Basin, Now Mexico and, te the east and
north has a complex intorfingeriasg relationship with the Manean Shale, which
occurs moody rn thr subsarface within tho basin. In outcrop the Gallup Sandstone
consists mainly of a series of marine-sandstone tostgnes separated by wedges of
Mancos Shale. Each demonstrates a pattern of regressi on and renewed
transgression of Ihr seaway, with the marine Gallup Sanded one bagnes represcntiag
baoeieeslrandplain systems drveloped along the mangia of the seaway. To the west,
the manar Gallnp passes into a succession of nonmarine beds. The marine tongues
of the Gallup Saadstoxe were interpreted as the prodoxct of Wave-dominated
sltoeeline sedimentation by Campbrll (1971) and thr Gallup Sandstone has since
boon widely cited as a type example of this style of sedimentation (e.g., Harms atad
others, 1975; McCabbin, 1982). McCabbin (1982) also recognized lagoonol and
tidal-inlet facies, but did noI denenibe these deposits in dotail.
The strotigrnphy of the Gallup Sandstone was studied in detail by Moleuaar
(1983), who cotastoucled a series of detailed slratigrapbic cross sections throogh the
San Juan Basin. Ftgnee t is adapted from ono of these sections. Thu Torrone
Member ix def'med as a predominantly pinh ftsvial sandstone that oecues at the top
of the Gallup Sandstone. According to Molenaar (1983, p. 34) St consists of as
many as three tandslone beds separated by inlercbannel carbenacoom shale,
sillstane, fine-groused sandstone, and minor coat beds.' The member Was stated by
Moteuoar (1983) to range feom a maxamum of SO su duck to a pinchoat scella and
east of Gallup. A snecession of fino.grained beds, inclndiag shale, siltstono and coal,
occurs between the Tornsio sandslones and the marine Gollup Sandstone in most
oreas, and is refereed to as the 'nosmaeiee Gallsp.' Above the Torsivio is a similar
suit of fine-groined rocks, assigned to the Dilco Coal Momboc of the Couvasse
Caeyosx Formation. Above this are marine shales and distinctiee brown shelf-
Sedimrelology of the Torrivio Member, Sax Juxu Basin
element wherever there were adeqaalr dota, ilsieg the methods of Curray (1956).
s WINDOW ROCK SHIP ROCK Mean directions ann shown in Ftgnre 3.
GENEI1AI. CIlAaACTEntsTlCs OF THE TORRIVIO MEMBEn
Dalton Ss. ..Moress Shale
Crrxnssr
Caryxo Fou ongurs et Toclfe Snndstonr The Torrisio Member shows marhed variations in lltholegy, vertical ssccessian,
'.DilcO ConI Mbe.- and Ihickuess. The thinnest section measured daring this sttady is at Shiproch Wash,
where the member is only 4.5 m thick. The thickest section is the SO m of bods
Torrido Membre:.
exposed noue Nose Rock Point, ai section 4. It is ponsiblu that at the incomplete
,,zz,avIIII sections at locations 1 and 3, the member is thicker. The base and top 0f the
Gallup
Sondstenr
u,/III /14 nenmarir,s,dimenfs I ? I mrmber are well defined whnrevrr they are esposad, but correlation of suits within
flucial /t:dal sadirtenfs the member presents a problem because of the marked differences in thickeess and
Murcos Shale
vertical succession between most of thr sections.
25 mar nr sandsfonr A tentative donen is recognized os the basis of detailed slsdies al sections 1, 4
20 ken marine shalo, sllfsfOnt and 6, sehere a marhed llthofacies and paleocarrent change takus place in the
middle of the member. This dotxm is tentatively correlated with the other sections,
Fan. t.Schematin nurth-snntlo stratigraphix croan scatting nf the Gallnp although the evidence at these other locations is less convincing. This datum was
Sandatune ulnrag tian wnst side af Sun Jasan Basin. Adaptod trum Mulenaar
(1983).
sandstone losgues of the Tecito Sandslone Lentil of the Mancos Shals. The three COLORADO
nonmarine seils (nonmarime Gallsp, Torrivio, Dilco Coal) are variable in thickness, NEW MEXICO
because of lateral facies changes between them, and bccaxse of ckanuehmg nathan
the Tornivio Mombee. Separation of the nuits is commonly arbitrary (seo later
disenssiots). Together, they represent a period of maxtmsm regresstott of the sea at SHIP ROCK
.
FA R M IN OTO N
Ibe close of the interval represented by thr Gallap Sandslone.
LOCATION AND METHODS
Síu stratigraphie sactixas ois the south and west sides el the San Joan Basin were
measured and desetibed. Their locations are shown in P'tgure 2, and the
stratigraphy, facies and paleocurrent dota are sxmmarizod un Ftgrare 3.
Spectacular cliff exposures of the Torrivae Member decor northeasl cf the town
of Gallup. A pholomosaic of one of these cliffs (location 4), which is abonO 480 m
long, is shown in Figure 4. Thr ostcrop was photographed esing a telephoto lors
teem a distance of more than t ans. Beanding surfaces wore defined by carefal
examination of the rratcrop und were drawn on a photo overlay m the hold.
Although much of this cliff is nearly vertical and inaccessible, a consideroblo
amoont of deacriptive data was obtained by traversing along the base of the cliff, op
the sides, and out along a few prominent ledges. A generaltzed vertacal profile mas
constructed from these dola and is shown m Figure 3. Soctaon 1, near the old
Sundance Miau, sosth of Gallup, is also a large oulcoop. Accessibility is escetlont m
this case, and the outcrop was studied in detail in order to construct a complete
laloral prof'de (Fig. S). Lithofacies types were classified using thu fanes
classificatian et Miall (1977, 1978), with the addition of a lithefacios lype ter cress'
hod sets interpreiod tobe of tidal origin (aro laien discossiou). Distinctive lithofaeies
AL8UQUE ROUE
assemblages were classified wherever pessiblc into architocicaral elomonss ssmg the mule euferop bnlf
methods of Miall (1985), and bounding snrfaues onere defined and classified lasi,g nf Gallup SandstOnr
the techniques of Mial (1988a, b). 0 50km
Al each location as much orientation dota as poxsible were obtained. A careful
record was made of the type and scale of each measured sirautiare, and its location
within a profile. Vuelen statistics wenn calculated far each bed or aechileetural Fm. 2.Lunging uf mnasnred straeagraphae seetiuns.
224
 used in the constesuctioss of Figure 3. lt is terstativety issterpretrd as a surface of Bounding surface A termcates element 1 at a low sugle. tt is followed by a few
structures and accessories reonal exposure recording the change from regression to transgression. The basis centimeters of very poorly sorted, coarse- to very coarse-grained argillaceous
elements 3 for this interpretation is that at sections 1, 4 aod 6 the datum is represented by a saedstene containing abundant madstone intractasls. A recessive mudstone lens is
.._- lateral Or wood fragments logs prominent bounding surface with llnvial units below and beds above that contain also present at the contact in a few places. The contrast in lithofacies between the
downstream evidence of marine. typicallp tidal inflnence. However, it is possible that some or all beds above and below, the evidence of erosion in the farm of truncation, and the
j0 plant hash
accretion -Sen' S\ of the fluvial amts below the datsun represent the fill of incised channels deposited poorly sorted heals resting ou the sneface, typical of channel tags, indicate that thin
LA lateral accretion
/20
/
-u-
roots
trace fossils
daring a time of rising relative sea level (cl. solee sod others, 1987). These
characteristics are described and interpreted in detail below, because they bear on
bounding surface is at least of filth-order rank (Miall, 1988a, b; tee also Miall, this
volume), techas the base eta channel.
DA downstream accretion the placement of the segnence boundary. The sequence interpretation discussed The beds of element 2 hace a grolle dip te the west (4', azimuth 270'). This is
.L
DA
here is slightly different from that proposed by Ntanmedat and Swift (1987) and
CS creoasse splay * mud intraclasts
Nummedal and others (1989), as discussed ina later section.
sliajstly steeper than the beds of element t, and the beds of element 2 are shaoply
truncated by element 3. The dip of the beds in element 2 is tentatively interpreted
SB sand bedforms as depositional in origin, with the miner internat boseding sarl aces recording lateral
s THE sECTIONs accretion. Three minor boanding surfaces (A' to A") occur ut changes in
mean paleoflow lithofacies, but display no evidence al erosion. They are thceelorc classified as
and number of Suxdnrrce Mixe (Section 1)
7 readings second ordee. They subdivide element 2 into four units, each characterized by
diflereet lithofacies. Onbelrmeuts 2.1 and 2.3 are composed mainly el trough cross-
The appermost marine Gallup sandstone al this location consists of fine-grained, bedded saudstone. Subelemrnts 22 and 2.4 consist mainly of planar cross-bedded
5h51

el4.
plane-bedded and herringbone-cross-bedded sandstoue. The neta 10m of beds (Fig.
3; beds net thesen in Ihr prefile, Fig. 5) correspond so the nonmarine Gallup and
7J consist of poorly indurated sandstone inlerbedded with carbonaceous shale and
sillstene. Rootlets are abundant. Three is an abrupt but appaernlly conformable
saudstone. lo subelement 2.2 the sets are sp te 1.2 m thick and may represent
lissguoid bars (large-scale 2-D dunes, in the classification of Ashley, 1940). Vector
meas cress-bed orientation toe element 2 is 319'.
Bounding surface B shows up le 2 m of erosional relief. lt truncates the

\ 5 contact with the overlying, well-indurated sandstone that constitutes element 1 in

Sbp 2 stratification and bonnding surfaces of elements 1 and 2 below, las the southwest
el3..\5 30 Sr
Sp 5t,Sr
Sr \\i5
6 the lateral profdr (Fig. 3), and forms the lowest assit of the Torrivio Member. Most
of this soit consists of cram-bedded sandstone with grain size ranging from fme to
(left) part of the profile, surface B is followed by np te 4 m of poorly sorted,
medium- to very coarse.geained sandstone with poorly def'med trough cress-bed
st Sbp very coarse. Much of this range in grain sizes occurs beeween cross-bed laminae, sels and abundant logs up 102 w long, plus plant hush. Many of the logs urn riddled
B but there is altos crude upward fining from the base te the sop of the unit. with Treedotitru borings (Fig. 6). The top of this zone is shown by a dashed tine on
Sh,Sl '..
9\ St St /22 st \ Thr dominant Sthofaeies type in element I is Sp planar-tabular cross-bedding. the profile. The erosional relief on surface Band the presence eta poorly sorted lag
St 33,'
... 13
el2-ot'.5P LA
Sets are 8 to 40 cm thich. Ne reactivation surfaces were noted. Small-scale ripples
are mee, Set contacts are simple, with no evidence of erosion, and are therefore of
deposit above are the characteristics of a mujer internal erosion surface, such as a
channel loor (earth 5). For reasons that am discussed taIre surface B is, in fact,
first order, in the terminology of Miall (t980a, b; see also MiaU, this column). This regarded ass sixth-order surface.
St,Sl gnp
size oc
element, which is 15 m thich, is similar te the 'Platte-type' assemblage of Miall
(1977), and is classified as element type SB: sand bedforms, irving the nomenclature
of Miall (1985). Vector mran-cunens direction for this element is 046'.
Element 3 consists of two main lithof scies, St: trough crass-bedding, and Sbp:
bandied planar cross-bedding. The latter is illustrated in Figure 7. lt is characterized
by regularly spaced reactivation surfaces which truncate underlying loresets at a
low angle. As discnssed later, this structure is typical of cross-bedding formed under
itholoes the influence of tidal currents. Simple vertical borrows and horizontal feeding traces
I
mi]] am commonly associated with these bandied cross-heal sets. A few units of
sandstone lithofacies Sp were also observed at the sonthwest end of the profile. Vector mean
Pro, 3-Sto.tigruphic sectinns through the Toreivin Member of the Gullnp cross-hod orientations are similar fer all three lithofacies in element 3 and show a
Sandstnne, San Juan Basin. Lower cnrrelation tie-line dermes the abrnpt but grand mean et 035'. Note that this is almost 180' relative to the cross-bedding of
silt sta n e
5- cunfuesnable contact with the marine Gallup Sandstone belnw. Upper helme
is the contant between the Gallup sandstone and rme-grmeed buds uf either
element 2, below.
On a larger scale, the bedding inclement 3 has a gentle depositional dip toward
mudstarie m the Dileo Coal Member (Crevasse Canyon Furmattun) nr the marine the northeast. Individual bounding surfaces pass down through the zone of poorly-
Manens Shale. Horizontal datum is an interpreted seqnenee boundary sorted sandstone with logs at the buse of element 3 and dosssslap onto surface B. No
structures o- separating fluvial Terrino below from marine-influenced Toreivio abuee
(bnt see discnnnion in tent). The eonntrast is clearest at sortions 1,4 and 6, as censisteet changes in facies characteristics er evidence of erosion were soled on
these bounding surfaces, which therefore are classified as first order in rank.
Sp ¿'S 5t trough cross-bedding disnnsned ir. the fest. Lithofacies typen nnd seehitretneal elements are
Exceptions would be the snrfaces separating litholacies Sp and Sbp, but these
diseusued io the tent. Arrows are ventor moans toe individual beds or
FI Sp planar cross-bedding elements. Numerals indicate number of readings. Letters and nnmbnrs of cannot be mapped in detail because of incomplete exposure. Them snefaces are
left of columns for sections 1 and 4 refer to bounding surfaces and clement interpreted as surfaces of lateral accretion.
S Sbp bundled planar c-bed numbers, as shuwu ¡u Figures 4 and 5. Grain size is indieated by width of Surf aee C is similar to surf ace B. lt forms u prominent bench on the outceop, and
_.,-rK\ Sr current ripples column (scale at lower right, abbreviations: m = mndstone, s niltstnne; is followed by 2 m of sondstone containing plant hash. It is tentatively interyreled
sand grades: nf = very rme, f fine, m medium, e coarse, ve very osa fifth-order surface. Beds above are very poorly exposed; most are 001 in place,
coarse; p pebbles). und no taries or paleecuerent obervutions were possible.

Miull Sedimeatology of the Torrivio Member, Sun Juun Bovin 225

 6
Cs
B Fig8 6
0m LA

LJ
F1o. 4.Photomosair and ixterproted lateral profile, section 4, near Nose
Rock Pomt. Major bounding surfaces mdicatrd by heavy lines and letters A
to D. Ranks (5 or 6) indicated by small letters (elassifiralion of MiaU, 1988a,
b) Noto that rank of saetare B changes along strike (see text). Arehiteetreal
elements mdieated by two-letter eodes LA lateral aecretion, CH
channel, LE levee, CS crevasse splay.

Miau Sedimcnlology of lhc Torrivio Member, San Juan Basin 226

 4
ç Sb P 6
//Fig.7 //
1Sbp ist' B
ist 7
Sbp 3-LA St J o 2I --- Sp
¡
t 6
B
24 Sp
A" f

0450
st
0'
I
2 3 st
I0m A 2-LA
=t Sp

/Sp f
- Sp
I J

Pro. 5.Photomosoic and lateral profile, section 1, Snndunce Mine.
Boassdrng surfaces and clement codes atm Figuoo 4. Element 2 is subdivided
into fono parts Z.t to 2.4 by minor (second-order) snrfaees A' to A".
Litbofacics typos inctude Sp planar cross-bedding, St: trough cross.
bedding, Sbp: bundled planar cross-bed sots (neo toot for eoplarsation).
Aroows imlitute individnut patoocu000nt reudingn. To facilitsto visnul
mtorprotation these are plotted so that flow parallel to the face is shown by
horizontal aroown (azimuth 045' points to the right, azsmnth 225' points to
the left), and flow perpessdicutar to the fato is indicated by vertical arvows
(azimuth 315' points up, 135' points down).

Miau Sedimentology of the Torrivio Member, San Juan Basin 227


Eaor Noor Rook Poirtt (Section 4)
This is the thickest (50m) section measuoed through tiro Torrrvio Membor, attd is
also orar of only three motions in which both the top and base of the writ are clearly
drfmed (Fig 3). Most of the Torrivio Member is sprctacnlarf y rsposod in a cliff
east of Nose Rock Point (Fig. 4). Sortions NM-5-88 and NM-6-8ll of Nummrdal
and others (1989, p. 65) wore measured 01 the west and east ends, respectively, of
this cliff. Although a unit of 'nonmarine Gallup' between the marine Gallup and
the Torrivio Member sandstone has beco recorded at this locality by Molenoar
(1903), there are no obvious stroligraphic breaks in this cliff section, and it is
difficult to draw a logical and consistent break separating sonmurine Gallop from
Torrovto. As noted below, thrre is evidence for some mutine influence in the
straugraphic mterval corresponding lo the eosmarine Gallup of Motenaar (1983).
The major architectural features of this oulcrop are described first. At least four
mojos bonnding surfaces can be traced across thc chit. Surface A defines the base
of Ihr Torrivio Member, where it rests on marine Gallup Sandstone (tongue C
according to Molenaar. 1983). This suriner has the shape of a broad, shallow
channel. To lire rast (right), it corees upward lo where il is, in turn, truncated by
surface B. Surface A cuts across bedding in the marine Gallup, and bedding in the
nonnsariuc beds abovr downlap ono it. To the left, surface A disappears behind
slumped rocks and calas. In the mese (left) part of the profile the contact between
marine Gallup and Ihr nonmarine motion is marked by a horioontal bounding
surface al the same straligraphic level as surface B, and it Is tentatively correlated
wtth B in the profile (Fig. 4). Surface A probably curves upward underneath
surface B behind the talus; this would defme the othcr ride of a channel about 250
m wide and averaging 9 m drop. The contact between marine and uonmarine
Gallup is a sislh-order surface in the classification of MiaU (lSOila, b).
Surfaces C und D (and B where il overlies noumarine Gallup in the center of the
profile) define tabular bodies 910 13 m thick composed mainly of sandstone. Each
surface is prominent in the cliff face, because it is marked by finr-grainrd beds that
hace boon etched out by erosion, la Ihr lower mesI (left) corner el the profile, the
beds al surface B (where if defmes the top of the marine Gallup) consist of about a
meter of argillaceous siltstone with early streaks. These surfaces are of fifth or
higher order in rank. Surface D, when traced across the profile lo outcrops at Ihr
cast edge of the cliff (off the penIle to the right), appears lo mark a facies change
between lluvial beds below und tidally influenced beds above. This major change in
dnpesilioaal environments may ben spoucuce boundary, as discussed in detail later.
The surface is classified as sixth-oeder in rnnk. lt is correlated with surface B indie
Sandance Mine section, and is used as the datum in Figure 3. The top of the
Tornivio Member occurs above und behind the cliff.
A drtcrtption of the beds in this profde follows. Encense of the inaccesuib'dily of
Ihr cliff, il mau not possible lo develop a detailnd subdivision of the outcrop into
elements as was done for section 2; thus formal element numbering is not proposed.
The warme Gallup Sandstone conuisls of a well-sorted, while-weathering, l'me-
grained sandstone showing plane lamination and ripple marks. The basal nonmarine
Gallup, in Ihn 'channel' helseenn surfaces A und B, consists mainly of a heterolithic
assemblage of thin mudstone, sillstonn and sandstone beds with carbonaceous aud
coaly slrrahs. The sandstone beds are fme- to medium-grained, thin- to medium-
bedded, und contain trough cross-bedding showing oppesing flow directions
(passible hrrringbone ceoss-bodding, although espasmo is peor). A loace-fosail
Mioll
nsucmblage of short, simple, curved, vertical tubes is prrurnl. Gond nuposures of
the east side of this channel (right center in Fig. 4) show a nomplcs pattern of
lateral accretion and wed ging out of bedding nulls. Toward Ihn reeler of the prof'de,
beds al the top of the channel fill dip gently westward until they disappear from
view behind the talus. This is also interpreted as a product of lateral accretion.
The tabular unit defmrd by surfaces B and C shows a variety of small-scab
architectural features. le the west (left) part of Ihn profile, dir unit consists of a
series of sandstone wedges dial truncate each other at angles of a few degrees. A
small channel obeut 30 m wide und 2 w deep occurs at the base of the unit (left of
crater m Fig. 4), and is fifed by tutrral accretion from both sides. The fill consists
of thin sandstone bnds separated by mud laminar. Ono side of the channel is
tllustrated in Figure 8. To die east (right), sandstone beds between surfaces B and C
become thinner and aro sepla by thick mudslones. At the enrome east end of
the cliff (ont of view in Fag. 4), dio espesnre is accessible, and here dir thin
sandstones arr fme grained, with numerous mudstonr intraclasts und trough cross-
bed sets 5 lo 15 cm thick. Al this location, the change from relativrly fine-graiued
beds below suofaco C to thick-bedded sandstonrs above might be a logical place to
draw dic contact between die noninariur Gallup and dir Torrivio Member.
However, at the West end of the profile, there is no significant thickness of fine-
graioed beds below surface C, und il moms more logica] to assign the entire section
Iodio Tortivio Member.
The beds brlwoen surfaces C and D consist of a single, large, lateral accretion
Fin. 6.Logs with Taradofitra borings rettung un serIare B at the unit np to 13 m thick. Sandstone beds urn medium- lo very caarur-groined and
Srmdanrn Mino tontine (section 5, Itmalion shown 'w Ftg. 5).
E20
t'
'i
10cm
Ftu. 8,Lateral accretion enit airant 13 m thick, defining one side nf a
1ss. 7,Bnndlnd planar cross-bndding, donan, from a photograph (section small uheneel near base uf pontile shown in Faguare 4 (location indiratnd an
1, location shown in Fig. 5). Notn also vertical borrows lrnncnted by a minor Fig. 4). Serface B monos between baso of LA neil and lop uf resistant
erosion snoface at bate of view. sandstone that farms bottom uf cliff,
Sedimentology of the Torrivio Member, San Juan Basin
contain trough cross-bedding. Plant hash and mndstonc intraclasts aro locally
common. Thc accretion is defined by numerous minor bounding surfaces drupod
with thin shale beds und dipping at about 10' to the east. Many of diese surfaces
show internal wndging und truncation and are dierof ore of third-order rank (Miall,
]988a, b). Some of diese surfaces downtap directly onto surface C, others dosvnlap
Onto older accretion surfaces that flatten out near die base of the null. Immrdiately
below surface D, a few meters of recessive, fmn-graiued boils occur, showing, in
part, opposite (svrstward) accrelionary dips.
The beds above surface D also show a complex pattern of accretion surfaces.
About 10 m of beds are ruposod al dir top of thy cliff and in Ihr bench euteudiug
back from it. These contain bandied planar cross-bed sets (llthofacins Sbp) similar
to those soon in elrment 3 al the Sundance Mine section. The Torrivio Member is
completed by 2 m of shale with silty sandstonr laminar, and 7.2 m of fme-grained,
pale.weathering sandstone with trough and ptunur cross-bedding, plant hash, and
roots more than 20 cm long. A rncctsive interval above may correspend to the
Dilco Coal Member of the Crevasse Canyon Formation.
North Noor Rook Poist (Section 3)
A motion 37 m thick was measured immediately above dir marine Gallup
Sandstone upprouimatrly t Ian north of the prominent spur named Nose Rock
Point, und a few hundred meters north of section NM-4B-87 of Nummedal and
others (1989, p. 62, 65). Facies ussemblages are similar to those at locations t and 4
(described earlier). The section is shown in Figure 3.
A bed of silty modulons containing short, stubby, Tar udotitru burrows recurs 4m
above the base of die motion (Fag. 9). it is suggested that this unit could br used to
Fin. 9.Trace fossils in silty mndstooe neit. section 3, 4 un above base of
section.
228
mark the top of what has beco termed stratigeaphically the uonmaoinr Gallup (the
beds between suofnceu A and B in FiE 3), aLthough, us disctissod later, the
depositiouat enviroument was probably marine. The succession is 43 m thick at
section 4, bet thins to about i m at soctiou NM-4B-87 immediately Lo the south
(Nummedat and others, 1989, Fig 4-29). A unit of medium-grinned sandstone 8 m
thick and containing straight verticaL burrows is present above surface C, 10 m
aboyo the buse of the section. Nummrafat and others (1989) idoutifled
Thalaooinoides and Optrionsorptra in correlative beds m their section N54-4B-87
iinmrdiately to the sondi. Thr uppermost unit in this profitr is a medium- tu very
coarsc-grained sandstone 7.5 w thick, consisting of superimposed planar cross-bed
sots. These rest on bounding suefaces that dip gently in tho same direction as dir
cross-bed foeesets. This geometry is that of a compound bar, or macroform, and the
nuit is teutativrty mterprrtod as a downsteeam-accnetrd macroform (torminotogy of
Miall, t988a, b).
Correlation of this section with the others is problematic, because dic seccossion
dans not show ihr ctrae-cttt distinction between fluvial beds below and tidally
influenced brds above. Bandied planar cross-bedding, present in mations 1,4,5 and
6, was not oberved brrr. Surface C is a prominent, flat bounding surface below the
sandstone with vertical burrows, und this is tentativety correlated nidi dir sixth-
oeder surface used as datum is Figuer 3, A change of approsimately ' in mean
paleoeuneut directions occurs across this surface, but the data are sparso, and
major swings in paleoflow also occur at other tevels in this section. A slighdy
different corretntion was suggested by Nummedat and others (1919, Fig. 4-31). This
is discussed later in the present paper.
Sanootee Waolr (SectionS)
Section 5 is a stream cut in Sanostee Wash. The outcrop ou either sido of the
wash shows a different succession. On die east side of the outcrop, dir Torricio
Member, which is here only 7.6 m thick, consists entirety of medium- to ecry
sandstone with superimposed sets of planar cross-bedding
coarse-groined
(lithofacies Sp). Individual sets rango in thickness taom 10 cm to t m. Most of the
bornitiog surfaces between thrse sets are horizontaL, but at least one surface reveals
relief of about 2 m (Fig. 10). Exposure is not quite good enough to reveal whether
this is an crimen surface, correspending to thr fleer of a shallow channel (f ifth-
order surface), or whether it is dio constructional (fourth-order) surface defining
die top of a low-relief compound bar. Vector mean azimuth of the cross-bedding is
019'.
On the west sido of Sanostee Wash die base of die section is formed by two
small channels about 1.5 m deep and 10 m wide. The channels are filled nidi very
cearse-grained sandstone with abundant troagh cross-bedding. Mean trough
orientation is 067'. The remainder of die section consists of fine-grinned, thin-
bedded sandstone with abundant small-scale trough cross-lamination (lithofacies Sr;
set thickness averages 5 cm), and bundled cross-bed set 90 cm thick (lithofacies
Sbp(. Flow directions indicated by these two types of bedform are simda.., dir
combined vector mean is 323'.
The contact between dir chanacts aud die beds with lithofacies Sr and Sbp is
correlated with the sixth-order surface used as datum in Figure 3. The data indicate
ftuuiat units below and tidally influenced units above, as in sootiom i and 4. This
surface is not prominent in die outcrop, and cannot be ercognizod ou the east side
of Sanostce Wash, whom it is presantabty one of die tnt-bounding surfaces within
the continuous succession of planar cross-bed sets.
Miau
Shipi'oeh Waoh (Section 6)
The Toerivic Member thins to the north and east across Sau Juan Basin, ns
shown in Frgme t. This outcrop occurs near die feather edge of the unit, where it is
only 4.5 m deck (section NM-87-3 of Nummedal and others, 1989, p. 43). The
member is sandwiched betwonn prominent, cldf-lorming sandstones of the manne
Gallup, and distinctive gray-brown sandstones of the Tacite Member of die Mancos
Shale. Neither the nonmarinc Gallup nor Dilco Coat Member is preseut here but,
according to D. Nummedal (pers. commun., 1989), die absence of the nonmarine
Gallup is a resait of lanaI channel scour. The subdivision of die Toerivio Member
into fluvial units below and tidally influenced beds above that has boon noted
elsewhere during this study is also present here, wah good exposures of bundled
planar cross-bed sets in the upper 25 m of the member. As elsewhere, the flow
directions of the fluvial and tidally influenced beds are quite different, at 148' and
078', respectively. Trough cress-bed seis in die uppermost 50 cm of die Tornero
arc oriented at 024*,
Tein Butte (Section 2)
In this section, plant hash and trace fossils, particularly horizontal teeding traces,
occur throughout the 65 m of Torrivio section. Sandstone is medium- to fme-
graioed throughout, and contains a similar assemblage of sedimentary structures,
including trough cross-bedding, ripple cross-lamination, and planar lamination midi
parting liueatioe. Vector mean cross-bed orientations change from 32t' indie lower
part of die section to 237' in the upper part. The sequence boundary is tentatively
placed at a bounding surface that separates these contrasting onentations.
Fm, 10Snprñmponnd pfanne crnnn-bnd neIn, which compelan nnfire
Tnrreeio inclina un nasf side nf Saao,tee Wash (sentina 5), View in to snnth-
sunthnaut, nbliqnely np palnufluw (vector mean in 019'). At renter nf
auternp isa low-relief fnnrth- or fiftb-nrder suefneu (shown by arrows) that
ri ses abont 2 m apnnntion to the let t (east), The snrf neu repreurnls either a
shnllnw-ehaanel finer, nr fop of a low-relief nomponad bar, snch as a
dnwastream-accretiag maernf nra,.
Sedimexlotogy of Ihe Toerivio Member, Sau Juon Basin
eeposITIcNAL ENVIRONMENT5
The depositionat environment of dio marine Gallup was been described in detail
elsewhere (e.g., MoCubbin, 1982; Nummedat and othors, t989), and will not be
repeated here. The passage of the mutine Gallup into the nonmarine Gallup und the
Tornivio Member clearly records a regression, but the details cf this regression haue
not been examined in detail preuioasty.
Nosoec'ine Gaftup
First, it seems unlihety that die so-called nonmanine Gallup was, in taci,
deposited everywhere in a fully uomnarine environment. At sections t, 3, and 4,
whero diere are l'mr-grained units between the marine Gallup and the Torrivio, the
evidence suggests lowenergy, marine-influenced fluvial environments. The lateral
(west-to-east) pinchoul of sandstone beds between surface B and C in sectioe 4
(Fig. 4) is characteristic of crevasse-splay deposition, the splays eslending from a
main channel system somewhere to die west, into die floodplain in the east (this
interval is aceordiaigf y labelled CS in Fig. 4). The small channel to the loft of center
in this prol'de (Fig. 8) may be a crevasse channel, li is ovrrlaia by saudst one sheets
that show wedge geometries, and are peobably eemaaats of chaanel tands. The
bread channel bounded at die base by surface A is also titled by sheet- and wedge-
shaped units showing evidence of lateral accretion oua small seale. The presence of
a trace-fossil assemblage of vertical burrows in this unit, together with possible
herringbone cross-bedding, and the heterolithic nature of the unatl lateral accretion
units (Fig. 8) suggests a possible marine influence. As shown by Thomas and others
(1987) inclined heterolithic stratification, as in some lateral accretion units, is
commonly the product of dir marked variations in current strength that occur in
tidally influenced environments. The channel above surface Ain soclion 4 may boa
tidal channel cutting through the barrier systems that are now represented by die
macine Gallup. The crevasscvhannel and crevassesplay deposits between surfaces
B and C in this outceop may aise be tidally influenced, but no ecidence of manne
pro-cuses has yet been documented.
There is no evidence of marine influence in die tower part of secuon t. Roots
and carbonaceous streaks are abundant, suggesting nonmanue lloodpluin
lu section 3 Teredoliteo burrows and roots in die tunee 43 m suggest a
comparison with dic towermost beds ut section 4, although die possible lidally
influenced section is mach thinner in section 3 than in section 4. At sectios NM-4B-
87 of Nummedal and others (1989), a few hundred meters to the south of section 3,
titis unit has thinned to about t m.
At section 2, the entire section above dir marine Gallap contains trace-fossil
assemblnges, suggesting a mariste influence.
Tocrivio Membe, )tnviat beds
Evidence of largo fluvial channels and macrot um bars is well cupesed al secuons
i and 4. The 13-in-deck lateral accretion element between surfaces C and D m
section 4 (Fig. 4) probably represents the deposits of a meander bend ru a mator
fluvial channel. The top of this element is composed of recessive beds, some of
which show low dips to the west - die opposite of diaL shown by die lateral-
accretion surfaces. These recessive beds arc interpreted as f'me-grained floodplain
deposits, the low dips probably representing depositional dips formed by levee (LE
ru Fig. 4) and crevasse-splay peogrudation away from die channel. The outcrop is
inaccessible, und il is not known whether any evidence of marine influence is
present here.
Elements t and 2 in section 1 are interpreted as fluvial in origin. Element t
consists of superimposed sels of ptanae-tabntar cross-bedding, separated mainly by
first-order snrfaces. A few sets near the top of die etement ace draped by mud. The
asscmblage is similar to that assigned to the Platse braided model by MiaU (1977).
There is ne evidcnce of the development of arge-wate macrofomms in the form of
third- or fourth-order bounding surfaces, but the outcrop of this element may not
be large enough to reved such surfaces clearly. Moan cross-bed Orientation suggests
flow to the northeast (azimuth 146'). Element 2 is bounded at the base by a fifth-
order channel-scour surface, and consists of four separale subassomblages
(sabclements( separated by gently dipping second-order surlaces. These surfaces
dip at np 109' Lo the weit. The spread of cross-bedding orientations within clement
2 ranges from dur west (parallel to the dip of the accretion surfaces) to sorS
northeast (along the strike of the accretion surfaces), with the mean orientation
swinging toward the latter direction in die upper pan of die otement. The grand
mean for element 2 is 318'. This geometry indicates lateral lo oblique accretion,
and the element probably represents a fragment of a sand flat, suck as those in die
Brahmaputra River described by Bristow (1987). The element rests on a cursed
scour surface (A), which may represent a remnant cl die original channel margin,
in which case this element developed as a bank-attached bar form. In detail, the
lithofacies assemblages comprising element 2 indicato deposition from dunes und
sand waves. ta element 22, one of the planar cross-bed sets reaches 1.2 in in
thickness, and die dip orientation of the foresets changes across die outcrop by as
much as 70'. This suggests a comparison with the large linguoid bcdiomms described
from die Platte River (Blodgelt and Stanley, 1980), William River (Smith and
Smith, 1984) and other sandy braided systems (large-scale 2-D danes of Ashley,
1990). The 88' difference in mean cross-bed orientation between elemenls t und 2
probably reflects local variutian indic orientation of unrelated channel reaches, and
provides o crude indication of die overall sinnosity of this fluvial system.
The beds below dic datum al sections Sand 6, and dic sandstone anit trom 45to
10 m above die base of sodios 3 are alen interpreted as fluvial in origin, bused on
die assemblages of sedimentary strrrcttires and die absence of typical marine
features snek as abundant trace fossils.
There may be deep channel scouring at die base of die fluvial Toerivio. as
suggested by the variation in thickness of die nonmanine Gallup between sections 3
and 4 of this paper, and section NM-4B-87 of Nummedal and others (1989, p. 62).
Toerivio Meseifiav talatly ioftuenwed beds
Many of die beds esposod above the datiun contain evidence of marine
influence, such as locally abundant feeding traces and huerons. The logs with
Te,-edoliter borings in the base of element 3 al sectiou 1 are particularly suggestive.
However, a mscb clearer indication of die influence of manne processes,
specifically tidal cuereuts, is the bundled cross-bed sets observed at sections 1, 4, 5
and 6. These are identical to the sand waves described by Allen (198f) and
observed in many modern and anciens tidal deposits (Nm and others, 1981; Blahey,
1984; Teyssen, 1984). The best-enposed ceamples in the Toenvio Member occur in
element 3 at section t (Fig. 7). There, the sand waves resi on o flat rronon suefaer
(Et surface of Alten, 1980). Foreset bundles are bonaded by 'geutiy inclined
s'igmoidat diseontinuities' (E2A surfaces of Allen, 1980). These are parallet to
229
avalanche cross-heal foresels in the upper part of the sand wave, but flatten out at
the base of the structure. The cross-bed bundles thin Oat between these E2A
sarfaces. Boltomset deposits thin and laper out almost imperceptibly at the El
surface. These geometric characteristics ace those of the Class IVB sand waves of
Allee (1980) formed daring strongly asymmetric reversing cements.
At section t the tidal-saud waves occur in element 3, in association with sets of SI
and Sp that malacate unamodal currents. These may include Class I tidal-sand waves,
bat they have not been observed to contain the F2 eeaetivation surfaces
characteristic of this type of structure. Mean cement directions for lithofocics Sp, St
and Sbp ace comparable, at l42, l37, and l27, eespeclivety, with a geand mean of
l35. No in-place reversals in cement direction, such os that indicated by
herringbone crass-bedding, wem observed. On a larger scale the aechitectuee of
clement 3 includes first- and socond-oeder bounding surfaces dipping al a few
degrees to the east. The mean cross-bed o entatiens are oblique lo the dip of the
bounding sarfaces, suggesting that element 3 accumalaled by oblique to lateral
The beds immediately above surface D in section 4 are similar to those just
described, and were probably formed in a similar cnvieonanenl. la the cliff face
these beds show a complex of gendy dipping acceetioe snefaces (Fig. 4), and above
the cliff, where the outceops are more accessible, bundled ceoss-bed sels of
lithofacies Sbp have been observed.
The depositionat environment in both cases is interpreted as that of tidal-sand
shoals, snob as those that characterize estuaries und tidal inlets in mesetidal
ensseonments (e.g., Bocesma and Teewindt, 1981; Uhlir und othees, 1988; Yang and
Nie, 1989). Complex patterus of tidal and wind-generated currents occur in these
environments, bat al a given locality typically the cacevocs tend to be asymmetric,
and either ebb or flood dominant. This accounts for the unimodal carrent
distributions at each mcasorcmcnt locality io this study. lt has long been known that
tidal inlets migcate through barrier systems, because of alongshore sediment
transport (Hoyt and Honey, 1967), und inlet fills formed in such settings contain
well-developed lateral-accretion geometries (Hoyt and Henry, 1887; fildir and
others, 1988). In fact, all osrnarine shoals and compound bees in tidal settings may
migrate laterally because of inlet-meander migration and longthore drift (rg., Yang
and Nio, 1989). The presence of accretionaey gcomclrics, with genfty dipping
hounding surfaces of first lo fourth order in rank, should therefore be espected in
these deposits.
In sections 3,5 and 6 the upper part of the Toreivio Member contains well-sorted
sandstones with abondant tsnimodal cross-bedding (lithofacies Sp, St) and lilly
evidence of marine influence. At section 3 the top of the profile (above surface D)
is composed of s macreform dcpesis, possibly a downstream-acceded unit. Possibly,
these deposits indicate local flovial dominance in the inner regions of an estuary. Al
section NM-4B-87 of Nummedat and others (1989), near section 3 of this paper,
and in beds correlating with these that occur between surfaces C und D of that
secdan, T/na/aoeanokfer and Ophioroorpha wore recorded. Nnmmedat and others
(1989) interpreted these beds as slsoreface deposits, und the fluvial units above
(those above surface D of section 3) as a sepaeate fluvial tongue. Thvee is a need
for detailed mapping of the bounding surfaces and archilectueal elements in the
Nose Reek PomI arca lo resolve these detailed correlations und earironmenlat
interpretations. As discussed later, this becomes important when attempts uro made
to determine which erosion surfaces are sequence boundaries und which simply
represent local aulogemc channeling.
ft is noteworthy that fïne-grained deposits, such as mudstonrs and sillstones, are
sparse in the section above the marine Gallup. Mont such units that do occur ace
part of the so-called uonmaeinc Gallup which, as noted above, probably represents,
in part, tidal-inlet deposits. Some of the moss characleristic tidal facies, such as
flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding, have yet to be observed in the project area. It
must be concluded that the beds described here were the preduct of a relatively
high-energy, sand-dominated system.
DEPOSITIONAL SyNTHESIs AND A SEQUENCE MODEL
In its simplesl lerms, the evidence diseussed here indicates a regression followed
by a leansgreunon. Marine Gallup barrier-strundplain sands are followed in places
by fme-grmned beds that probably represent back-barrier lagoon and lowenergy
tidal-mItt deposits. This is the so-called nonmueinc Gallup, above which are the
relallvely coarser grained sandstones of the lower part of the Tonivio Member.
These wert deposited in various fluvial environments, including the peins bars of
sand-dominated, laierally-mïgeatiug channels, the fields of linguoid bars or sand
waves (2-D dunes) typical of some sandy braided systems, and possibly the
compound bars or sand flats of the same types of river. A definile break in
sedimentation occurred in alleata some of the localities studied, and was followed
by the accumulation of anethee sand-dominated succession formed in carions
mesolidal, estnurine environmenls. The Dilco Coal Member, which has not been
examined in this report, probabl y represents a temporary return to a low-energy
fluvial or tidal-inlet/tidal-fins phase, similnr to that of the noumarine Gallup.
Continued transgression eventually led to the re-establistunens of the Mancos Sea in
the area. The contact wish the overlying Mancos is, in pars, a ravinement surface, as
shown by Nmnmedal und Swift (1987) and Numnsedal and others (1989).
llusmwued, the msd-Tomvio erodes surface may correlate with the regional mid-
Mancos unconformily mapped by Molenaur (1983).
Il remams to be determined how so celase these deposits te the sequence models
of Van Wagoner and others (1988), Posamentice and Vail (1988), and Galloway
(1989). In paesicular, the question arises, whore to place the sequence boundary
mithin the Torevio Member? A sequence boundary, in the terminology of Von
Wagoner and others (1988), marks a basinward shift in facies belts that occurs at
the begsxnsxg of a relative tall in sea level. A so-ealled type-1 sequence boundary is
eansed by a rapid full in relative sea level (eustalie fall faster than subsidence). On
the coastal plain this may load to osposure, and the sequence boundary is then a
surface of erosion, followed by transgrrssive deposiss. At the shoreline and on the
shelf, the sequence boundary is marked by a seaward shift in facies belts, with the
derelopmcnt of a regressive succession. In deep shelf and slope enviroumenis the
sequence boundary is typically followed by towstand deposits. A enstatic fall in sea
level less rapid than the rase of subsidence as the shoreline (type-2 sequence) is
marked by aggradational to slighsly progradational coassaI depesiss, and subaerial
exposure may nel occur, fu coastal-plain environments, the sequence boundary may
be difficult er impossible to detect (Galloway, 1989).
Galloway (1989) suggested that sequence boundaries be placed al the surface
markmg the maxsmnm srausgresuon, an approach that might be easier so nie than
that of Van Wagoner and ethers (t988) in shelf deposits that aro characterized by
lronsgetssive condensed sequences, or by thin but widespread transgressive shale or
limestone beds, that are commonly followed by highstaad downlup surfaces. As
nosed by Galloway (1989) and Nnmmedal und others (1989), surfaces of maoimum
flooding are commonly the most distinctive lithologic boundarivs in any sequence.
Foe example, the contact between the Dilco Coal Member and the overlying
Mancos Shale (Fig. 1) is sseh a surface.
Whichever syslem of sequence terminology is preferred, the question remains as
te the correct inlerpretation of the major bounding surfaces within the Gallup
Sandolene. There are at least four possible intrpretatienx, summarized here ,ssiug
the Van Wagoner und others (1988) definilion of a sequence boundary:
The contact between each marino longue of the Gallup Sandstone and the
andcrtying shale marks the btgivaiug of regeessiou (n seaward shift in facies belts),
indicating the initiation of a fall in relative sea level. lu the teeminolegy of Van
Wagoner and others (1988), this surface might therefore be classified as the
sequence boundary (inleepretation #1).
The marine Gallup tosigues record highstand deposits deposited during rimes
of stillstand in sea level. The nidation of relative sea-level fall is marked by channel
incision at the sop of the marine sandstone (the sequence boundary, interpretation
#2), with she subsequent nonmarine Gallup and Toerivio Members recording
trangeessive baekfiftieg of the channeled surface.
The entire marine Gullup-nonmariee Gallup-fluvial Toerivie succession
comprises a regressive, highstand syssems lead formed during sea-level stillstand.
This was then affected by a rapid relative sea-level fall and subaerial esposare,
leading to the development of a mujer bounding surface in the middle of the
Tamivie Membee. In this inlerpretalion, the mid-Toerivie surface is the seqevuco
boundary (inlerpeetatien #3).
The mujer ullogenic control was sediment snppty, driven by tectonism, wOk
little or no change in relative sea-leed (inerprelatien #4). The San Juan Basin was,
during the Crotaceous, pars of thy foectand basin flanking the Sovier Orogee. As
such, il was probably affected repeaseafly by thrusting episodes su the orogen,
leading to basin subsidence and to semporary increases in sediment supply.
Nummedal und Swift (1987) und Nummedal und others (t989) favored the
emend interpretation. These workers noted the esistence of a regional mid-
Coniacian fall in sea level that they correlated with the lop of the marine Gallup
Sandslone, and they suggested that the sequence boundary occurs at the channeled
contact between the marine Gallup und the nonmarine Gallup. They inteepresed the
Toreivio Membre as u product of coastal aggradatiess following u renewed nse in
sea level. However, they attributed younger fluvial tongues m the Dstco Coal
Member to the seaward building of fluvial systems Onto a prograding strandplasn
dusiag a minor fall in sea level (Nammedal and Swill, 1987, p. 253, and Fig. 13,
timo 5), on interpretation comparable to interpretation #3, aboye. The Tomvso
Member could have resulled from a similar mechanism. This interpretation fils the
theoretical model of Pesamentior and Vail (1988, p. 131), who argued that fluvial
aggradatien takes place primarily during the early stages of a ecstatic fall in sea
level, when the graded fluvial profile shifts seaward, resulting in the developmvut of
"accommodation space" above the profde. With continued, accelerating fall,
however, and depending ea local conditions, such as the width and dope of the
shell, the finvial coastal plain may be exposed so subaerial erosion, as seems to have
occurred in this case. The upper, tidally influenced part of the Toresvio would, m
this mortel, form part of the subseqaent seansgres,sive systems traCt, deposised
during the beginning of renewed sea-level rise.
Miall (1991) has argued that the Posamentier and Vail (1988) model el fluvial
aecomodation is flawed, because of arbitrary assomptions regarding the response of
rivers to base level change. Their key diagram illssstratsng fluvial aggrudasaon in
response lo o shift in the equilibrium profile (Posamentier and Vail, 1988, Fig. 15.
p. 135) dues not show a fall in relative sea level. Miall (1991) suggested thaI this
diagram, in fact, provides a representation of the changes in fluvial aceomodatien
that might occur daring uplift of a source area, withoul changes in base leveL The
Torrivie Member could be necomodaled within such a teclenic model, as can othor
sandstone tongues within the Rocky Mounlain foetland basin. For example, Lawson
(1986) emphasized the importance of teclonism as a sedimentary control in the
develepmenl of thy Mesartrdt Groap of UsaIs und Colorado, a somewhat similar
foreland-basin unis to the Gallup Sundsfonr, consisting of longues of nonmarinc
beds changing facies eastward into marino shalt. Galloway (1999) argued foe the
imporsance of sediment supply us the major sedimentary caneraI in the
developmcns el Cretaerous-Tersiary clastic wedges on the Gulf CansI. It remains an
open question (beyond the scope of this paper) what the balance of allogeme
controls are (enstatic em-level change versus regional leclonism) in determining the
Cretaceons sseatigruphy of the Wessen Interior Seaway.
Models based en changos in buse level (inleepretations 1, 2, 3) do nos esplam all
the observed details. First, the succession is highly variable e thickness and
lithefavies succession. Second, the paleocuerent patlerns, thoagh locally cousissent
und unimodal, show marked divergence from clemens te element, and display no
regional trends of any hind. Tidal currents in the apper Tarrivie do nos appeae
simply to represent reversal of flow in the rivers thaI deposited the lower Tomvso,
but indicate entirely differtnr flew patterns.
The datum osed te construct Figure 3, which separates lluvial from tidally
'influenced units in at tasI some of the sections, is interprered as a major erosion
surface separating regressive deposits below from loansgressive deposits above. II
may be, therefore, n type-1 sequence boundary, indie terminology of Van Wagoner
and others (1988). Isis important to emphasize that no information is available en
how much time 'o rspreseused by this surface, In the two large outcrops, sections t
and 4 (Figs. 4, 5), the datum is clearly os imporsant bounding surface, and has the
charucler, in each case, of a major chaunet-scour surface. However, it could
cepreseni a major discontinuity of regional estens that formed during a eomplese
withdrawal of the sea from the northwest New Mexico urea (as a result of either
ecstasy or lectonics). If shiv is the case, a significant Ihickness of sedimens may have
been eroded prior to the transgression that deposited the upper Torrivio, and the
depositienal systems that occupied the urea before and alter the break in
sedimentation would not necessarily have had any relationship to each other in
seems of encirenmenl or flow dierotion,
Seismic studies el the Lo,sisiana shell by Suter and others (1987) showed that
channels are commonly incised into the shelf and repeesens fluvml erosion during a
relative sea.level fall. Those may begin to fill during the late stages of the sea-level
lowering buI, typically, aggeade mainly (with fluvial and estuarine sediment) during
the subsoqurnt rise. Is is possible that some er all of the fluvial units of the Torrsvio,
bounded al the base by major bounding surfaces (e.g., element 1 section 1; thy
lateral-accretion anis betwren surfaces C and D in emden 4) represens such
localized, chaunelized, aggradational deposits formed during a rise in relative sea
level, in which case the surface marking the time of lowesl sea level lies at the base
of these unsls (channel-base diastem, type-1 sequence boundary). A resolution of
this question mml await detailed mapping of the Terrino Member.
The interpretation at Noisimedal and Swift (1907) and Nummedal und others
(1989) places primary emphasis on the channel-scone surface marking she contact
between the fluvial Terrivie und tht nonmarine Gallup (surface B in section 3,

Miull Sedimenlolagy of the Tor-rivio Member, Son Juae Basin 230

surface B in section 4), but to the present writer this seems a less logical place to
assign the major sequence boundary (which in coastal plain environments may
mark the time of fowest sea level) for three mum reasons: t. the overall sequence
from marine to uonmarinr Gallup and into the fluvial (lower) Tornivo is regressive;
2. the major brrak used as the datum in Figure 3 appears to be mappable as a
regional erosion surface and a time of reordering of depositional systems (hence the
contrasts in paleocurrent patterns above and below), and 3. this surface marks a
charge from fluvial to tidally influenced beds, suggesting the iuiliatior of
transgression.
Even il the sequence boundary represents only a short break, or simply au
episode of deep scene accompanying a slight drop in base levet, the divergence in
flow diercliens between the upper and tower Terrino und from location te location,
is not difficult te explain. In a tidally influenced shoreline or escuary, dominaut
regionalenrrvnt trends are related tu fluvial infine and tidal circulation, bat locally
the flow is modified by bottom topography, such as the presence of shoals, inlet
mraadrrs, etc. As shown by KIm (1970) the resulting palroeumment patterns may
be eotermrly cumplen. Figure ii is a map ot a hypothrtieal estuary, based on thr
estuaries of the Dutch coast. lt shows how current directions may br consistrnt und
nninsodal, or weakly bimodal at any given locality, yet show ne strong regional
trend. Migration of such estuary systems may occur during regrrxsion and
transgression, with thr rrsulting vertical sucesulon showing apparently random
fluctuations in flow direction as different inlets and shoal complexos nogeote past a
given location. The contrast between the lower and upper Toreivie at soctaors I und
4 could be explained by the superimposition of deposits formed in locations t and 2
on this map. Location lis near the tidal limit, und is river (ebb) dominated. Mid-
channel sand shoals or point bars occur in the high-energy channel environment,
but fewer energy tidal flats could also occur, such us maybe rrprvsoutesl in part by
the normanno Gallup.
A fall in vea level might espose location t to subaerial erosion. Durmg renewed
transgression, fluvial deposits were in part reworked, und sigraficant accumulation
commenced anew only when eslnarine conditions had entended throughout the
arca. The upper Torrivio at section 1 and 4 may reprecent conditions closer to the
mouth el the estuary, such as location 2 in Figure 11. Note the expected flow
pasterns and accretion directions at this locality. Thry are at a high angle lo the
regional shoreline and channel trends, and could not be espected lo yield mach
information about those treads.
At other locations, different seqneovrs reflect local vununons us this type al
paleogeography. The Shirk Terrino section at sections 1 und 4 may reflect
sedimentation within u major ostuaeine-ehanael systrm, whereas the thinorr
sections, snrh as 2,5 und 6, may represent areas distant from fluvial mflus, or distal
to the main estuary, and which entered the tidal realm only for a short period
during the lime of maximom regression.
DtsctJssloN
Fart of the problem relating te the positioning of the sequence boundary ssathm
the Gallup Sandstone enlates tu a particular characteristic of the Exxon sequence
models (Van Wagoner and others, 1908; Posumenlier und others, 1900;
Posameutier and Vail, 1988). The Exxon modelers argued that accommodation
space is developed in coastal fluvial systems by a seaward shift of the equthbunm
profile, at the beginning of an episode of slow rmtatio sea-level fall (Posamentiee
Miall
HYPOTHETICAL
TIDAL ESTUARY
5 km
):.(
e--- '
L
T-
munimum fon wafgr
ion sand shoal
Pro, 11,A hypothetinal tidal estuary, boned on data in Nio and othnrn
(ll981) and Yang and Nm (1989). An a remit of mint and mnander migration
manroform bar complenes migrate and accrefr both laterally und
downnfrram (DA downstream aceretion, LA - lateral annerIto.). tntrrnaf
tint- tu fonrfh-ordor hnandiag surfaces may fan mapnntrd to show a widr
range of orientations, Individual bedformn also will reveal a wide variation
in narrent patterai. An show. by tidal ellipses, ubb and flood nrarrentu vary
in nteneagth and direction thronghont thn nntraaey. Shoal areas Inad to be
flood dominant, whereas nhannvin tend to be nbb dominant. Carrent
directions are governed by shoal and bar topography. Cirnled anmbrrn 1 and
2 indicate hypothetical tonalities, diunnnnnd in the trat.
and Vail, 1988, p. 131-133). They also defined a sequence boundary as occurring at
the begieniup of sack a sea-level fall. Where the sea-level fall is relatively dow
(type-2 sequence), no widespread erosion surface is assumed to develop, und it
would seem ta this author that in the absence of extremely detailed strutigraphic
correlation there would be nothing about the succession tu distinguish u local (fil th-
ordre) channel fluor from a regional (siuth-order) sequence boundary. In fact u
single widrspread surface corresponding te the sequence boundary may not occur.
Galloway's (1909) criticisms of the Essen sequence models seem particularly
appropriate in such a caso.
lt cao be argued, howrver, that a seaward shift of river equilibrium profiles in
response to sea luvel fall rarely occurs (Miall, 1991). In most cases a full in relative
Sedimeulology ef Ihr Torrivio Member, San Juan Basia
sea level leads tu espesare of u shell that has u steeper slope than the river itsell.
This is invariably the case where a river has built a majar delta for itself. A fall in
relative sea level will therefore Irad to strepening of the river slope, and incision, us
the rivet attempts to re-establish grade. The quosuan of how to classify major
bounding surfaces in coastal-plain BovinI depositu will thrrefure never arise.
Deposition during fatting relative sea level rarely occurs, and major erosion surfaces
will always record the limr of maximum regression and lowest sea ned. Regressive
successions that occur below such u surface, such as the marine Gallup-nonmarine
Gallup-fluvial Terrino soccesnion uf thin paper, muy always represent ma-level
stillstands, with the sequence boundary occurring ut the lop uf the succession
(interpretation #3, described rurlirr). Only whore it can br shown that u fluvial
succession is a limited, chanoelizcd deposit would it be snspeoted that it represents
backfill of incised valleys, eroded during low sea-level stands, that were filled
daring the sobseqorut rise (interpretation #2). The widespread distribution of the
Tuenvio Member would seem to rule ant this interpretation in the present case.
The more general question remains, which is how to distinguish the elf rots of hase-
level change from those brought aboat by regional tectonic activity. This question is
becoming a particularly acuto one in the case of feeclund basins, which uro, by their
very nature, created and continuously alto-ted by basin-margin tretonism.
CONCLUSIONS
This research has revealed sume of the difficulties in applying simple sequence
models te actual field-case examples. The elegunt models of Pesamontior and others
(1988) arr essentially iwo-dimensional, representing continental margins us simple
prisms affected only by changes in buse level. Although illustrated by three-
dimensional block diagrams, the modols do out account for processes active in the
third dimension, sachas coastal progrudation und river mrauderiug ira direction at
a high ungir to regiooal depositiunal dip (the cross-section plane of the ceased
prism), or sediment transport by shelf currents parallel to shoreline; nur do the
models indicate how tu distsngw..the field the several muter typos of bounding
snefuec that may o-eue in coastal souings, in particular those generated by anlogenic
processes, such as channel seour, and those produced by ullogenic proensurs, such as
regional lowering of base level, to the case of the Tonnivie Member, it seems hkrly
that very detailed mapping, especially in the Nose Rock PomI area, may resolve
those questions. That there is a need for such mapping should serve usa warning tu
those attempting tu carey rot a sequence interpretation from u few key vertical
sections. A reappraisal of the Exxon models also seems advisable, particularly the
nrqmremmnt for u seaward shift in equilibrium profiles and the generation uf fluvial
accommodation space aldim brginoing of un episode of omtatic ms-level fall.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
t am very grateful to Dug Nummrdal fur introducing me te the Terrino
Member, and for stimulating disennsions uf sequence stratigraphie concepts. Earlier
versioni of this paper were read by Dug, und by Robyn Wright and Henry
Posumrntirr, and I thank them for their useful commenta.
Acknowledgment is made lo the donors of the Petroleum Research Fund,
administered by the American Chemical Society, for partial support of thin
research. The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Canada, also
supported this research through an Operating Grant tedie author.
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fluctuations and depostlional sequences, southwest Louisiana continental shelf,
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and coastal evolution; Society of Economic Paleontologisto and Mineralogists
Special Publication 41, P. 199-219.

Miall Sedimeolelogy of the Torrivio Member, Sau Julo Basin 232

 EVOLUTION OF MIDDLE EOCENE TIDE-DOMINATED
DELTAIC SANDSTONES, LAGUNILLAS FIELD,
MARACAIBO BASIN, WESTERN VENEZUELA
JESUS MAOUREOUI'
Department of Geological Sciences
The Unicersity of Texas ut Austin
Austin, Tesas 78713
NOEL TYLER
Bureau of Economic Geology
The Usi cersity of Texas at Austin
Austin, Tesas 78713
Anernnyr: lstespretutisns st net- nd/percent-sasd mIps. well-lsg cessa sections, nrrtical
log-psttrrn aesds. csrr deaceiptisns, sod log facies suggest that seneenl sggrrdrtionol tide-
dominated dsltuic cycles meer deposited in Lssuvillus field. Westom Vrnrssrtn, donne s
widespedtesssgressineenrntsttheendoftheMiddleEscene. Reseenoirljltcnfacesspesnnnt
ser rumaome distributary-channel sandstsnrs, tidal aasd-nidge sandstones. pesdelta/alcrlf
ansnnbtuges. sad tidsl-chansel facies. Gnsmrteies of the sandatsne bodies urn highly dip
nlnngstr and stoike lenticular. These shsrsuing sands maintain theie widths in a landwsrd
direction (west) and splay outward at their seaward limit (east), where bei of sand deposition
occurred. Enatwaed,thnneqxence thicknnacovcnmitantwilhadecseaneionsnd-ts-shaleeasio.
lndinidusl sorrel stable drpoaitionat voila sen mtreprrtnd to ho discrete dolts lobes established
dosssgpeogesdstinnnfrslvunino diutnibutuoy systems. Those siogle delta lobes shifted laterally
nlong clothe during iofilting nf deltaic depnsitinoal anna. Laterally pessistenl tnw-eesiatisity
shalemaekersanatigeuphicutlybound seneeatdeltalobes,whicheogrtheecsnstitstennrnffive
dnituic cecIne pensant in the uppesoeaeonnioa nf she field.
The Maracaibo Basin, Wenlern Venezuela (Fig. 1), is houl te many lunge oil fields
ranging in age from Cresaceous to Mincree (Gonzalez do Jnana and others, 1980).
Among the most impnrlanl of shone are tho Eoceno eeservoirn lItaI meen deposiled in
fluvial lo drllaic 000irOnmenls. The peonosance of the Encene sedimenls was Is the
southwest. Those oodiwenln were lensspoelOdby tho genol norlh-so-nerlhrastllowing
ancesleal Magdalena and Orinoco Rivers (Forero, 1974; Bsckmnvlen and others,
1983), whore they wore deposited mninly as dellaic sends is udepscenter that now lies
beneuth Lake Maracaibo. The Eocrsr reservoirs in Lake Maracaibo produce mainly
from the deltaic.facios toad (Fig. 1),
Considerable variation in erseenoic quality occurs osa regional seule within the
Eocene dellaie reservoirs of Lake Maracaibo. Parlieulaely important aro Iho low-
permeabilily rrsrrvoirs in Ihn easlern Lagnnillas field in eastern Lime Maracaibo.
which are informally refereed loan Ihn "boceen Frac" renerveies, These reservoirs
conlainod -'5.1 Bbbl of original nil in place, and Ihey characteristically eshibil low
primary-recovery efficiencies 0f-14%. The Eecene Feue reseevoirs are composed of
highly eemrnned sandstones and normally require fracture stimulation lo facilitato oil
'Pecares sddrnss. Intevrp, SA.. Apaotndo 76343, Coencss, 1070-A, Venezuela.
Maguregui und Tyler
lo udditino to relatively low preweabilities (cere permesbility averages 10 md but mudslone platform entended throughout the basin. The La Luna Formulion within
raogcu up to 200 md), detailed well-log coereluliens indicate that considerable Ibto assemblage records a sog period of eusinic conditions, when high cenleots of
between-well variability also io responsible foe the low-recovery efficiency of Ihr orgunsc mutertul were deposiled and prenerved (Gonzales de Juaoa, 1980), und
EscoSe Frac reservoirs, AO soisoleopie behuvine of sandbody conlinnity between composes tho main bocce rock foe moot of the nil in the overlying Tretiaey classic
depositional sloihr direction (north-south) and depositiunal dip dirrclion (rant-mess) resnevoten (Blanvr and White, 1984). This carbonase and clanlic marine platfesm
was recognized early in Lugunilluv field. Detailed field-scat e cenereste' ssndies cempssed the substrate ayos which thick Eocene fluvial-drltaic sedimento were
involving well-log correlativos have bren conducted for rrserveir-enginereing deposited (Zambraso aod others, 1972), This flunial-deltuie complrstsrepersroled
purposes (Natera. 1961; Zomorn, 1977; Swuonon, 1982); however, genetically sloutigraphically ss the Maracuibo Basin by the fluvial Mirador Formatien und the
related sedimrntelegic modeln have not been ttlemptvd until now Hence, this delloic Minoa Formation.
Gulf of paper discusses the facies aechitecture of the Escroc Frac oil eenvrvoirv in canInos Three nlouttgruphtc srqnences urn present in the early to middle Eoeene Mites
Venezuela Lugunillas Field in eavlem Luke Maeuesibo (Fig. t), The study is based on net-sand Foemasiss (Bot and Perdoino, 1987; Graves and eshers, 1987; Fig. 2) The lewest
COLOMBIA and percent-sand mapping supported by well-log correlations of 280 wells and strultgruphtc sequence was deponiled daring a otmngly peogeudutional pulse followed
drtailed dencriplions of 2db os of coro from three wells, by a releegrudauos. This stratigraphic veqsence al the bowee part of the Eocene is
informally refeored tous Ihe Early Evcene "C nandn" (Walton, 1967) The middir
FIELD
j9
sequence wan the moo vigorous progradational pulne in Ihn Milza Formation,
PEN reaching the presenl rastren cousdine ef the lake. Thz upper sequence sIns was
MARINE domsnunlly pregeadattosal. The middle and upper sequences arr eslledlively and
The Maracaibo Bunin occupies abroad depresnion belween Ihe Venesuelan Andes
/ lI-' £FRAC und Ihn Perija Mountains in Western Venezuela (Fig. I). The structural histery of the
unformally mferred loar the middlrEscene"B vunds"(WulIon. 1967). To theeuvl the
B nands are leansitional willI a thick assemblage nf marine mudstones known an the
basin entends from late Jurassic rifling through Tertiary compressionol lrctsnicv,
Fuujs Formution (Fig. 2). Eeesional remnanlo of the Puaji Formation in the eastern
During Ihe Cretacenus through Paleecree, a pusoive-lype carboonte and open-marine lake and in dowotbrown fauliblocks in the deSleal lake suggest thaI the Pavji
j
VENEZUELA
PROGRADATIONAL SEQUENCES
SW DURING THE EOCENE NE
"MARACAIBO -
Oli macmUles co
BASIN e'. in Ensene Fran area
Source ai EOCENf UNcONFORMItY
h o
Sedimenls i
o an es
cross Santon
ere Iflriguesl
Flu. 1,Middle Encene paleogengraphy of the Maracaibo Basin and location
nf Ihr EoceneFrae area. Flaviul.deltaie depositional systems covered mont of the
area at thin time. The shelf break did not prograde significantly dseing the
middle Eneene und tronsted apprnsimately nnrth.northwest ts south.soolhrast - TRANSGRESSIVE SURFACE
along the present rastren coastline nf Lake Maracaibo,
-,---.,,, PROGRADATIONAL WEDGE D-
canins, anas BOT Sed PEnasen Im,); ue,nvvu ana Mesas loe,)
Fac. 2.Three main depositinnal seqnrnnrn nf the Enerne Minna Fnrmation,
Maracaibo Basin, The two upper progradational sequences arr bsnndrd by
marine.flooding transgresnivr surfaces, Within tbene upper sequences,
flow lo the well bore, The resernoirs respond well ta fracture nlimulatïen, typically maximum progradatisnal peaks mere reached in the B.2.X and B-e.X nnits.
displaying a five-fold increase is daily production (from uvreage pee-stimulation Remnants of Pauji shales indicate open-marine assemblages that n'ere drposifed
productions of 100 bbl of oil per day lOposl.frucluee productions sf000 bbt per day). durieg the apper Eocrnr traengresnine rvrnt.
Evolution of Iide-ilomivaled dollaic sandntouen 233
mudsiones record a major transgrrssion capping the sandstones of the Misoa
Formation. Oil field operations further subdivide the B ronds and C sands informally
isla "B-i-X" ta "B-9-X" and "C-t-X" laC-7-X" rands, mnpeciivety (Fig. 2).
Following deposition, the Focose sediments throughout Western Vennaueta were
subjected to two phases of tectonic deformation. Daring the upper Boceen, northwesi-
soatheasl compression was dominant, resulting in reaclivalton of pre-esisting rtfl-
associated fault rones (Audemard and others, 1987). The product of dro Eocenr
tectonic event in the Eoceno Froc area is expressed as northwest-trending, mostly
normal faults (Fig. 3) associated with a north-northeast flower-type structural high
located lo the west. The second tectonic event (Miocenr so Recent comprensmooal
betonen relamd In uplift of the Menda Ander)did not significantly affect the Eocene
STRUCTURE MAP
Cnntnur interval: 200fr
- Wut
A Writ inrrp000banom
nmosiurs& hire
Nmmd foin
Fia, 3,Strunlure nf an Enrrnr depositinnal surface ((np nf iutrrvul B, dellaic
nyrlr 2) nhnws structural dip In Ihr south and neyerai nnrth-dipping normal
PantIn, Wells X and Y prnrtruled Ihr dip part of Ihr rattern graben and record
the thirkrst sertinn within the Enerne Frac area (ser Fig. 8),
Maguregai and Tyler
Frac arec of Lagunillas field. lo general, dowuthrowo blocks arr to the north in ihr
Eocnne Frac mec; however, in a local arec in the east, downlhrown blockn lie toads
ii
of the faults, creating a graben in which thicker Encrnr srdtmrnls arr preserved
(Fig. 3), Fault throw is variable, ecco along individaul fruits.
The final phase of the upper Eocrnr comprrsnionai lucinnic event in the Eoceoe STRUCTURE OF GENERALIZED STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN
Frac arec of Lagunilias find was uplift und nubneqoeni rroniooal iruncalion of the EOCENE UNCONFORMfl'Y
Encrer sedimeniary assemblage (Fig. 2). Progressively toward the west, yoaoger DELTAIC CYCLES
Eoceno sirntigraphic markers were truocaled aguinst the flower-typo structure, which
wan a topographic high daring the Laie Eoceno and probably Oligoceno (Fig, 3). The
Pauji Furmalion, the uppermost pari of the B sandm. and uptheown fault blocks were
pinned off during erosion. Miocene marine mudslone unconformably overlying ihr
Miura Formation in the Earner Frac arec composes the reservoir meal. In response le 5
subsidence-related lilting of the basis since the Mmccxc, the persess sirneture of thin
Eocrmsr unconformity surface dips to the sands (Fig. 4).
Ssraugraphy of the Eacene Frac Area
loo'
Oil reservoirs in the Eocrur Frac arraprodace from the B-2-X sand (Fig. 2), in thin
study the B-2-X sand is sabdivided isla five delmic cycles bounded by laterally 4
persistent marker unils thai separate intervals of dislinctive uleatal slacking patterns gomma
(Fig. 5). All of the cycles Ibroaghont the B-2-X sand consistently display similar re&slsaiiy Ing
serrate log patterns of inierbedded nandslose and mudslone, suggesting a dominance
of aggradational deponitinnal peoceusen. These deitaic cycles can br farther
IL
uubdividrd into correlation intervals thai constituIr dmscrele deposiiiooai events thai
cao he defined throaghoat the Eocene Frac arec. The higher rnsnlaiioo correlation 3
intervals (A-O) ihal were selected for delailed study of depostuonal geometry und
continuity are shown in Figuro S for the lower Iwo dnilaic cycles. MAPPED
MARKERS
INTERVALS
Groen
X
Fose facies are dmslingamnhed io this study: i) rsluanioe distnibolaey-chaonni Dark Blue
sandslaorn. 2) tidal sand-ridge sandstones. 3) prodelia/shelf facies, and 4) tidal- F
chanonl fucien. The first three are weil characierired using log-fucirs patterns and Orange
cares, und the fourth is iulerpcntcd from well-log pallerns and from its inferred areal
Brown E
dislnibutioo. 2
Flu, 4,Structure nf the upper E orme uncnnformity, which currently dips D
111
Esivarine Distributary Channel gently ssmuth.snuthwest, The smnothnrss nf Ibis surface muggestu that no major YeI(ow
Esivaeine diutribuiaey-channei sandrlones reni on an erosional io sharp basai
pnst.Eurrnr defnrmaiinn tvnk piace in Ihr Encrne Frac anna, C
cnomaci. Vertical variation in grain mire is snbdn, fining upward from within the fine. Trunsgreauion1 Garnei
geained sand divmninu even individual channel sandnsnnes. However, clear vertical
trends in sedimeulary stracturen. from medium- and small-scale trough crosn- B
sleolificatinu ai the baso to wavy lamination, ripples, and flaner-lype tlracloecs ut the Aggeedailue
Parple
top, arr distinclise. Additionally, increasing conloul of shale lenses toward the lop
of many estuarmne distribarary-ehannel mandrinons is characteristic (Pig. 6). Wmlhmn
i
each channel sandsiove, eecvuvatino nurfacem constitute u sharp contact bniwneo Flu, 5.Composite stratigraphie column created using wirrhne logs of wells X A
shaly and hiolaebaied sands below and cieco, couenne sands above. and Y (tre Fig. 3 fur inratinni, At least five detlaic cycles, hosed on Ing. Progrndnbon
Enivarmne diiieibatary-chaonci nundslonem typically arr i lo 3.3 m thick. with an interpreted vertical trends and mojar, irw.rnsislive shair brrukt, man be
average thicknesm nf 2.6 w. Commonly, nevreai of Ihrse channel soodslonen are rerognired, Theme drltaiu cyciru eshibit nimilar log.uhapr paileras and Blue
smacked, forming a single nniaanine dislcibulary-chanuni depomml (Fmg. 6) thai ranges Ihichnrsseu, except deitair cycle 4, which shows a minor aggrudntinnat
in thickness from 4 in 11.3 um and averages 7.6w. rnmpanent, Dnitaic cycles I and 2 are preserved aver a large aren und can br
Borrowing in common within enluarmor dinteibulary-chanoel sandsionru. isolaIrd, subdivided (teto thinner, geneticuity related, uulnryctin peogradutional evenim
ophiomorpha-type traces are present in the sandier levels, and loialiy erwoeked (intervals A-01,
Evoluiian of tide-dominalrd deltaic sandstones 234
intervals dominantly cap the very top of these chaonel sandstones (Fig. 6A. B). Tnns.r t.Characsertsttcs
of estcarine dislributazy-charmrl sundorenen
Frequently, bioclasls consisting of reworked gastropods, bivalves, and echinuderm
fragments aro found in coarser sandstones. A persistent pattern is that esluarine
SAND
distribatary-channot sandstones at the baso of estaurine distributary complonea Thickssess: Estaarïne distributary channels ronge 3-tI ft.
exhibit high-shale consents, a high, sometimes pervasive, degree of burrowing, and CLAY
0) average 8 ft.
low-energy sedimentary structures (wavy lamination and ripples; Fig. 6 from 20 lo VC C M le VF Estuarine distributary-channel rompt eses ras ge
3Oft). That, tog-furies interpretations shoutd talco into account the high-shale content 12-34 ft. average 23 ft.
at the bare of esluarine distributasy-channrt sandstones that are reflected an false
upward-coarsening trends. Characteristics of essuarine distributary-channel Banal contact: Sharp, erosional
sandstones arr sumwarioed in Table t.
Testare and Compunition
Tidal-Sand Ridge

',
ESTUARINE Genie size: Slightly upward-lining from fine- to very fine-
Tidat sand-ridge sandstones are distinctive, upward-coarsening sasdbndirs grained sandstone.
grading from sits size to very fire-grained sandstone at the base to upper fine-grained DISTRIBUTARY ,,,
sandstone at the tapin wetl-devrloped deposits (Fig. 7). Upward-coarsening trends Sorting: Well lo very wett.
aee better defined by prugrestivety thicker and moro frequent sandstone layers at the CHAN N EL
sep in contrast to shale layers (e.g., shale with sandstone tenses graden transitionally trot
Clay interbeds: Thin. lenticular at the top.
into sandstone with shale tenses and finally into clean sandstone). Tidal sand-ndge ESTIJARINE
sandstones typically exhibit sharp upper contacta either with laminated sham orwists Clay dusts,
other sandstone facies. Thickness of these sandstones ranges fmm t to 4 m and D (STR ( B UTARY shell dusts and
averages 2 m. Differences in thickness relate to location within the furies tract. wood feugments: Fzesenl nl any level; were common at she base.
Thicker tidal sand-ridge sandstones (3 to 4 w) were found in front of estuarine CHANNEL
distributary syntews. where higher sediment discharge in present.
lo,
Sedimentary Structures
Typical sedimentary structures are ripple and small-scale wavy tasnination, which
are present in the tower two-thirds of welt-developed tidal sand-ridge sandstones Medium. to small-scale trough cmss.ntrutificasinn. Most common ut
(Fig. 7). Small-scale truugh ceosa-stratifscation is sometimes distinctive in the opper ESTUAR(NE the base.
third andin associated with clean, very welt sorted und coarser sands.
Tidal saud-ridge sandstones ore strongly harrowed; locally pervasive biotarbation DISTRIBUTARY Farutlel and wavy lamination cowman at oIt levels of entoarmne
totatty disrupts the original sedimentary structures (Fig. 7). Horicontal traces channels.
(chondeiles) memore common within the shaly sections in the lower tidal sand-ridge
sandstone, and vertical traces (ophiomorpha) uro frequent in clean sandstone levels CHANNEL
Ripples are very common ut the top.
(Fig. 7). Charactreistics of tidal saud-ridge sandstones are summarized in Tabte 2.
Bezeown
20'
Very common in Ihr muddier levels (horizontal burrows) and frequrot
mithin the sands (ophiomorphu).
ESTUAR(NE

DISTRIBUTARY
Ftc. 6.Stacked estoarine distrihalary-ehannet sandstones Ibatindividsatty
rshibit subtle upward-fining vertical trends and a decrease in scale nl
sedimentary stroctores. (A) Ernsive basal contacts eummnnly srparatr fine-
framed sandstones at the hate from very hoe-framed sandstonrsatthe top nf she
noderlying channel. (B) Mudstone interbeds at the top nf estoarmne channels
iodtcate snaning nf caceent energy. Shell fragments at alt levels soggest
csntisuoosmollsenee nf tidal eorrrnta ea pable of lranspsrting binclasts frsm
shallnw.martsr arras into the distrihutaryehannrl. (C) Ophmomnrpha tracesare
scattered throughnat the estoarmne dmstrihutary-ehannet sandslnnes.
(D) Commonly, the losere eslaarine.channel deposits within an estuarine
dtslribntary complex nhnsv a greater degree nf binloehation in eenpnnse tu the
isflaence uf sballvw-marine cundilisos. (Key to nymhnls in Fig. 8).
Pradeltu/Shelf Furien
CHANNEL
Frodettuishelf fuetes consist of highly laminated shales intercalated with very thin
lenses of siltstone asd very fine-grained sandstone (Fig. 7). Horiovntal chondrile
traces are scattered throughout these shaten. These thicker, low tog-resistivity
30'
peedelta/shelf shates wree used to define bnundurien nf genelicatly related
deposstsasat packages (events) und were useful in delineating the upper and lomee
boendaries of deltaic toben.
Thicknesses of this lithofacies within the field area (und in the dellaic drpuccntrr)
ruege from decimetres to a few meters; seaward, the facies espands rapidly.
Typically, prodelto/shelf shales rest abruptly en tidal sand-ridge facies hut are
gradulieoal upward into the sand-ridge facies (Fig. 7).

Maguregui und Tyler Evolution of tide-domivated dcltuic sandstones 235

 TABLE 2.Characteristics of tidal sand-ridge sandstones between major enlamine sand depocenters. Gamma-my and spontaneous potential
(SP> log sìgnatare shows a sharp base andan upward-fining grain-sire pattern. Tidal- TIDAL SAND-RIDGE
channel sandstones were distinguished from entuarinr distributary-channel
Thickness: Range 3-12 fi, aseeagr 6fl. sandstones by a greater mad content, as indicated by subdued gamma-rap and SP
log response. In addition, serrate muistinity traces indicate a high degree of
AND PRODELTAISHELF FACIES
Basal contact: Transitional with marine skates. isterlamisated modstoses. Thickness of this tithofacies in commonly 3 to 5 w.

Tenture and Composition

SAND
Grain size: Upward-coarsening from sillslonr/sery fine. Deyositicnalpatterns mall of the moppedunits (154m of the stratigraphie intrrsat) CLAY
grained sandstone at the base to upper fine-grained are strongly and consistently paleodip oriented. Regional depositiosal patterns of the
sandstone at the lop. Misea Formation are east-west, and sedimentation trends in the E000nr Frac arrame
in agreement with these patterns.
Sorting: Well la srey well. Net-sand mops show strongly dip-oriented, linear patterns (Figs. 8 and 9). Many
of the se shoestring sands splay outward at their seaward limits, resulting in funnel-
Clay interbeds: Very common and gradually decreasing toward shaped termini (e.g., iotrrsals D.F. and G, Figs. 9 and IO). In othercasos thene linear
the top. Theirrelative consent defines the apwand- trends display a "beaded" patters, reflecting isolated sand depocentert (e.g., lower
ceunnening, thickoning trend. qoarser of ways of internals C and E, Fig. 9, and upper quarter of map of iotervat F,
Fig. 10).
Clay classa and Percent-sand trends are also illustrated in Figures 8-tO. Areas of high-sandstone
wood fragments: Common in the upper half. content match depositional Ilsicks, as indicated by set-sandstone maps. Percent-sand
contour lises display she same linear dip orientation and hightighi depocenters.
Shell clasts: Mainly in the sandier Inseln nf the opper part. Definition of percent-sand depocenters in Ihm fashion allows comparison of

Sedimentary Stractnres
Frequently in high cancenoalions at the sop. depositional feci of successise intervals.
Comparison of percent-sand cOnLentt in internats A and B (Fig. 8; which together
compose deltaic cycle 1, Fig. 5) aed in inlercals C-G (Figs. 9 and IO; which
collectively compote deltaic cycle 2, Fig. 5) shows a progrennise increase in sand
!C I6127'-6132'
Wavy lamination and ripples are dominant is the lower two-thirds of the content serticalty within each of these two dellaic cycles. That is, areas mapped sa
containing >60% sand increase in armi entent stratigrophicalty upward. TIDAL-SAND RIDGE C
Cyclic areal shifting uf deyocootern is well ittasleated by deltaic cycle 2. During
Small-scale trough cross-stratification is usually present in the upper deposition of intervals C-G, depocesters alternated between northern and soulhom
one-third facies. bei 0f sedimentation (Figs. 9 and 10). The oeca separating these two centers of
sedimentation had persistently low-sand content. u
Burrows

Most common within Ihr lower half nr at Ihn nnry sop of the facies.
Frequently muddy sandstones are homogenized by biolurbatton.
Gyhiomoepha traces are common in sand-rich levels.
Tidal-Channel Facies
Lithofacirs description of tidal-channel facies is limited Io well-log character
basasse this facies was not intersected is available cores. lsterpretalsos of Ihn tidal
channels was is part based on meal facies assncialioon. This lithofocies is found in
areas of low set-sand content, which are interpreted as irterdislribelary shoals
Analysis of set-sand and percent-sand maps, core descriptions of three wells.
seeLical log-pattern trends, and log-facies interpretation ted to the definition of fine
deltaie progradational cycles (Fig. 5). The lower two cycles are well constrained by
the data discussed above; the upper three cycles were largely defined by well-log
character and are onty locally preserved within the graben io the eastern part of the
Eocene Frac area. Each of the five deltaic cycles contains slower, thin progradalional
paine followed by aggradation followed by abandonment and coastal innandation.
PRODELTA /
Ftc, 7.Tidal nand.ridgr sandstones coarsen and thicken upward. A SHELF FACIES
gradational hasal cansad wish prndelta/shelf faoirs is defined by upward.
iroreasing sandstone content (left column in A(, Flaner.Iypr srdimentaryntrae.
Inert (B) and hintarhation (C) are common in the loner Iwo.thirdn of the fanes,
(D) The sops of wetl.deseloped tidal saod.ridge sandstones are computed affine.
grained sandstones and small-scale tenogh eross-stralification. The complele
vertical necrion shosen is not atways present and probably responds to relative
posititsn within lbs tidal sand.ridge sandstone hody. (Key lo symbols in Fig, 8),

.................u.a*sS Samsumsmsus
Maguregni and Tyler Evolution of tidedomioalod dellaic sandstones 236
N..aa....m. .... Based on wettlog character. aggradation was the dominant process (Fig. 5). Most

N
SAND
o e M I F 55F
b O.st a1lP CLAY mrd.
abandonment deposits are not tatorotty estensivo and represont tocat tobe foundering
. Tsmrd. N und rowoeksog. An encnptlon occurs with the abandonment of dotlaic cycte 2; muds
compO55ng is masker UmS are comnbamd a0m5 t estoc mea
INTERVAL A
.

....
R
r
-r2
r
uC
r 3'
rat reconoced
etto'
i INTERVAL B
dettaic sodimeniation. The sandbody dip orientation (east-mont), funnel-shaped
depocenters, high sand-to-shale ratios, shsckening of cycles seaward, aod basat
. . N ET SAN D, / SAN D ---- -i-- . N ET SAN D, / SAN D upward-coarsening units provide evidnnce foe the dottaic origin of these sediments.

..
. .
. .w:__,______- ' -.o_--.- -,- ,. , Eoidonce for thedominance oftidat proc canoni s the strongly dip-oriented mear trend

:-'' ' / .
-:r__m ... . ofthe nearshoee, shattow-mthne sandstone facins, the high degree of biotarbatinn in
all tithofacies typos, and the presence of lasdward-seasspoetod marine bioctasts

*:;r
.

: :t: dobtao:htf
:: dtk
-.
- ----. -
-
_..
-'
- --::-- '' g g g ph are lt flh p g dt f
Those detta lobos shifted laterally along stodce during nUtting of detiaic drposiiional
gt t d lob tury
'. -j / - EXPLANATION . '-- ' - anrs. Eslaarioe deposition alternated from nords to south between badsymetricatty
n t ti ectdby
11117 . t doet
-
I

Sn
," j., t 6km
th d gd p k fd lt pl 2)
rk
suC G)w 1ml dt b IP
'
I

StrarpOanaint
a
:.... -- . The principal feature of each delta tobe is the nslaarïne distributary-channel

_.-- noawmroaurvsowo °°°111-_L9 dmîIltt) tdttsattr le

tedwththdtrbtr If

- z : :mt±hc
1117
' ' .. . . : IA ,

-
=
onions!. nartmerat bsrrnsi

alay tsars
........ ... . ,_.- (Figs. 9 and to).

(A)
o
r
2000es

6000 ft
®C
E n al I mss
d

Distributary snarse
c tau intern

6070% sand

> 70% Sand _-

_-.fl
essaI
i
...
A
\.vsI
d

Dtbotsry

95g55j5 t
0
t i
2000m
I

60005
Cared well

E na anal Isnit
aai

Distributary saurnu
60 70% sand

> 70% sand

(B)
th t
d

Its
A

k
I
d IdI

t h
t)
t

hn
(B) 1h
1h
d:l
wrst, dip-oriented nandhody lrrnds and locistiard sand-rich depocenlers. Core
t1
sand map nf internat B presents even mare remarkable dip-orienlrd trends. The
rare draeription for the towrr purl of internist Il (inset) reveals the presence of at
least ano typical estaarinr distrih t yh
Continuous strorstring-sand depncentrrs in intrrval B suggest wrtl-rslubtished
I na dslo e.
d
IA

dg
ggrt

S
dt

d h,

estuarinr dislribalaries mithin the tidal-delta plain.

Maguregui and Tyler Evolution of tide-dominated deltaic sandstones 237

 INTERVAL C
N N
INTERVAL C INTERVAL D INTERVAL E
Odo w

NET SAND,% SAND NET SAND,% SAND NETSAND,% SAND

----; .. .. .-.... ..

- -

ii ° w w ' -

\ /
"\5Tj \_J
Note\/
ssr

m - - -
G . Cil - --
Fin, 9.(A-D) Net-sand/percent-sand maps of intervals C-E, lower part of
deltaic cycle 2. Net-sand and percent-sand trends or these three intervats fotlow -- ... - ,
the same persistent dip-oriented pattern. Areas of higher sand conoentratiOn
(>60% sand) mimic thicker sand areas, ta generat, fnonrt-shaped net-sand
, ' Contoti Internai' 10 5E
- ,
Contour internal: 511 - Contour InternaI: 5*
contour tines drn:reate Ilse prece of bsbuarm d:trintary eyttems ophip t: ® Cored well 60'70% sand ® Cored well ®
2000m L o 2000m H 60-70% sand o 2000w 60-70% sand
Eros anal I mil Erosional I mit Eeos rial lint
ptt lyf m th t tCt th t tD dh kt 5h
> 70% sand
I

th t F F g 10) Tb > 70% sand > 70% sand

EIhhYrn t d t hdtf m 6000 St -te D ut batary e000 n
te'- D t but ry
6000 ft ,........ o
dg d
representsng detto-front facies deposited at the initiation of dettoic cycle 2
progradalion.

Maguregni and Tyler Evolation of tide-dominated deltaic sandstones 238

 N N INTERVAL G
INTERVAL F INTERVAL G
SAND
V NET SAND, % SAND NET SAND, % SAND vcM[FIvF

>. .
/
. .

-..
-
-:--. Estuarine
-
- t
A Distributa-
J' Channel
--
(a t a a a

- Corn ex
dip
dpt dmpf dGPPpI
"' .IIIII7'
d
hg d d wts h 55 ty
ht
h d y tr th t f'tt r Id
- - -
-

.
.
.
. ..
e
-::iiiIi::
/
Ç

\t_x
-
5
t
ss etcrvat F but extred aver mast of the firtd arca in ictervat G. The

description for intervat G reveats the presence of two stacked estnarine

cnre

distrihatary-chassnct comptrxcu in a tow-sinansity shocstrian treed.

À
'
Estuarine
-
- Distributa-
- -
Channel
-

Cornplex
Cnataur interoaI 55 Cnotnae intervet: lOft Ç .-
Cnredwell Carodwell
2000m 60-70% sand 60-70%sand í-,
Eroainoallimit
0
I
2000m
-- Ernsionallimit __a__-
60005 Drntribatary snurce
> 70% sand 6000 ft > 70% sand
Distributary soarne

Maguregni and Tyler Evolution of tide-dominated deltaic sandstones 239


The strongly defined linearity of the Eocene Frac tide.doininaied deltas profoardly
LOG-FAdES MAP influences the internat architecture of component reservotrs rs the field. The
geometry of the principal sandhodins is best described as dip elongate/strike
INTERVAL G lenticular. Is dip direction. estuarire distributary channels exhibit a high degree of
tareraI continuity (Over 03-105-km facies tarot) with a seaward irassitior into tidal-
sand ridges (Figs. 12 and 13). Characteristic of the estnaeine disiosbulary channels in
the dip direction is the seaward increase in thickness of individaat depositional units
from the area of maximum sand deposition concomitant with an increase in shale
N inierbedn, thai is, concomitant with a decrease in sand-to-shale ratto. This
characteristic in welt displayed in seciion B-B' east of writ 5 (Fig. 13). In lire tandwaed
direction, the axis ofesivarinedisiribaiary channels retains high sand-to-shale ranos,
as is reflected by sand percenlagru >60% (interval B, Fig. 8; islervals C and E,
Fig. 9; asd intervals Fand G, Fig. 10).
The laierai culent of the essuarine disieibuiary and iidal-channnl snndbodies
parallel io the shore000e is limited. Delineation of the lateral estesi of the saudnlanes
is hindered by wide well spacing (600m). However, closer welt conieol and a cored
section is well "e" in the northern pari nf ihn area permitted heiter defininon of ihe
dimensions of componeni nandbodies. In general, esivarine distributary-channel
widths range from 300 io 600m. Channels are clustered or sosie din imbricaie fashion
into complenes 1,800 m wide (Fig 14). Between-well correlations saggesi that tidal
channels are considerably narrower (Fig. 14); however, quaenficaiinn of chaonel
widths is noi possible because ibis class nf sandbody wan inteesecied only in single
wells. Tidal sand-ridge complenes show a greairr degree of nube cosunaiiy,
pinching and swelling osera distance of 2.400 w (Fig. 14). Those ndal sand-ridge
complexes are amalgamations of many parallel and lenticular cdat-sand ridges thai
are narrower than normal well spacing (600m> and probably on the order of a few
hundreds of metres wide. Analogous bathymetric "ndal-cuereni ridges" associated
with modem riser dolian attained widths from 300m io 1,600 m (Off, 1963).
IniorvalF (deliaic cyctn 2) presents a good example nf typical rsivaeine distributary
progradatios (Fig. 10). Paleegengeophicully. pointu of sedimeni supply (rniaarine
dinieibatary heady) were niable fora relalively long period. Seaward of disiribuirry
heads, esivarioe channels were confined beim eon retauvely stable banks composed of
tidal delta-plais sedimenis. Bank stabitiiy is suggesied by nei-nard/perceni-sand
LOG FACIES maps, which show a low-sand content in the central pari of the siudy area in intervals
C-G along ihn exilie deliuir cycle 2 (Figs. 9aod 18). Within ihr confines of the siabte
L L Estuarine Distributary Channels banks, be channels shifted laterally. Progradation of she esivarise distributary
Tidal-Sand Ridges/Marine Shales
Fix. ii.lnirrpeelrd pairogrography nf inirenal G, appeemoxi inlercal nf
2000m drttaie cycle 2. There main palengengraphir arras can br dislingaished on ibe
Tidal-Delta Plain, Tidal Channels basis of well-log pailerns. Esiaarine diuiribalary.channei sandsiones arr well
dovoinped in ihr npdip part of ike enlnarinr dislribniory nyxirms. Tidal sand-
6000 ft Am==iA' Facies-interpreted cross sections ridge sandsionrs and prodella/sboif mudsinoe assemblages are incladed io an
exiensive seaward area mithin Ihr driia fr051. lnterdioini'bataryzosrs between
.4 Net-sand contour major estaarine disleibularirs are referred Is as tidal delta-plain arras, which
inciade lidal-plain sandsinnes aod mndslones and lidal-ubannel facies. Cross
seciiens A-A', B-B', and C-C' arr shown in Figares 12-14.
Evolulion Of tide-dominoled dellaic auudvlones
Mogaregoi and Tyler
systom was accomplished by a series nf individoal progeudaiional pulses nf uciive
distriboiary ch000rin. These ociiveestoorinechnisnelx deponiind channel sands opdip
and iidally modified diniribstory-mouth bars dowsdip. Marine infisrece daring ihn
flood tide, as reflected by deposiiion of marino bioclasin, nsteodnd erlatisoly fao
loodward within estuariso diittribotary channels. Arealty, ibis maples association
arigeotex progrounivety seaward through time (times I-III, Fig. 15), as do ihn tidal
delta-plain oreas and the coastline. Au expected from ihe peogradatinnul process.
lilhofocirs show ihe some verhcal progression of marine mudutonen to tidal sand-
ridge sandsinses lo esivarise distributary-channel sandstones from bane io iop (ser
core description, Fig. 15>01 li displayed areally is ihn seawaod.io-londward facies
tract. Reworking and iransportaiion of aunds away from ihr udally modified
diutribuiary-maaih bar by iidal currentn are ihr processen responsible for the
formation of ridai-rand ridges offshore from ihn esisorine distributary sysiem
(Cuinman, 1981; Galloway and Hobday, 1983). The upward-coarsening nnqaooce nf
tidal sand-ridge sandsinses is interpreted tobe produced by lateral shifiing of higher
nsergy bar-crrxl sands over lower energy muds uccumutaung in the adjucesi irnugh
(Meckel, 1975). As iidat-carreni direciion is conirolled by estuary posilion and
morphology (e.g., Figs. 8.-10), ihr choracier of ihn esloaries influences iidul sand-
ridge urienlaiinn.
The deponiconal setting of the Ercene Fiar area is schemoiicalty itlustruied in
Figure 16. A iidal-deita plais biuncled by narrow, highly sinuous tidal channels
formed subite highs neparaung siraighi eninarine distributary channels. Thesr
interdistribatary areas characteristically havetow-sand contenta (Fig. Il). In modern
examples of tide-dominated deltas, axis thn Mahakam delta (Allen and oihers, 1979),
tidal channels within inierdisiribuiaey armi nor noi cnnnreied io ihe aedimeni
distributary nyxiom and only reproseni ihn pathway for draining ihn tidal-delta plain
during bm-udc flow. Seaward, the enluarmne distribuiary channels diverge outward.
Ai ihis jascoon, eslaurine disiributary channels merge mio hdalty modified
distributary mouth-bar areas, which includo iidal-sand ridgon and distributary
ch000nia. Thin wan ihe ease of maximum udal-curreni energy and, hence, Udal
reworking. Sedimeni brought into Ihn basis by the disiribuiuey channels md
deposited is mouth bars was winnowed and iransporied farther xeaward, where il mas
reundimenied into linear uidal-xand ridges. Nel sedimeni transpon, dominated by
esinarine carrenlu and ebb.ndut fias, was seaward; however, sand movemeni in a
landward dirrciion alio 100k place daring ihn flood phase, as is suggested by ihn
prenence of marine bioclantx in estuarmne distribuiary channels. The modern lower
God River nsiaarine channel in Ausieatia (Wrighl and olhern, 1973) alio exhihiix this
bidirrciiosat urdimeni transport controlled by baihymelric profiles of the channel. lu
general, bedforins in shallower porumons nf ihe lower Ord River channel become
preferentially orienard in the direction of good-ode cuerenin. On ihe other hand, ebb-
flow-orienled bedformn lend in coscnstrnie wiiohis Ihr deepest parta of the chanori,
whew sedimrncs more seaward. This mechunixm maintains a nei balancr of ihe
mdimeol budgel (Wrighi and nihors, 1973>.
The Eocnne Frac study area covers only a small pari of u much larger udc-
domisaled della complex. A modem analog unch an the Mahakam delia (Alien and
oihers, 1979) covers an area of 5,000 ioni. The Mahakani dnita plain alone extends
ovrr6s km alongnhore und projeeis 25 km seaward from ihr coastal plain. TheEovenn
Frac area coxeru 64 kmi. Comparison of the Eacene Fmc uidat-delta deposita with the
Mahukam drlra indicates thai the geographic extent of ihr Encene Frac ama repreaesis
no more Iban one nf the major entuarmne diatriburary nynarms mithin ihr Mahakam
detta complex (Fig. 17). Total dimensions of the tide-domioaied delta nuggesied for
ube Eocrnn Frac area could only be determined by delailed facies interpreistinnos ihr
regional scale, which is beyond the scope nf ibis niudy.
240
 Fis. 12.Dip-oriented log-facies cross section A-A' of interval G, uppermost
A ESTUARINE DISTRIBUTARY COMPLEX
A' interval of iteltaic cycle 2. Highly continuous (in the dip direction) estnarine
distributary-channel sandstones are the dominant lithofacies throughout this
West C C' INTERVAL G East
cross section. Individual channels in estaarine distributary-channel complexes
can hr recognized hy shale hreaks in Sp/GR logs and resistivity lugo (not shown).
Estuarine distributary-channel sandstones grade transitionally within a single
sandhody into tidal sand-ridge sandstones seaward (east; e.g., in the upper
sandbody note how the npward.fioing pattern in the western wells changes
9 lo il h 12 13 transitionally to an upward-coarsening pattern in the casters wells). Slight
thickening of the section seaward (east) doe to increasing shale content also ix
0 600m -O evident. (Section located in Fig. 11; ser Fig. 13 for pattern explanation).

Fix. 13.Dip-oriented 10g-fanes cross vection B-B' nf interval G, uppermost

2000ff interval of deltaic cycle 2. Both estuarioe distributary.channel sandstones and
tidal sand-rid ge sandstones show good dip continuity throughout this area.
Commonly, estnarine channels grade seao'aed into tidal-sand ridges, except in
one case (between welts5and 6), where the opposite relationship suggests that the
obannel ix prnbahly conning ohliqoety to the cross sectios. Sand-rich sections of
interval G in wells 4 throogh 6 (see also Fig. 15) indicate that the locos of
sedimentation was located where the estoarine distributary system spreads Out
tu the delta front. Shale layers separating distributary channels at the base of
interval G show a sigmoidal geometry, indicating pengradation of the system.
(Section located n Fig. It).

B ESTUARINE DISTRIBUTARY COMPLEX B' INTERVAL G

West C - C' East
Upper Interval,
Deltaic Cycle 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ro. ft
o
EXPLANATION

Eosmism OaRbu,a GnoseS,

30
lid cisa,wols

ildOOnud FOdgus

RGW ewuw osdm

TotO-Plein shalnu

lidO-pino sacOs lCeeoaauo, OF)

O 600m

2000 ft

Maguregui aud Tyler Evolulion of tide-dominated dellaic sandstoues 241

 C C,
A-A' B-B'
North y South
y
Interdistributary
- Zone - Distributary zone Interdistributary zone Distributary zone
a b d e g h 3 k m n p
m. ft.

2000 ft

Feu. 14.Strike-oriented log-faeies cross section C-C' of interval G,

uppermost interval of deltaic cycle 2. Conteary to dip-oriented cross Sections,
titbofacies in thit Strike-oriented cross section exhibit pone lateral sandbody
continuity. tnteepreted tidal channel-sandstone facies show the poorest lateral
continuity. Tidal sand-ridge aeeaoaee shown as being laterally more continuons;
however, individual tidal sand-ridge sandstone bodies are expected to have very
low lateral continuity in the north-south direction, Two main sandstone
depocentees, deposited as a result of two estuarine distributary systems, are
separated by inteedisteibutary unset having low-sand content, (Section located
in Fig. 11; see Fig. 13 foe enptauation of symbols).

Maguregui and Tyler Evolution of tide-dominated deltaic sandstones 242

 INTERVAL F ESTUARINE DISTRIBUTARY
De talc Cycle 2 PROGRADATION
-20'
Au analysis of depositional units in the Eocenn Frac area of South Lagunillas finid.
Lake Maracaibo. permitted lin definitina of thu style of helwcort.wnll heterogeneity
ta tide-dominated deltaic reservoirs. Heterogeneity is a product of depositi000l
SAND
CLAY
TIDAL-DELTA PLAIN III processes, which ore io turn a function of tidal energy and flux in the deltaic-to-
N
VCMFVF0 nearshore seuing. Resultant dip-elongote saudhodies show good continuity in the dip
direction and provide primary pathways for now of iodigenoos ond injected fluids.
-mro Shorezone-paraltet continuity, however, lu miniwol. Between-well communication
verace atong deposilional strike is therefore poor. Advanced hydrocarbon recovery
Facies strategies most account for this characteristic tidolty influenced architectural style to
Tren ensure optimum recovery of remaining hydrocarbons.
Well S
Estuarine
Distributary
Au.en. D.F., Lavoteo, D.,ave Tnesrcororc,J., 1979, Etude sedimostotogiqur da Delta
Channel rat ch. hausten DiStflbUtnlO Chantai de ta Muhakaos: Compagnie Francaise den Petreles. Notes et Memoiren t5.
t56 p.
Tidal-Delta Pln? Aoracnraao, F., Rovvrvvo, A., M.savueour, J., Ronntavvz, E., anm oc Meras J., 1987,
TM5UB i]dnliy modified DIstributary-Mouth
Distribución y evaluacidn de lus fracturas en lus calizas cretácicas de Freud:
Estuaolne internal Report, Len Toquen, Venezuela, latovep, SA., 153 p.
Distributary Brasca, R., Ano Wares, C., 1984, Soarer reck and carbonization study, Maracaibo
Channel Basin, Veneraota: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 35,
p. 229-252.
Borrirdcvres, H. C., Bannen, C., aso Do-nov. A. P., 1983, Geology and geochemistry
Estuarine II of crude ails, Bolivar coastal fields, Venezuela: American Association of
Distóbutary Feirolcam Geologists Bollcón, v.67, p. 242-270.
Ber, F., Fnuaosao. J. L., 1987, Análisis sismoestrutigráfico dcl Eoceno y evolución
Channel tectónica en lacuonca dcl Lago de Maracaibo: Internal Report, Caracas, Lagoven,
S. A., 98 p.
Channel Cei.cns.nru. J. M., 1981. Deltas, Processes of Deposition and Models for Esplaratios:
Abandonment lime second edition. Minneapolis, Burgnns Publishing Company. 124 p.

Estuarine
Distributary 3O'
Channel

TIDAL-DELTA PLAIN
Fsa, 15.Interpretation of rstsarsne distribntary progradatien processes
Tidal-Sand Ridge within interval F, drltuir cycle 2. Three schematic putrngeogrzphic maps show
the location nf active estnarine distribatary channels and the puleacaastline
ihrnngb time (1, II, and III represent saceessive intervals nf time). Wells M and
S show lithnfucirs variation lathe dip direction. The core dencniptias. presents
the vtratigraphic central for the three pragrudationul events. Frogradutional
processes are indicated by lateral migration afalt facies seaward (e.g., rstnarino
channels reached well S later than well M). As purl nf this process, shifting nf
t 2000 nr active channels redistributed sediments in front of the estoary (see funnel'
shaped nrt.sand unntanr lines), Finally, abandonment of the estaariar
distribnlury system followed by sea.tevel antup resulted in u laterally estensicr
lnw.resistive marine shale. Geometric relationships of pateacoantline und
lithofacies taken from she Muhaham detta (Allen and ethers. 1979) and Golf of
Papaa (Fisher and others, 1969, p.47).

Maguregui and Tylrr Evolution of tidc-dvrninaled drllaic sandstoncn 243


Fr0551 nidnlsasd
distribUtOy
corn pie s
Fia. 16.Schematic three-dimensional depositionaì model of Encene Frac
tide-dominated deltas. Estnarne distributary systems teansport and discharge
sediments at the end of estuaries, where tidal currents redistrihute those
sediments tu form a tidally modified distrihntary mouth-bar complex. This
distributary mouth-her complex insludex dip.orieuted linear tidal-saud
ridges that Constitute thicker, sandier sections seaoard of the estuaries.
tuterdixtributary erras are cut by highly sinuous tidal channels. Tidal Channels
drain the tidal.drlta plain during low-tide flow, are not connected to the
distributary system, and nrc characterized by the low-saud Content assosiated
with the iuterdistrihutury zones. The vertical profile of a typical extuariur
distrihutdry complex is shown in (A). A transitional lithofacies ix found farther
seaward (B), u-here greaser influence uf shallow-marine Conditions and high
degree of reworking by tidal currents modify the typical entuariur dixtributary-
channel complex. Proximal tidal saud-ridge facies (C) are present in rxtaariue
term mii in areax of high.sediment discharge. Finally, thinner, distal saud-ridge
facies lie farther from the estuaries, where the sediment supply ix limited and
tidal curreuto are wenker )D).
Maguregni und Tyler
Fsssscn, W. L., Bnowv. L. F., Jo., Score, A. J., .-as McGoworc. J. Ft., 1969, Della
Distel systems in the exploration for oit nod gas: a research collaqnicm: The University
of Tecas al Aanlin, Bureau of Economic Geology. 2129.
Possono, 0., 1974, The Eoceoe of Northwestern Soults America: University of Tulsa.
STUDY AREA Oklahoma, Uupnbt. M.S. Thesis, 81 p.
G.xs.s.owxv, W. E.. ovo Heresy. D. K., 1983. Tereig000as Cluslic Doposilional
Systeme: New York, Springer-Verlag, 423 p.
Goszss.ezoe Junics. C., lrunr.r.s.nc oc Aaozcvn, J. Maso Pscono, X.. 1980. Geologia
de Veseenelu y de nus carocas petrolíferas: Caracas, FONINVES. 1031 p.
Morn. R., 1987. Estudio dei Eoceno dei Lago de Maracaibo, Parte Norte y ExIe:
Internal Report. Caracas, Lugoven S. A.. 197 P.
Mcenes., L. D., 1975, tIolocene send bodies in the Colorado delta area, northern GaIf
of Califemia, in Beoussurd, M. L. , ed., Deltas: Hoaslon Geological Society.
Interval F p. 87-98.
Deltaic Cycle 2 Nnvvo.s. E. R., 1961, Recoeeelatiou of the Eoceue Upper "B" Members in the Tie
Juana, Lagunillus. aod northern Bachaquero areas: Internal Eepoet. Curacus,
Lagoven, SA., 8 p.
Ors, T., 1963, Rhythmic linear sand bodies caused by tidal currents: American
Association nf Petroleum Geologists Bulletin. v.47. p. 324-340.
MAHAKAM DELTA Swnnsox. D.C.. 1982, Slrssclaee and distribution of resisliverenervoie deposits in Irr
Eoceno B-2-X.68, E-2-X.69, B-2-X.70, und B-2-X.7l eexerooirn, Lake
Mndioed utter Allen ned Others, 1979
Maracaibo, Venrznela: Internal Report, Caracas, Lagoven S. A.. p. 26.
WALTON, W. M., 1967. The informal units of the subsurface Ensene: Asociacion
Venezolana de Geologia, Mineria y Peteetro Bulletin, y. IS, p. 21-30.
O 2Kw Wasotso, L. D., Cot.sstnu, J. M., ovo Tisons, B. G., 1973, Processes of channel
development in n high-tide-rungr envieonment: Cambridge GuIf-Ord river detta,
Western Auntratia: Journal nf Geology. v.81. p. 15-41.
Mdljgh bar
ZnMno.xvs, E., VasQuez. E., Devon, E., Lanaetu.e, M., aso Coveecunen. B., 1972,
Submarine levees
Puleegeagraphic and Peteoleam Synthesis of Wettern Veneenelu: Pods, Editions
Techoip, 62 p.
Enlumine Rossons, L. G., 1977, tutorare geoldgice preliminar del urna piloto del yacimiento
Dintrib. B-2-X.75: Internal Report, Curacas, Lag000n S. A., Shp.
Chart.
Entuanmne
Dmnlribulnry
Chesoel
n-
Feo. 17.Comparisnn nf ihr scale of the study area in relation to the modern
Mahakam delta. The srt.naud and percent-saud map of interval F, dettaic
TIDADELTA PLAIN cycle 2, indicates depoecuter morphology and sandstone facies distribution
comparable to shattow-marinr, nrarnhorr areas in front of a major actine
extuarine distributary channel of the Mahakan delta. "Primary" and
"secondary" distrihotarirs ooutd he present in the Enceur Frac area, as they arr
in the modern Malsakam delta (Allen and others, 1979).
Evolution of lide-dominated deltaic xandstones 244
 ARCHITECI1JRE OF MODERN SUBTIDAL DUNES (SAND
WAVES), BAY OF BOURGNEUF, FRANCE
SERGE BERNÉ
maturai Frrrnçaia dr R herthrr pant' l'Esplrriialion dat la Me'
Departement Géosciences Marines
BP 70,29280 Ploneané, Ft'onr,at
JACQUES DURAND
El) 4qniiainr
Laboratoirr de Sédinaemtologiet
64018 Pan Cedan, France
AND
OLIVIER WEBER
Unit7erniié dr &,rdeau.a I
Lal,orai airs de Sédirnentaiogtat
33405 Talemos Cadra, Franca
ArancE irepetrrenrn,ra of gaophyaasl arqanirion and pnoaerning irthniqorn and toeing data gire a
aargbr jata the a,tlr,terirae of lange aaba9nalrc dares. A finid of daran, miti aropliraden raagrag
from 0.7 ra 9.4 n. ran ieeO atratred io the Bay of lloragarenf. nrae rire loire niet. F,aane. grants
tiran that the tedfon,r,s tiare arpa Ire ndaa and distar, saymnreOy, and that the lerntest airrrninee
minian of ateepty-dipping nnoan-aaeara tenarated by sereni orden of bmnedirrg ataefaeea The retta dip
angie 01 the lartrtaae, n,aano,,d on a torn enllenad front a 16-m-higb done. anggrss the raatne,r of
annallon 0e aaedtail ptornnaan. ararla, io abane p,enietnty denratbed a rallan donen or armad rnianiidst
bedfomnn. The rmmbined rffrri of ,taOm and radai aseareis a paaçrra,rl ra rnplaa rire among
anytenreny at the an,rernenn arid the orgia oi branding arafarra. Err, if tanne daces ran br
ronaidered an aidar bedloanrs, nnnr and rene data arrggnnt thai the mimanat anncrrae a probably tire
eesrdi 0g epianin, stier than cynic. prnremen. Ii rompsaed to the arad marra anncaibed by Viima
from aheltreed en000amenla. airas ange at aanabeasy shanld be drffinrli to troeprer a aire abnrrgeaprrie
rrrord, becaran rt dona noi display any bdst emiretf (Odi bardan, mad coapiets).
INTRODUCTION
Dmenrg the ant frw yearn, knowledge of the internal birractrare of intertidal
bedforrna, an a kny for nmdenntaaading theie faenmatinan, han ingreannd nigmificasatly
(Boersrna 1909; Kleiaa, 1970; Bnersrna and Terwimdt, 1981; Datrympte, 1984; asad
others). Compaeatively, ksaowlndgr nf large sabtidal bedfarrnn eemaien veay parer,
as mentiomed by several anthaes (Allen, 1982a; MnCave, 1985; Beldernom, 1985;
Keniaa arad Malafa, 1986; Rinhardn, 1866). Mont of the nnaaceptmal mndetn of stach
large flow-geaanveese bedlorms arre bannd am the interpretation nf the steatigraphic
renard, am theoretical considerations and/er em the interpretatinm al smaller
badloerns (Reinnch, 1963; McCave, 1971; Allem, 1980; Walker, 1984). The amly
denceaptiam direndy related ta a knawm aaabtidat environmeat was givem by Visser
(1980) learn saab-Holonene etatneops of the Onnteenchetdc (Nethnrtandn).
The first aitcmpt lo provide ialorsmatïon aboal the internal structure of large
srrblidat domen al thn Eagtinh Channnl was presented recemdy (Berné and athera,
1988), amd wan based an the non al new sainmac etpaipmant. Is order la confirm the
esasteace nf nach reflactoen another nene with large dimes was snrveynd in 1986
Berné. Durand, and Weber
asing ihn orme goophynscat aqmpment (I"ig.t). In addition, ame vibracore throagh a
dann was taken in order to confirm the internat geometry mated from the seismic
recordo.
METHODS
Acqniaiirion of dala
Tho serrvey was carried ant bntwean the 10th riad 15th of July 1986, am board ihn
'Capncorme", s 50-m-tong rrnaarch vessaI of Inntitnl Feasçais de Recherchas pomo
l'Exploitation de la Mae.
Onophysical dala acrgtrioition was nymchroaizad siring a data-tagging nystem
(Borné amd others, 1986). The eqtaipment includes: 1. Acqmsition arad real-lima
praceaateg of radro-eleclercat positioning; the pnsilianumg system employed wan a
"Sylndis", whose accueany wn abonl 5 m in this zane. 2. Narraw-beam, high-
fraqnnnoy rcho-sonnder (Simead EK.400) with digitizad resrdts 3 Sidencam sanar
(EGO-OMS 960) asoociated with a baffared digital magnetic tape allowing post-
prncennimg al the data. 4. A 23-kHz Edo Wettern sabbattnm prnfitnr associated
with a real-time proconsiag of tha signal.
Tha erpaipmrnt was rim nimnllaneaiaxly darting the nnrsrey along parallel track
hnen spaced 150 m apart. Using a Shipek grab, 16 samples were collected from ihn
canaan ordimentaey traits determined learn the sidnscan sanar.
Immediately aliar the geophysical invesligalinn, vibeacores weee collected in
arder In stndy the internal strnctnrn of the domes and nf iamdcriying channel fills. A
Hydenwerkstattcn VX300 vibracorer was employed; this eqmpmemt allowed
cellection al amdistr,arbad cores as tongas 2.8 m in laaagth, with a 10-ema section. In
order to prevent beading nf the corer, the dip-angle of the frame ross controlled
darmg the operation. Accorate positioning of the coree was obtained by axing Iwo
anchors, manrnd st the estremigims of the dome to be sampled, in conjanctinm with
Pto. l,Lmmstton nf tiar study area,
Architecture of modero tublidal dunes
the echo 500ndre. The bow and stern rachar linen comdd be adjarnied ta position the
caree aber the bedf arm crest. Only one core, collected from a dane, is dnncribnd in
that paper, the other wan taken in tha arnderlying Inviai deposils.
Proreaoisg of the daaa
Bathymetry wan drawm antomaxcally after correction of rca-level flucitaations
mraniaeod by a tide gange located 5 km from the noady area. Digilal sideacan sonar
data were Iaanncoded on a Van 11/780 compsler sad several operations were
peef armed: 1. Contrant enhancement and hala remoral; 2. Geamnlric correction
(slant range); 3. Mnrging nf sideacam sonar and aavigalinmal data, in order to locate
aach "pinel" at its truc position; and 4. Aalomatic fatting ol the peofden together in
order to preduce a mosaic, inside of a gaogeaphic frame ola chosen scale.
The core wan X-eadiagraphed with a scannee (Chaampaaahet and others, 1989)
before il was opened. Im order sa determine the treme dip angla of the ntrmclnres and
Io choose the best amgje to split the cara, the radiagraphx were made along Iwo
pnrpnrndicnlar dirrclions.
AI the same lime, gamma-dmnsimetry ross measrared along Ilma core, with a
apacing of 20mm and a duration of 20s.
The litholopy of ihr opened care was dmncribed and every unit was sampled for
geain-siza amalyaia amd carbonate-vantent measneemeats (32 samples worn analyzed
along Ihr care). ladneated core stabs, 1 cm thick and 40 cm long weea later X-
radiographed Bacanse thr sediments were not significamlly deformed, it wan
posniblo lo streich the sadieaeelary nirucirares from the dabs and from the s-roy and
scameeeradiogeapbn.
FIG. 2.-'Siaaaplifimd bsltay-anmtry of the studied arms; tide onrrmetios from
gangr mmasuremmnts prnvidrd by tian Pnrt Autonome dr NantmC. Vsiumm
refer to the lamant law tide; internals between enflions lisies see I m. See
Fig. 1 for loestimn asad nrims,taliom,
GENERAL SEtTING
The bay of Bonegnenl lias imotediatiy ta the sonth of ihr Loire inlet, one ol the
Iangest flyers in Fraace. The sandy area is a zone of aboal 14 kmr, whore the sea
Boar is eavered by laegn domes wham asymmetry naggents a migration aoward the
easl-somatheant. Water depth tangen between 8 and 23 m (reblad io lowent sea
level), sen shown by ihn bathymetric map draicm aflnr the naaraey (Fig. 2). Doe to
local amplification, the tidal range in ihr bay reaches b m dneing spring tides. The
tidal canent at the combe of the siudy area wan calculated asing a recent
mathematical medal (Salomon and I,aziare, 1980); it in ravrrsing and nearly
nymmetracal (Fag. 3). The velocity of the surface cneramt daring average tide
(between neap and spring) reaches 037 ma.: in a fined dierction (azimuth t25( and
0.53 mr: inns ebb direcaiom (azimnth 305(.
Dommami wava directiom in thin area is from the wesl. Woven warn measured
aver a peeled of 900 days in the esime part of the bay (H. Allem, 1982), in a place
whrre water dnpth is abost 10 nr. Asamnal, 10-year, aad 180-year wave heights are,
respectively, 3.7 rn 5.0 m aud 6.2 m. The dominant periedn range from 010 14n.
nE5ULTS
Sedirntzntaey facizo
The sidnscan-namse mosaic (Fig. 4A( thaws various scanslic facies, which cam be
compared to preciaras nodimnentologic slndies (Gordean, 1968) and le grab-samples
collecled daring the sarvey:
245
 The clear echoes on soeographs correspond to medium sand, whose carbonate
consent je abord 25%. Identification of becllorors (doces, sand ribboss) On mosaics
(Figs. 4A, 6A, BA, 9A) is racy because they corevspond very wril to this type of
sediment.
The dark echoes ou sonographs correspond to silicielastic sand and gravel,
attribusrd by Gouleas (1988) to fluvial deposits. Grab samples, from diflerent
places where this acoustic facies occurs. indicatr significant vanatioss m
VIa's 't
060 composition of the scdimrnt, difficult to detect on sidrscae images. Some samples
a consist of a large amount ol white siliciclastic fluvial sand, whereas others consist of
heteeogveeons sand and gravel mixed with mud. Shells, probably lying over this
deposit, are also present.
O 50
Geometry o) bed (orma
From the generai mosaic of the study area and from bathymetric profiles, 75
ftow.transversr bedloems were identified (Fig. 4); they correspond to the laage and
very large done categories in the classification of Ashley (1998), and are called sand
O 30
waves by many authors. Smallec bedforms, snch as small doces (meganpples) and
ripples are not taken into account.
The ose of geometrically corrected sonograms and high.resolntion digital
O 20
bathymetry allowed neto measnre accurately the morphologic characteristtcs al the
bedforms. In addition, the seismic records were cmployed lo calculate the surface
dope al the bedloems dxc lo Ihr ltigb.emission rate of the source (8 shots/s).
010
Correction ol the dope (migration) was secessary to determine the tree dip angle.
Amplittaire (Fig. So). The measured umplitndes (H) range teem 0.7 to 9.4 m;
most of the dunes are between 2 and 4m (mean amplitude 32m). The central zone
ol the mosaic shows the most important concentration ol dunes, but their amplitude
is smaller than those at the bordees, lu the shollowest parts of the surveyed aera,
2 4 ID TISI
which correspond to Ihr southwest und northeast parts of the mosaic, large doces
disappear andare replaced by medium and small doces.
360
Lzsgtho (Fig. Sb). The measured lengths (L) ronge from 35 to 420 m. Three
320 families can be recognizod from the histogram. Shorter brdforms are bund
throughout the study area; bemfiorms with mean values (about 200 m) are mostly
200
peesent in the central zone, and those with the largest values (more than 300m) ave
240 present mainly along the western border of the study area. The mean length,
200 FLOOD EBB calculated from 75 measurements, is 166m.
EBB
Lateral rotent (Figs. Sed). Two paeametees cao be measured from the sidescan-
160 sonar mosaic the span (B), which is the horiaontol distance between the estremitius
of a bedlorm, and the crestline length (Lo). which is the distance besweon these
120
extremities, measured along the crrstline. The valus of B ranges between 100 and
BO 1,030 m, the mean being Sell m; Lv ranges tram 100 to 1,130 m, the meas value
being 386m.
4°
Lee'.oide olope (Fig. 5e). The slope, b, el the dune lne.sidr, measured over
o pretties perpendicular to the crestline, ranges between 3 and 34 ; most of the dopes
are between 21 and 30' (mean 22'). Their dip seems to be independent of other
morphologic characteristics, including the amplitude. The maurmum values (34')
wore found or two doues whose heights are, respectively, 5.4 and 2.4 m. These
Flu. 3.-Surface currant velocity and orientation daring average filai values are very large when compared to those el othrr studies (McCave, 1971;
cycle (bot'sveen neap and spft.g). Calculated for a point located at the center Terwindt, t97ll; Bouma and others, 1977; Davies, 1980; Field und others, 1981;
Pesillo and Lodwick, 1984). In u compilation of 25 studies. Stride (1982) indicates
nf the study area, using the mathematical model of Salomon oad Launen
(1988). a. Current velocity as a function of time, b. Cnvrent direction as a that for 'large sand waves' (one large dunes), the values ob the leo angle are about
4' to 30', but aracly always less than 20'.
function of time.
Archilcclure of modero sebtidal dones
Berné, Dorond, and Weber
.....s...s.Na...S*aS.SN................U..
Stoeo.ride elope (Fig. Sb'). The dope a el the stoss side ranges between 1 and 9'
(meas 2.8'); the dip angle seems related ro the length of the dunes. i.e., bed0onns
whose length is the smallest present the steepest dopes. This observabas is ra
agreement with that cl Stride (t982(, who mentions that this angle morcases when
a/b decreases.
Verfimoaf.form iso/ca (Fig. Sg). This indes, called tipple indas by some authors, is
the ratio L/H; it ranges between t4.6 and 171.8 (mean 54.7).
Horiaonf al f orari iude (Fig. 3h) is the ratio B/L; it ranges between 0.46 and
12.32 (mean 3.01).
Aaymeseiry isidro (Fig. Si) is the rutio a/b; il ranges between 1.8 und 33.7 (meas
10.1). lb compared to data provided by other authors (e.g.. Allen, ll982a), the
measured values in Bouegneuf are esceptionally large.
Siauoeity istdce (Fig. S)). ' indent's the salmo Lz/B; il mas deEmed by
Dabrymple (1984) in order le distinguish 2.D ood 3.D bedlerms, us defined by
b-banns (1969). lt raegvs between 1.00 (perfecdy straigbl.cresied dune) to 1.54.
Most of the values fall between 1.00 and 1.15 (mean 1.097). Except for some
baechae.11ke dunes touaicd mainly in the western part al the study area, most of the
dunes have a sinuous crust.
Inrermal arrnzrnse (rem aeinmic data
Several seismic sections across the largv dunes (Fig. 6) show an internal
geometry very similar to that observed inside the dunes ob the English Chauneb
(Bereti and others, 1988); the same hierarchy ob bounding surbaces (Breekimeld,
1977) can be described;
Snb.horizonral )irar.order ref terrore corrcspond at the bottom of the dune te the
coarse.sediment layer (the dark acoustic facies observed on sonogeapks(. Suck
reflectors inside the dunes are interpreted as erosional struettiers created during
storms; this ielerprctation is supported by observations m the North Sea (Terwosdt.
1971) and in the Euglish Channel (Langhoree, 1982), where dcstruelion of the top
el the dunes during sienss and budding np during faie.weather conditions have
been described.
Between two sub.horizontuf reflectors, several types of oblique or siginoid
reflectors (Milehum and ethers, 1977) are observed. These are sero,eI.erder
reflecroro. They dip grntiy in ilse same directioo as the lee side ob the dune. They
are also erosional surfaces iruncating the upper or bower estremities of underlying
oblique rdfleclors. Their angle el dip measured along lb cress sections
perpendicular lo the creer of the large dunes, ranges from 2' to 11' (Table 1). Theo
bottomset is usually dipping al a very bow angle (tangcuriab contact). The lateral
rerminalion of these reflectors can be an erosional lrrmcauon, peoduced by another
erosional surface, ta many eases, several orders of erosion surfaces can be
distmag'shed. In intertidal esamples, such erosional structures are mterpreied as
'reactivation surfaces" (Colbinsos. 1970; Boersina and Trrwradl, 1981) produced by
subordinate tidal currents, or as 'inclined crass.beddin'produced by chmubmg
down ol superimposed bedfoems (mrgaripplrs; Dalrymple, 1984). These
interpretations caunos be applied in the case of very large subtmdal dunes because
they imply a complete reworking of very large amounts of sand, not pecable dormg
a semi.diuenab tidal cycle. More probably. these reflectors ugn be atteibured to
desteuetioual phases, during which tho general profile of the dune is rounded by the
tidal crurent enhanced by wave mocon.
Tltird.order ref leciorr are strep, oblique, parallel reflectors with theme angle of dip
ranging tram 8 to 29', alter correcting the slope (Table ll(. The contact wsth the
basal surface is angular. In some cases, their upper part is truncated by erosion
surfaces. Sorb reflectors are attributed io forcset beds. Sometimes, however, they
can be confused with diffraction hyperbola, created by 'bright spots'. In such cases,
there are asy two hyperbolic branches dipping in oppesitr directions, whereas
true reflectors produce only one, dipping in the same directian as the Ireside of the
The distinction between the eme classes ob obliqsc reflectors 'es, in some cases,
rather difficult. Several orders of erosion surface arc sometimes visible, and the
steepest can be interpreted as third.ordnr reflectors. The only criterios for the
distinction between the two types is that erosion surfaces show a clear trsmocatien of
underlying reflectors,
bu some caser (Fig. 7), it appears that the internal geometry of the dunc dors not
correspond with the morphology ob Ihr bedborm. tu these cases, the tower part of
the dnne presents inieruat reflectors that cao be related to underlying fluvial
deposits (strong baekwatteeing en sidetcan.sonar pictures, various direction of
dipping ob the reflectors). The boundary between the fluvial deposits and the
overlying sediments is an erosional surface dipping gently in the downcureent
direction. This type of internal geometry is probably petalocod by thy downward
scouring' climbing at negative angle 'of thc dunes (Robin, 1987, Fig. 9).
Another type of seismic reflection partern is observed in the Bonrgtmeuf arco.
Several dunes (Hg. 8) present a very simple internal structrirn, characterized by thr
presence of sleep, oblique, parallel reflectors ("third.oeder' reflectors) without any
eeosieu sadaees. These reflectors show neither topsel nor botfomset bedding, so
titis type ob internal structure is called purely forests beddeig. lt occurs mainly msidr
dunes whose present leeside is very steep, corrcspeudmg to the betE orms having
the highest usymmncloy indes. Another characteristic of these dunes is the absence
of superimposed bndforms; they are very murriar to the type b sand waves as
classified by Allrn (1980).
Internat rtructure observed en t/ne cere
One vibracore was collected from the stose.sidr of a dune, 40 m from the crest
(Fig. 9). Thn dip ongle of the corer, controlled from the sessel durmg the operation,
was only 2'. This dune is 3.6 ni high and 85 m long; the nmruuimuar slope of the
beside is 28', and the crest is fairly sinuous (sinuosiry indes ob 1.025). The seismic
section located 18 or from the coring peint shows both erosion surfaces and steep
reflectors. A sub.horizonlal reflector is present sear the crest. The core consists of
mean te coarse sand whose mean carbonate ceetcut is abont 30%. The length ob
this core (2.70 m) did not allow solo reach the base ob the dune, but it is suffmcicnr
ro ideetif y threc units, which correspond to the topset, boreset and boltomset of the
sandbody. These unito are characterized by dif lernst physical and szdimeutologmcal
properties (Fig. 10) and by different sedimrntamy structures (Fig. 11).
The upper unii (0.66 cm) of the core consists of sarall.scale (b.3.cm.rhick)
trough cress.bedding, clearly visible ou scanner and X.ray photographs.
Observation in twa perpendicular directions. prerided by scanner pictures, shows
thof the "herringbone' pattern of the structure is not related to bimodal cross.
bedding butte unidieectieoat. three.dimensiooal bndforms.
The ce,ttrul unit (67.171 cm) is characterized by a bigli.perosiry, medium.
grained, very well.sorred sand, with inrercalations (1 mm te 3 em deck) of coarse,
badly sorted sediment. There is a good correlation between the carbonatc content
and the grain size of the sediment (Fig. to); course layrrs (brom 0.5610 te 0.650
mm( show the mauiarmon carbonate vantent (from 40 to 60%) and the fmrr
Co,2j,o.04 en page 254
246
 2°16 2°15 2°14 2°13 2°12 2°11 2°10470
470 I T I I I
I I

05 I I 05

.-
-
-
'i"LJ.

'
;tp
Pb.fl 444.Ç .
'I
o

..*1 'n
-- f ' / -
0 1km

PIG. 4A.Sidnc-nor mosin oF the totI tdy peon'en'4 by

9'n' (Agstis., n95).

I I I I i I I

2°16 2°15 2°14 2°13 2°12 2°11 2°10

Bernd, Durand, and Weber Architecture of modern subtidal dunes 247

 0.0 0.0 0.0

\
, \
'"\ '%

-
/
-
/

oo o-0 0.00

I g g g g g

I
I
I
I
I
g g g g g g
g g g
I
I
I u
I i
$
I
I
I
i a
I
I
u
 TABLE 1-Cb efnriotieo of 16 donna of the Boorgneuf neon. Only
profiles perpendicular to the erestline were employed

H(m) L P() 0(1 IJH a b a/b-i FORESETS BOUNDING

(m) (m) (m) SURFACES
max mean mean max mean max 9mean P min 'Pmax NO. o 0mean O min max NO.

1 5.1 5.1 205 25 27 2 2 40 194 11 16.6 21.5 19 25 10 1.8

2 3.3 3.3 125 15 24 2 2 38 113 12 8.4 19.8 16 24 6 2.7
3 5.0 5.0 110 26 28 2 5 22 100 10 9.0 23 21 28 8 2.6
4 2.3 2.3 35 18 27 4 4 15 28 7 3.0 19 16 22 2
5 2.9 2.9 80 22 30 2 5 27 73 7 9.4 20 20 20 4 0
6 2.6 2.6 60 20 25 3 7 23 53 7 6.6 15 15 15 2
7 2.4 2.4 65 22 30 3 3 27 59 6 8.8 16.5 13 20 2
8 2.6 2.6 80 18 23 1 1 31 72 8 8.0 19.8 17 21 5 1.9 a b
3.6 130 4.7 .L.
9 3.6 22 28 1 1 36 121 9 12.4 14.6 8 21 6 6 6 6 1
lo 5.2 4.4 235 19 20 2 4 45 220 15 13.6 16.8 13 25 13 3.1 3.5 2 7 4
11 3.6 3.6 105 12 22 2 5 29 88 17 4.1 16.0 15 18 3 1.7 2.5 2 3 2
12
13
14
3.6
4.0
4.6
3.6
4.0
3.2
85
54
58
8
15
19
28
30
33
2
5
2
5
7
2
24
12
13
59
39
45
26
15
13
1.3
6.8
2.5
16.4
12.0
12.7
12
10
8
20
14
16
7
3
3
3.4
2.0
4.1
7
7.5
4.5
7
5
3
7
10
5
1
2
2
/////////////7////////////j///////// /// ///
vo (3

15 4.2 4.2 105 19 33 2 2 25 93 12 6.7 18.7 15 21 12 1.8

16 3.9 3.9 280 29 29 1 1 72 273 7.4 38.0 23.2 19 29 16 2.9 10.5 10 11 2

H omptitude, L wave length, b ongle of the Iec.slope, o ongle 0f

the Stoss side, o length of the Stoss tide, b length of the lee side, j
ongle of dippmg of the foreseE, N.U. number of observotions, s
stomlard deveetson, q ongle of dippmg of erosion snot uees

Berné, Durand, and Weber Architecture of modern subtidal dunes 249

A B

FIG. 6A.Mosaie of siuuoun large doues from the ceutrul port of the
study orna; small doues (megaripples) are roughly parallel to the erestliun
on the stono side of the very tange door, but they are sometimes
perpeadies.lor at the bottom of the lee side. See Ioeatioo ou Fig. 4B.

C D

0 50m

Berné, Duraod, and Weber Architecture of modern subtidal dunes 250

R_N_Na SNRRN Na*aa asNRaaaNaaasaa

(1)
(1)
(3) (3)
(2)

A - -,,------. -

Pto. 6B.Scismic sections and interpretations across the same zone; 1.

Major, sub-horizontal bounding serf ace, 2. Oblique, second-order bounding
surface, 3. Steep foresct" reflector. Reflectors under the major sub-
horizontal discontinuity ore related to channel-fill deposits. Sec Fig. 6A for
location of tines. Vertical sealer are calculated with a seismic-wave velocity
of 1,500 m'-1 in sca water.

(I)

(3)

50m

5m

Berné, Dnrand, and Weber Architecture of modero subtidal daces 251

r
o-

o-
 'ri

'f3

Y5

b
's VI 5O

213'20" 2'13' 00" Y3 IO"

04
Y5 IO
Vs

FIG. 8A.Mosaic of large and very large dunes of fbe ccotral part of the
study arco. Sec location ¡n Fig. 4B.
FIG. 88.Interpretation of the mosaic and bathymctnc profiles; i.
medium sand, 2. coarse sodinscnl, 3. dune crest, 4. comet mark or sand
ribbon. CD and EF refer to the seismic lines on Fig. 8C.

saa .a.. *aam a.a.óaa

Berné, Durand, and Weber Architecture of modern subtidal dunes 253
 ....s. m*.aa DISCUSSION

Comparison bobeen oeiomic pro(ile arrd core

a*su
TABLE 2.Teste dip surgie and disseetion nf ravinas dinransiassaities and
lansinae. Dl = major discantissnity D2
minar di.rnntinnity, L laminan.
medinsn disenntinmty, D3

Comparison of sessmtc and core data is difllcolt because the core is nat lucated
esactly os the setsmic rection but aboat 18 m away. The dune doss, however, Depth True D;recfiuv Type
(em) Dip angin
clearly extend ta the seismic line (as shon'u by the sidesean sonar) aud the
reflectors observed on the seismic profile can be related to some of the more
eeideal erosion surfaces in cere. This is the case for the sab-horizont.nl reflector
observed in the upper pael of the seismic section, which can be related luths major 67 22 344 Dl
dieconlinuity Dl located ata depth el -67cm in the core. This is probably the case 70 29 118
loe the gently-dipping second-order crimea surfaces of the seismic sactioa, which 71 27 118
77 22 118
can tre related to 'medium discoatinuilies' sitssaled around -134 and -171 cm in the 78 29 68 03
core. The latter discoutiaaity, in particular, corresponds well loa major reflector, lu 84 24 98 02
order lo contiens this interpretation, synthetic seismograms were calculated truing 85 23 118
densities measured from the cere and signalises measurement of the seismic reseco 86 21 118
that we have employed. The calcalation was done foe parallel and horizontal beds. 69 29 118
The results show (Lericolais und Meunier, 1989) that a coarse layer less than 1 em
92 34 ff8
93 30 350 03
thick, interbedded in medium sand, is sufficient to create a contrast of impedance at 94 32 ifs
the origin el a seismic rellecler. On Ihr other hand, mont of the steepesl layers 99 29 liS
(sandfiow deposits) are probably nos rinibla docto the diffraction of seismic waves 102 30 118
and to their limiled lateral culent, 104 30 118
105 34 f18
106 30 75 03
FIG. 8C.Se.smic pratilrs acrnss lise same zane; letters C, D, E, F rnfnr Origirt o( oleep laminar 109 32 fill
ta Fig. SB. Thn dip ar.le nf the lee sides at tise dsmes and nf thu ¡alamaS 115 26 355 02
refleetars are abaut 30 - The beginning at an impactant channel till can be Soveral authors (McCavc, 1971; Alten, t982a) emphasized the fact that the lee 117 21 118
santa an tise right side al each pral ile. slopes of the saud waves (our very large dunes), as measured from bathymetric 121 27 118
f26 22 118
surveys, were very gentle, except usar the crest, escladlug the possibility of large- f27 25 110
scale avalanche deposits. On the other baud, most of the descriptions of audient 128 24 118
deposite mterpeeted as fossil very large or large dunes, mentiou the ruistence of 131 26 ils
large-scale cross-beds dipping as angles eaagiag from 25 Is 37' (Van der Lindru, 132 22 118
1963; de Raal and Borrsma, 1971; Nb, 1976; Visser, 1980; 1-lomewoud and AlIcu, 134 >15 02
138 17 118
1981; AlIra, i982b; Ceumeyrolfe, 1984; Teyseon, 1984; Buck, 1985; Mutti and 141 21 118 L
others, 1985; Jorzylaewico und Wojewoda, 1986; Kreisa and Meiola, 1996; f42 23 118 L
Richards, 1986; Santielebau aud Tabeener, 1988). 145 24 118 L
sedimettt foyers (0.300 to 0.450 mm) show the rernimam contesst (from 15 to 20%). the right side of the eodiogeaphs (Fig. liB). One explanation of this apparenl contradiction mighl be on onderestimalios of 146 18 118 L
Thm soclioas (Fig. 12) show that coarse layers cossrast of bioelastie shell debris ottd The lamsuac arc interrapted by three types of discontiussiliec Mojar Ihr leoude elopes, due to low sampliag raIes and wide emissiou lobee of most of Ihr 148 17 118 L
that fiac layers are moistly silleictastic. These layers are called lamistac, in the tease d,rcerrtoruities (Dl) display a sharp augsdar uucoaformily aad dip 'ni a different 149 25 118 L
classic echosoanders. Asrother explauation, especially for the dunes ou the outre 151 22 118 L
of C.smpbell (1967), as the thiooest recogssizable beds. All of these lamirsao dip direction (Table 2) from the uudcrtying beds. The only example is provided by the shelf, is that they are 'moribond' bedlorws where thc morphology is nel in
roughly lu the same directiosr, at a tette angle rangreg from 17' lo 34' (Ihr truc 152 19 118 L
bouadaty belweon the upper aud ccutoot nuits (67 cm). Medium diocortsiouitizo cquskbeium with preteut dynamics. 154 21 118 L
angles are calculated from two perpendicular moasaeemenls of apparent aegles). (D2) dip in tIse same dieeetiou as the rsudeelyiag and overlying beds (Table 2) bat lu the Boargacuf area, the measured angles of the leesides of the duces make 155 21 118 L
The slab direction of the core was determined from scauner radiographs in order to they dearly erode the ssuderlyiug beds. These surfaces arc sometimes audulaled. possible the developmrat of large-scale flow soparatioa aud large-scale avalanchiug, 157 2f 118 L
determino the direction of mosissrtass dip of the layers of the contrat surit. As this One of these discoeliauilios appears at the lower litnil of the unit (depth 171 cm), as mellas related soskmealary slnsctures. 159 21 118 L
dircctioa was not measured during the coring, its vaIne is assumed lo be the three others are preseut at -84, -115 und .134 cm. Mirror diocorrtiouitieo (D3( 161 22 118 L
Mechanisms of sedtmeulatioa iu the Ire of traneverse bedfoems were previously f83 19 118 L
dsreccou of migracou of the dour, aboat azimuth 118 tu most of the casos, the
.
correspond so a small change of the augle of dip (from 2' to 6') and gentle described in roliau deposits (Baguold, 1941). Field observations (Hunter, 1985b), 164 19 118 L
lamiaae preseas a sharp aud plaaao (at the scale of tho core) contad, bat in other reworking of the uaderlyiag bed. flume esperimenta (Allen, 1965; Joppliug, 1865; Hontre and Kocurek, 1986) aad f66 18 118
cases, perpoudsealar (vertscal) gradmg of the sediment inside individual layers is The loner eins (171-268 cm) is rery biolarbaled. The harrows and Ihr press mathematical modeling (Hunter, 1985a) have showa thaI Ihr foreset deposits of 167 19 118
peesosst. In some casos, grading is normal (tirnag upward) as in the caso of the slructares (flleinrck and Singit, 1980, Fig. 240) likely represent tower sedisstenlation small subaqualic doues or other flow-transverse bcdforme were the product of f70 13 112 02
lamiaae located betweca .115 and -109 cm aud .142 and -141 cm. Ou the other rate and weaker hydeedyuamic condifiour. Sedimentary els'actuers are difficult to saudflow (Bagnold, 1954; McKee und others, 1971) and saudfall (HunIer, 1977) 201 34 85 D37
baud, Ihr thickest (and coarsest) layers sometimes present grade reverse grading, as 208 23 62 03?
Irterpret because of the biological activity. Nevertheless, vague, small-scale planar processes. Criteria for idealificatiors and diecriminatiou el sack deposits include
sa the case of the layers located bctweon -126 aad .121 cm und -98 aad -94 cm. As cross.bedding (angles of dip from 26 to 30 ) can be recognized as the upper part geometry of the layers, augle of dip, sharpness of the contacts, type of grading of
most of the steadtuoes are inclined, their position is systematically measured along (between 171 and 210 cm). goaius, and porosity.

Berné, Durand, aod Weber Archileclure of modere sublidal dunes 254

 Q

xl X2
t_../'
't

\44 VK2
X3- /' X4

X5

X4

::H2030
X5 - X6
Ion-u-.
20-
30

FIG. 9A.Mosaic of the corrng zone. See location on Fig. 4B. FIG. 9B.tnterprelalion of the mosaic and bathymetoie profiles. i.
medium sand, 2. coarse sediment, 3. dune crest, 4. sand ribbon or comet
mark, 5. orientation of small dune (meguripple). VKS2 location of the
core. AB location of the seismic profile (Fig. SC).

Bernd, Durand, and Weber Architeclure of modern sublidal dunes 255

 A

f3D-Ripples
Depth CaCo3 (%) A0O4
STICK PLOT AND GRAIN SIZE INTERPRETATION
(m) 20 40 60 1.6 1.8 2 l0'20 40 200 300 500p

- Dl SET BOUNDARY

- '5 , - 02 Erosion sol-tace

°' i,,,,
02 Erosion surface
" - 0 -j- Erosion surface
n.

AO B
D2 Erosion surface
2
Ç" J 20-RIpples
"T
2,5-t K' BOTFOM SET

N298' Nils'

5m FIG. 10._Phyticol properties, sodimeotory st, tones rod simpliuiod

rnterpret.stios. of core 12. A000w plot established from macocr radiogoophe
along two pnrprrnlienlar directions. Stick plot represents tise major
sodianontory strnetssres, orieated along a 298 .118 (az.mssth) direction. D1
major discontirnaity, D2 modiom discontinnity. (interpretation from scasmor
rod X-ray photographs rod from mdssroted slabs).

FIG. 9C.Sismic profils ornI istorpretotios 18 m f rom tim corsog p0051.

Proccosod by SFTHERE (Loricoloin rod otlmr,, 1988).

Berné, Durand, and Weber Architecture of modern subtidal dunes 256

 80-

2
ill lOo

180-

II
260-
D2 40-
4O

I
-

1 20-
FIG. 11B.X-ry rdiogephn, orin.ted in Ihn amn dieontion m Fig.
lIA. Difforonnen of nontrost nro mdssno4 by chnngns of smb
intnntntion m Fig. IO nod 'roble 2. 200-

D2
p.,
60-

I ' J.
40-

220-

Architecture of modern subtidal dunes 257

Berné, Durand, and Weber

-11 0
115
FIG. 12.-Thiu-nnclinu thowiug thu routant botwunu u coursa loyer of
shell debris (upper port) und n thia Inyer of sifinioluntie sand (lower part).
The boundary betwees. the two loyers in laterpreted nc a D2 dineostim.ity.
Berné, Duraod, aod Weber
Even il grading is not well developed rn our core, we think that the central part
of the done displays these types of saodlall/sandflow deposits, especially because of
the high angle of dip of the laminae. Thr segregation between fine and coarse
layers, as observed in the core, can be attributed to she spilling of a smaller
bedforso over the beinkpoint of the large doer (Smith, 1972; Richards, 1996), or,
moro probably, lo atterrate phases of sand flow and sand fall In Ibis case, each
coarse layer is produced by discrrte avalanching of eoaeso sediment accumulated
ovar the crest of the done until the angle of initial yield is reached, In the
stratigraphie record, Back (1985) invoked the same origin for large cross-strata
altribatral to large sobaqualie tidal dones in the Lower Greeosand (Early
Cretaceoas) of Great Britain.
The variation of dip inside dir central unit can be exptaiord by the migration of
the dune, le the tower part (loetweco depths -170 and -115 cm), angles of dip are
about 20' brcause the distance from the crest is further. As the dane migrales, the
appes part (-115 10-71 cm) corresponds to the layers deposited near the crest, with
biglser angles of dip.
Origirs of bonrsalirsg our'facro assai aoyrwrsrsr'y
Even if the quantification of sodimenl Irauspoet ander combined wave and tidal
currents is difficull, there is no doubt about the importaace of this process, as
shown by several field observations. The internal strncvaee observed ou one seismic
records eau be compared co the dynamics of similar bedforms described by
Langhome (1982). 'Sand waves" abonl 4 min bright and 250 min wavrlength were
slashed by this author in Start Bay (Groat Britain). The movement of crrsta (10 m
below sea level) was scathed over a sio'moetk period seing lines of seabed
ref rrvnco stakes, After a period of 7 days, during which the sigeificanl wave height
was in rscess of 1 m for 50% of the time, Laaghorev found that erosion to a depth
of 70 cm teak place siocr the last recorded data. During following fair-weathrr
conditions, he observed that the tidal-bedform eqoilibriam was re-established
accurately and rapidly. lis the shallow-water environment of Start Bay, Laughorne
observed alce that wind stress had an important etfect on sediment transport,
because duration, magnitude and direction of ebb and flood were significautly
modified.
In the Booegoeof area, thr strep dope of the Ire side of the dunes and the
rsssleece of superimposed 'mrgaripples" esclude the possibilily of moribund
bcdfornrs. The dones can be considered as 'tidal bedforms' because their
orientations fit well with the direction of the tidal ellipse. However, as in Start Bay,
sand transport by tidal eurrenlo may be rnhanced by wave motion and wind stress,
especsalty m oar ease where thr dominant wave and wind directions (about 98')
are simdar te the flood tidal current direction (about 110 ). We suggest that these
processes ore responsible for the origin both of major erosional surfaces (during
high-energy events) and asymmetry of the bedforms (during lower energy evento),
which cannot be related lo the tidal asymmctay. Other anthors invoked the rIled of
waves in construction of bedfcrms of the Bahamas (Dine, 1977), of the Bering Sea
(Fsetd and others, 1991), and of the North American Atlantic shelf (Swift, 1985).
Repealed geophysical investigations and long-lene is-oirn mrosnremealu will be
necessary to conf'srm this hypothesis.
Model of inferma! otruOtnre
The general internal grometay provided by the soismic data nod the detailed
Archilecture of modern saklidal doces
structures observed in the core make it possible so proposn a model for the internal
structure of nuyetoseteical dunes (Fig. 13).
The upper part of the dune consisto nl small-scale (1.3-em-thick) trongh cross-
bedding, related to small 3-D ripples, This bedding is the praducl of migration of
small sapersmposed ripples climbing over the stoss side of the large dusse. In other
places rn the Bourgueaf area, sonographs show largee (megaripples or small dones)
supersmposnd bedjorms mtgrating an the sloss side of vrry large dunes with ce-
lare polarity and crest orientation similar to the nnderlytng larger done. In this case,
the related structures will consist of larger scale (10-20-cm-thick) cross-beds. Maul
of these deposits are probably diflicult to find in thr stratigraphie record because
the ruternal morphology of the bedforms is usually not preserved.
The central pars corresponds to foresat depesition in the done. Il is characterized
by hsglt angles of dip and alternating layers of coarse and medium sand, relalerl to
sandflowfsoadfall processes. These strep layers are interrnpted by various third-
order erosional surfaces. The smaller erosional surfaces (low change of the dip
angle, limited amoant of eroded sand) can be related to sandilow processes
themselves or to the action of saberdinale tidal currents (the ebb in our case). lt is
not possible so make the distinction between the two processes from enaminiag the
core. Major (second-order) erosion surfaces cut across all of these deposits. They
are attnbuted to the effect ol storms, or to combined effects of waves a ad tidal
currents. Thry can br detected both on the seismic record and in the core, They dip
gently (2.10') os the same direction as the lee side of the dune, rscept in the oppor
part svhrre they maybe sub-horizontal.
The lower part of the dane (bollemset) is the resais of sodimeut sorting at the
boltom od thr done, with the l'mesI particles being deposited far away from the
crest (AIIm, 1965). lt has been observed in other places that this zone corresponds
to the area of mastmnm development of brnthic organisms, which esplains the
importuner of biosurbation. The orientations of the 2-D ripples differ from the
general direction of progradation of the dane. This change of direction can be
esplained 1, by thr changes of direction of the sabordinate tidal current at the
bottom of large bedlorms, or 2. by flow separation indaced by the crest of thr
dono, rspocsally during high-energy evento, In both cases, different orientations,
corrvspendmg to sand tcaesport parallel to the crest of the done, as observed on
udescan-sonar records, may occur. As inside of the upper part, the small-scale beds
can be replaced by larger scale cross-beds where megaripples occur.
CONCLUSIONS
The Bay of Bourgnrnt contains a distinct typo of largr dune, characterized by
strong asymmetry and very strep Ire sides. From this relatively restricted area,
several typos of inlerstal steacture ace observed on seismic profiles. The simplest,
showmg only slep and parallel reflectors, is similar lo the class 1 conceptual model
of Allen (1980). Howrvrr, most of the dunes present a composite internal structure,
prosenung both Sleep layers interpreled as sandflow/sandfall deposits, and several
orders of rroston surfaces, If compared to the i,strrnal sto aclares described by
Visser (1980), the main difference is the osistrncc of credos surfaces attributed to
wave action. This difference can be esplained by the difference of hydrodynomic
settings; the purely tidal struelnrrs of Visser correspond to a sheltered estuary,
whereas ours arr observed in a more open esoirotsmens. This dons nos mean that
the danrs of the Bourgnenl area are not tidal bedforms, bol that the tidal processes
eau kv eebonced or negated during episodic higb.energy evenls. As thry do not
display any 'tidal' criteria' (tidal bundles, mad couplets, etc.), these types of
sandbodies are probably cery ditficalt to recognizem thr stratigraphie record.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Captain Thebaud and his crew, and J.C, Gnedrs, C.
Prud'homme and J,M. Raillard tor their technical assistance daring the cruise. IL.
Bolle, P. Cirac, G. Lericolais, P. Moabo oud H. Ondreas are thanked for their
active participatian during the survey and/or for their help in processing the data.
Elf Aqnslaioe is thanked for providing scanner pictures and gamma-density
measurements from the collected core. The tidal recorda were kindly provided by
the 'Port Autonome de Nortes St Nazaire", Last but not least, P. Laenre is thanked
for the calculation of the tidal current,
ncFEncNCEs
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Soirotific Publications, Gxford, P. 49.65, Voy Den Lsveeo, W. J. M., 1863, Sedimentary struetsmos and facies inlerpeetatioa of
McKee, E. D., Doverose, J. R., ose Re-sesnovee, 5., 1971, Deformation ol leosido some Molosse deposits, Srnse-Sohworowassor area, Canboe Bore, Switoertand:
laminac as colian dones: Bulletin oldie Geological Society of America, v.82, p. Geologica Ultraiectiea, e. 17,, 'Op.
359-378. Vasen, M. J., 1980, Ncap-speing cycles reBooted in Hobocene subtidal largo-scale
Meynvsa, R. M., Jr., Van. P.R., ose Saxonce, J. B., 1977, Straligeaphir interpretation bedloems deposits: a peeliminary note: Geology, y.8, p. 543-546.
of so,smrc reflectron pattems m deposréoaal sequences, io Payloe, C. E., od., Worsen, R. G,, 1984, Facies Models, second edition. Geoscience Canada, Reprial
Scssonc Stoatrgraphy - applications to hydrocarbon exploration: Americac Series 1, Tomonlo, 317 p.
Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 26, p. 117-133.
Moon,,, P., 1988, Etude qxaetitativr de la morphologie des capees sableases en
domaine subtidal: Rapport dr stage ENSG. lotstital Français dr Recherches
pour l'Exploitation de la Me'/DERO/GM., Bresl, 127 p.
Moves, E., Rosen, J., Atoes, GP., Fosrrerv, t'., ose Soovots,, M., 1985, The Eoccne
Baeouia tide domiaalc,! delta shelf system in dir Ager basin, is International
Association of Sedimneelologists 5th European regional meoling, Losida,
Excursion guido book, p. 579.600.
Nio, S. D.. 1976, Marine transgrrsxions as a tactoe in the formation of saudwave
complexes: Geologie ea Mijnboxw, v.55, p.!O-4O.
Pmoro, G. M. E,, oso Luonsce, J. C., 1984, Geomomphology of a sand wavn in
Lower Chesapeake Buy, Virginia, USA: Gro-Marine LoIters, v.4, p. 105-112.
Roue, J. F., De, roe Boenssss, J. R., 1971, Tidal deposits and their sedimentary
struclttees: Geologie on Mijabouw, v.3, p. 479-504.
Romeos, H. E., 1963, Srdimentgefoge im Bereich dem Sadlichen Nordsee:
Abhandlungen Senekeabeogischen Na.xofoscheaden Gosellsehofl, 0.505, 138 p.
ore Sorse, L B., 1980, Depositionol sedimentary eavironments, second
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Rocxooes, M. T., 1986, Tidal bedfomm migration in shallow marine eavironrnenls:
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Saxrsseensx, C. see Tousnxrrr, C, 1988, Geometry, structure end geodyxomics o! a
Architecture of modern subtidal doues 2é0

SAND BANK AND DUNE FACIES ARCHITECTURE
OF A WIDE INTRACRATONIC SEAWAY:
LATE JURASSIC-EARLY CRETACEOUS
RAUKELV FORMATION, JAMESON LAND,
EAST GREENLAND
FINNSURLYKA21DN4rNNANOE-NYGAARD
G logical liman
Urriccroiry of Coprrahcrgar,
Orrrc Voldguda 10
DK-1350 Kobrrrhcacr, K. Drroa.a,k
Aoaycoc'r Tha 200- ru 300-rn-thick Raukclo Formano,, war drpoairod irr an inoccraronic
u way b wnoc Eaor Grrcrrfand arrd Nono y duriog thr Lair Juraanic-caolicat Cocracooua
(Volgian-Vafaogioian), prriod of coroidorablr arcronic unman io thn ,cgion. mr foomanion
ia thocr-diorcuaiooally nnpoaod nor, 900 kma. Four baaic rrchirocruoal
,ccogniaod 1. mo aandhank (SB) rlcmror in componrd of aioglc, arbolar mnga-croaa-bnda 15-
50 m thick, which cercod ooca thc whoir ourcrop arca (900 kma). 2. the auod-durrc (SD)
rfcmrnn 000niana of a largr.acalc rabot ar croaa-hrddcd coach 2-8 m thick, which cnrcnda ovcr
thc whoic ourcoop arca (900 gma). 3. thc aaodahoca (SS) olamenn comprima a burrowcd and
gloncom'nired, mainly arough cooaa-brddcd coarn. 2-10m airick. with ahccr gcomcny, which
corroda oecr moat or all of thr oucorop ama; and 4. tha ailumoor (SI) airmoon in 2-20m thick.
ham ahccr goomeny, and corroda coro mr maar tOO kro°.
mc SB, SD and SS clrmccu arc roppod by planar, glancueiaincd commooly pcbblc-aoown
omiaaioraaurfocraroith U-ohaprri burooma. Moar aaod bacrka of thr SB clrmrnn migrarrd
roncward from dan wcarrm coaarlinc, whorcar thr liorar donan of tho SD rlrm001 migralod
aouthwacd, parallcf to thr bario ania and ro thn ooaaa. Simnrlcliooaccma ro heno boon
g000mnd mainly by coaar-pnrnllol or oflahora.diaccrod curocoro aca up by arorrrra and nidca.
Thc low-arrrplirudn 3-D donna of tho SS olomool migrarnd roward thc aonda on. randy, rowmd
thc north.
Barca of acidcccc and acdanr Soo can rocoidcrcd co oclarinoly coco0001 for thn
rimr inrernnl ir qucarino. Thc aucccsaion mnaiarn cf arackod SB, SD, SS and 5f clemonla. A
cicar. ayarrmaric. arqunnlial arockiog mdc, baa nor boon obacrnrd, alrhough thor, io o
rondrncy loa dcnnlnpmcnrofao SB, SS, SDcycir. A rural of four SB, th000 SD, Orneo SS and
neo Si cicmrnu han boon aanordcd. Dopoairinn ja inrcrprrrcd an coornollod mamly by
Oucruaniona in angional oca leoni during a poriod of lowanond. Thr indinidual nlnmrnra mOnd
fairly rapid rogional aaa-lrnrl flucanariona on a background of thc 000aall loornrand. Thc main
rranapooa of aend in dar borin rook pleco in rnrenaioc hrlda of honor aand donna (SD clrmcnr).
Sand hacha (SB nlcmcnr( worn iciajarnd nr rimca of high ram of una-Inno) miar, and thc main
growth by eaarward progrndalion rook plano duriog highanacth. Snmr bank ropa wrrn cr0404
during aca.lrncl fall, whcroaa othcra moro donamrd during dar. lo both carra thc ropa bocnmo
glanconirirnd and bmrowrd during tho auccccding nino. mc omiaaion aurfacr mua alowly
concord by biomnrbarrd ailraronr (SI nlnmmnr) during high ram nf ana-Iront nan. in corn of
al owor raro of riararcworkrd. nanagooaaion abrer aand (SS olomror) mar fonnnd. Sra lcnrl
cnrimnmuf to banc Oncauorrd bnrneoon 30 and 30m during drponirinn of tho SB cicmonla. Thrar
oaciilaaiona had a duronion nf afanar t my. and reran auperimpeaod onalonnarund following dar
Kirrnrncoidgiana higharand. mo lowarand had a ducarino of aboun IO my.
Suclyk aod Nee-Nygaard
INTRODUCI'ION
Acchirodlraral 3-D marnrsnigotmons of anoieai. sandy, ahatlow-maniaao dcpnair.0 arr low io
number, mr great latrmi rntroi mrd the commonly groat thickarns of auch uuccosai000
rr9uirr Iucgr-scalr 3-D cnpoauana daui roncal frafranru uf dar aaaur icair al those occurring
in dir connclatino caaeireamrnt, nuproiatly whrn applyiog nrqa000e nloafigraphic cncccpiu
thus wenn rlcvelopod mainly from seiamio arctiooa aorrss p050inc continental mang inn.
Scatiog problema cuaaed by 3-D rrconsBsrclion of iangr-rcair doponitionai nyutcmn anude
from 2-D cuponurms miar adda of cauniog a nomencf alare and ionerprrsatiooal moruno of
dar noci that baa hamprced vabmarior-fan research fon moro sinon 50 your, (uro Normark
and olhers. 1984),
Io thin asady. we report on the 200-300-rn-thick aaaady, Shallow macina Rauknlv
Fomwotion, drpositrd io dar Laie Juranuic-rarliros Crrsaceoas (Volgian-Vatauginiao) in a
wido opeinic seaway between East Gcrecivad and Norway. Virsualiy eompfrrr mnpouucr
io fouod in a 900,knot aera io 2am0000 Land, tant Ge000laand. with o basin-margin ouslier
in Milne Lood 80kw want of dar maim outceop arca (Figa. 1.2), Individual brds and bed
boundaries have been mapped Itaroaghosi dar arca. Biosiraligrophic c0000i iv rmanonobly
good (Sonlyk, 1973; lluriyk and otbemn, 1973; Suniyk and Zukharov, 1982), aiding
estimation of a gradadonai and progrodutional mirs us welt on hiatal simm opaca.
A complcie 3-D ceconstractioo of the drpnnitiional nyotem bon benn ondrctairen,
together mida an iotrrpcctarion of dar rrtalioe importance nf sire controlling factoro,
notably neo-tonel changes, sabsidenor and sediment napply. Thc trudy prrorots drtaila of
geometry, intcnrral nrrractsres and growth pasterns of hugn, sabalar sand backs and
migrating doer brida. Our obscrvatinns from the Jurasnic succession nf East Gerrolued
and from liserarure nindirn uuggrsnS that the mega-tandbonk cross-bedding is moo,
cemmos atine anoirntrrcnrd thon iridaeete rccogsizrd, and wo hope that dar drnoniptioos
offrerd brrr will pmmpt mncngnilien of comparubte fruturms in odarr anoirct voccemirno.
ThcthsSIc AriD StRSDO,SPOCSEi'flSG
Thanughous dar Juraasica 600-imm-wide north-nuuth-oaimased araway rstrnded hrtwmoo
(lrreotand and Norway. The underl4ng secienic hackgenand foe dar erigio of dir irania is
compimn. Cruntut thickening during Catedonian mnuotuio-hrif formasino in dar Lair
Sutueiao was followed by crgnsas cotlopse und estrosina duriog dar Denonian (rg.,
MoCluy und othmu, 1986; Slgorrt and other,, 1989). Drop Dmvociun iranios formed in
dad tronnteoli000l portions of an overall fonda-south teanacarment notting. Some of dam
basins almost reached a narrow mocan usage, with a highly ihinnmd continental cmst
(Luesrn und odacnn, 1989), whereon ostension eus aorrstrd al eurlier osagen ig oshrc
In mid-Carhoniferous simm, dar nnikr-nlip regime changed roan rssensi000l one, and
in Eros Oermeiand nfting continued ontii mid-Pnnnian time (Sonlyh and others. 1986).
Latme basin mvolatinn in East Oeneniand man nirongty genraned by the Inoolioution und
difference, in the nausee of the individrsol mid-Folcoroic banian.
The neuthcmn rod of ihr onahom basin in tasarnos Laud is looaiirod 00m a deep mid-
Patcnoeic basin with highiy attenuated crust (Larsen and others. 1989), and thr Lard
Pcnnian iherugh Mrsoroic nubsideoor can mnrntiuliy be rnplained an having bree caused
by daermai contraction following mid-Palr000ic srlovtcvsinn aod rifting (Saeiyk bd
edades, 1986).
North cf Jumoson Land, the Late Premiun-Menoroic evetation wan markedly differeos,
romging fmm asean whero Denonian-Canbenifcmun estonsionoi thinnieg wan much trot
shad io Jammsoo Land so armas whenc basin formation was fmrnt initiused in Mcsoreic
times. In Ute loiter areas. Mnanmnic rifting paises werd assaniused with dan fonnotion of
daick nyn-rifs wedge, (lluriyk, 1978. 1909).
Sand bank and dirse facies uechilcclurc
The Raukels Fornlutioe 000ars iu southernmost lamosos Land. Stia of Votgian ago
(buotyk, 1973. 1975; Sorlyk und rdaers, 1973; barfyk and Zakbaeoo, 1982). 1g iv
subdisidod into dar towre sandy Bjarliandsctu Member (Lomee-Maddle Votgras). a
middle, uhuly balia Dal Mrmber (Middle Volgian), and an upper Fynarin Member
(Middlr Upper Volgian) (Fig. 2). An imlasod radico occurs so Milor Land io the wrut
(Fig. 1), and is described under a diffrrmnt art nf names oancsrd by Birkeland and ethers
(i984((Fig. 2). Recent studien havr rendered this Sanai nomendiaiurr naprefluoua; dam
Kecbsedat and Pcmat'yggen Member, ace similar so dir Sjaettandsciv Member, the
Astortodal Member is a lighdy coarser margisnul coreotastvr of she Satin Dal Member, and
dar Henoigmyggen Mnmber corresponds se the Fynsels Member, but conceda a major
Uppee Velgias-Ryazuniun hiatos regecsiug irs busia-muegin position.
The Ruokets Foovution basan overall theol geomeloy. although tris thickest in the
basin conter and thin loward the erstem and eastern moegiun. The strong crlief formed by
edt-shoulder uplift indie areas nords of Jamenon Lund uodoubtedty neesed us proseraoce
for the formation.
It is itnponsant so stress that the Raukeln Formation was deposited io au idreacronnoic,
esrensional basin. Thin sype of setting was highly characteristic doming the Me000inc,
and compacable basins oocrstmed ott along the macgins of dar prrsret-duy Atlantic Dorais
and mary ethnr places in dar world. Elongate, introcmsosic rift basing with rdlotisciy
ohotmnw.anarinn coodilioos arr virtually unknown today. The Raukels selling rnoy dios
have on modem ceuorerpaeto, but nonetheirm represents a sensing that occurred middy
during several huadned million yruas of Men000ic time.
This paper dowaibes the nuodhuoko and sand-dunn fields nf dar Fynsets Member (Fig.
2). This unit shows oslap mr the eastern boum margin, mrd major beunding hiornseu arr
conceded along beth the western und rostem margins. The main outcrop is in noudaron
Jamenon Land, where il croons abeat 900 kmt (Fig. 1), und whom the member is nbeal
100 er daick. Esposuen is virtually total, mida only u thin negetution cone, no a few
shaly intervals daut cup major tundscapo-fonning saandsarse sheets.
MElfiOtE
Euely mapping demonstrated dar pranence of an osrmnnise continuity of u number 0f
thick beds nr units io the Ruukeln Formotirn ie tIre study area (Surlyk. 1973, 1975;
Sactyk und others, 1973). Recent finid work by dar authors darwed Ihot, in particular,
the top norfaces nf thrum animo represent sigoificont hiulal or ornianion surfaces that
peasros a combiord sel 0f features allowing them te be idmntifird edro io isolated
nutcropn (Sunlyk and Nee-Nygaurd, 1989). In oorrtcass, Ihm mnncrscning bedn repernect
only two major architectural nlrments, dar nandbunk (SB) and she sand-dune (SD)
elements, chararsra'irrd by mega- and large-scald cress-bedding, respectively, und daean
featomcu alone ore insufficient to allow hod identification. The mega-croas-bods of thm SB
elrmrsl hase set thiokarsu in evoess of 15m in contrast te the sol daicknew of the SD
element, which is below 4 m; inlennediusm femss hanm not bers recognized. Tracing mf
omission saciados was done by mappiog en fool, by helicopter and by intempemsation of
vertical urriul photographs (scalr 1:50.000). The geometry of mrga-crosn-brds wan
rsammned by thawing sel and istraodl beundunien, paleocuarent mrasuremcnlo and notoplo
locations on ocreiopping color polaroid photographs. This nimplo sochnique han a
oemendoan potennial io memoir oleas where normal fdms cannot br readily developed and
overlay techniques cursos be opplied (cf. Alien, 1983).
The macgm-scale bedfomms und structures characteristic nf the Pynsotc Membre arr
shows berran interpreted pholomnuaicu (Figs. 4-15). The uninterpreted mosaic in shown
obene and the interpreted und annotaird sersion below. in mach figure. The intorpeenation
of the phommosaicu in dar ofgcr was aided by polaroid phomgraphs of the ammo vretioe
irleapeetrd und marked in the BrId.
aRcIOTEccr1RSLflEMON1S
This pupor forusrn on hierarchical elrmrnls, scales and 3-D gromrtry; details on
ooglimenlaay procrssrn will be drucaibod ebewhcrc. The analysis follows Alba (1983) und
Miall (1985) in recograiring bart of basic 3-D architectateal elements defmed by scale,
grain size, cnlcrnul geometry, internal aeqarncn, bedform composition, und nunuer of
lower and upper beunding surfaces. The aechilooturat rlrmrotn form a vimpin hierarchical
syntrm defined by theti relativo scale - dan micro-, meure und rnocr000rms of Jocknon
(1975).
Four aaohitoctneut clemenm urn recognized: Idar sandbank (SB) clamons, 2. the nund-
duno (SD) rlcmrnt. 3. the sundsiamrs (SS) rlcmcnt, and 4. the siltotone (SI) element.
Figure 3 daoma u schematic diugrasn of the mnnrstigutrd vuocesnion based oc numerous
locubitiou studied in detail und mopping of rlrments und emisnioa surfaces oser as much
as 900 km°.
Elerserrt SB: Sund benin
The largest clemens idrntificd in dar Fynselo Member consists of niogle cross-bedded
nets ofcouenr-geaioed sandstone. The sets arr 15-50 m thick und tabular with sigmoidal
or tangential berets (Figs. 4-10). The individual sels can be troced throughonl dar 900-
km° outcrop aera milhous showing significant syssematic chongea is grain size,
thickness or ethcr fralurms. The tower vet boundary muy be sharp, consistiog of dar
gluuconitioed und burrowed sarfacn of the uodeelyicg bed, or the foersem punn gradually
downward mb biotarbated silty or noody shale (Fig. 3). The upper boundary is either
sharp and erosional (tutsgensial formrts) or sharp bui non-esorainnol (sigmoidul forrnrts).
Erosion has nrsor removed more than, 01 nunimam, I er of the top of the bedan seen
from the degree of truncation of star npper. asymptotic part of tttr sigmoidal fnrrsrss. The
upper oseface is gluaronisized and meter-long hairpin U-burrows, Dipiocn-uren-inm babichi.
penetrate downward from is (Figs. 5, 6). Gravel veneer, arr cemrnon, contaiving
quurtzitic, flut, webb-sorted, molt-rounded pebbles thus range boteros 2 and 8 cm in
musimum diameter. The fomsets huyo gende dips in dam upper and lower pacts of the
individual sets, whereas dar middle puais sleep and mop reach angle of repose (Figs. 5,
7). A maximum dip of abeut 25° of the steepest part of dac forevet is the anrut unmmoo.
Toward thr top of the set, Ihe fomnels gradually mergr into a 2- te 5-m-lhick,
herirootally-heddod topset. The foreseto maybe simpbo avalanche beds 10-30cm thick.
showing inverse feuding, or alternations of coarner and finer beds. Simple avatunche boda
dominoto in the more steeply dipping parts df thr forevets. Other foernrts ato cornpoand,
composed 0030- lo 100-cm-thick trough ceom-brdded intrusels (Fig. 8). Intranets une
characteristic of mord gently-dipping foresets und arc particularly common sa the upper
part of the foersetu. Tmnuporled ussembluges of bioalvru, belemniten, asnmoniles. and
occasionally criooidn. occur in the foreurts. lt in mmarkablr thus the assemblages change
in species composition between succmnsivr foresets.
The mcgu.focrsers ef moot bunks uhow a distinctly unimodal dip toward the east. aud
dip direetions of indisidoal neto change only seny little along sinke. indicating a linear
freni of the bddform (Fig. 15). Thr forennl dip-direction of the intranets deviates
systemulically ubeul 45° toward dan south of the mega-foersess. This shows daul thc
umubb 3-D dusru, daut formed Ihr intrusets, migrated with an oblique ungIr down thr
uuefacr nf the mrga-foresets. Thn SB clemens is clearly a macroform in the senor of
Jackson (1975).
The rlrmenl formed by cussward progmadation from dan coastal zone nf an eslensive
tubular sand hauls with a linear noeth-south-orienled macgin. The moga-fomuess can
adequately be described an cbinofornrv. although thin term mainly refers se succnsumve
261
 25° 24° 230 71°' w f
MILNE JAMESON Insu
LOUD

ii: Jameson Land

-

<', ¡'- /'

o v0iroi:iav3anvvnauer

s f-c, I' I _' 1r

(2 )/J', _\ / // =
=5=-
.2tSFnnn,Iu Mti'
/
f' f\ l

v,p,,bòiz tu 2

MiÌne Land; Lan'. ,no,roo

n
/ _/
s t s / //

l J/'/
- /_'_/
7\\f\
'-
/'\_/ JL/
p- \\'5 ;(1-_' Pto 2.Strotigrophic tnhnmn of tien Middle Volgioo.lowcrunost
Raukeiv Formation Volaugirnau sraccnnsioos lu Jomnnou Loud (Surlyk and others, 1973) nod
Milun Land (Biekelund nod others, 1984).
and correlatives
Older Mesozoic and
Upper Palaeozoic sediments
conlinenlal-margin profiles, which normally have a gender dip aoci are much larger.
síi Crystalline basement The element thus represents huge Sund batiks with sheet geometry und a minimum
.700 30' volume of 300 300 0.030 ken' = 27 km' of coarse-grained, poorly-sorted, texturally.
immature quartz sand. The satire element type occurs in the Hennigryggen Member in
25 km
Scoresby Sund Mdae Laud more than 80 knt went of the outcrop urea (Birkelnod and others, 1904), and
the total sandbank sottane may have been of the order of neveml hundred kesn.
25° 24° 23° 22°
Element SD Sanad dune

FIG. 1.schematic geologic map showing outcrop arca of the Rouleur

Formation m Jomenon Laud orni of bonos margie. corretativns io Mikro Land.
Rontaugle shows tocoliztion of paleocnrrnut mops of Fige. 15, 16. Nmnbere
indicate position of localitine ehown eu Figs. 4to 14.
lisis element is thinner thon the SB element, hut sas similar areal mied. Il consists
nf large-wale planar and very elongate trough ernss-britded coarue.geuined saethtone
(Figs. 11.14). The element has n sheet-like geomeoy and consists nf single sets or, more
commonly, of u court comprising 2 ta 4 nets. The formels dip animodally toward the
south and mom rarely towards the conk (Fig. 16). Sel thickness varios from 0.5.4 m
with 1.2 es being the mont common. Foeesetn are sigmoida] or tasgenhiul. The element
rs 2 to 8 m thick, and extends laterally throughout the outcrop area. The element
houndarim are planar nsofaeen, which may hr glaseonilized, and ase boenowed by the
haopin U-bseeow Diploci'asmr-sou habichi. Ophiomerpa sedosa also occurs in dia
element, tagether with bivalses, ceinoids. ammoniten ond belemnitos. The element
iscludes mesoforms in the sense of Jackson (1975). The boundamien em just an sharp an
the SB eunlacts. but glauconitizalion is less important and gravel veneres are absent.

Sarlyk aud Noe-Nygaard Sand back and dune facies architecture

262
 Signs of tidal activity ace common, and include doable mud-drapes, bundle-wise

.- , ;,f:u4 upbuildicg of foresets. and occasional bipolar paleocuerento.

The cross-bedding represents fields of linear or nlighdy sinuous dunes migrating
southward oe top of the SS element (SDI and SD2) Oria front of the SB element (SD3)
(Fig. 3).

Thin element has sheet geometry, as de the preceding SB and SD elements, and
comists nf low-aesplisude sough cross-bedded, diffusely crens-laminatosi and horizontally
lumisoled medium-and coarse-framed sandstone (Fig. 14C). Element thickness is 2-10
m and the beundarics are sharp. The sassdsteses are glaucorsitizect and intensely bssstawed
by the hairpin U-burrow Diplocraserdon hsubichi. Bivalves. cetsoids, ammeoises and
helrmoitrs occur in abundance. Puleocureenl directions ase difficult te measure due to the
high degeso of burrowing and the low asnplitade of the trough cross-bedding, bot they arr
consislendy toward the south, encept in ene small area where northerly dips were
observed (Fig. 16).
The element represents slow deposition and reworking of suad ondin omission surface
lopping the sandbanks by relatively slow cousl-parallel currents. The bimodalily of the
puleocuerents muy reflect tidal actisity era lanaI reversal of the coast-parallel current
system.

Elemeos S!: Muant ailtstosrt

This element consists of bieturbated silty er sandy muduteses with Cureolirhue

borrows und ammonites. bioalves, ceineids, and petrified wood. lt forms sheets 2-20m
thick, that can be followed over at trust lOs 10km until they gradually wedge eut (Fig.
3).
The element beendarim uro planar, but rarely nbaep. The lower heandary ra nantlar le
the glauconitized top 0f element SB or morn cemmenty le the Lop nf Ilse intensely
burrowed element SS. The oppor boundary merges imperceptibly tnto the teenets of the
wega-cmso-beds of element SB. Element St was deposited slowly ander low-onergy
conditionn in relatively deep, well asygenused sou water.

The successios consists of a setal of Iwelee stocked elements representing four SB,
0SD three SD. daten SS and two SI elements (Fig. 3). No clear systematic vertical slacking
order has been observed. Each unit ir given an element letter cede, und a nsanhor
OSS i

FIG. 3.Schematic diagram nf the investigated succesnien bared no

namernun lecalitien stadird in detail and mapping of elements and
nminninn surfacer over 90g km'. Nnte the extreme sheet geometry nf
alt units and the great thickness of the SB faresetr nr clioafnrms. The
different etemruts are giren o letter ende, and the number ende indicates
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS the plane io the stratigraphic succession of the individoal rlemnutn, SB
3 ir Ibas Ihr third sandbank element frnm below. SB = sandbank, 55 =
SB = sand bank SD = sand dune SS= sand sheet l siltstone O omission surfa sand sheet, SD = saod.dnnr field, SI = niltrtono. O indicates the
pretence of an omimian sarfane an lop of an elemenf. Thick and thin
= D(p)ocraterion habichi 2) bioturbation 'S = pebbly lag glauconite arrawn indicate the ancrage migeatian direction for SB and SD/SB
elements, respectively. No vertical enaggeratino.

Sand bssk and done facies architecture 263

Sarlyk and

--
.s.sN__._._.._..a

Flu. 4.Photomonoic sod ioterpretstio. of elemeffi SB 4. The eop000ee

shows the langentiat beset of the megs-f oresets or clinoforms. Loe. 13 se
Fig. 1.

Surlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bank and dune facies architecture 264
 -JNW ESE

U
-L-- SB2topset
Q UjTÌ U
SB2
U
V u
u

SB2

FIG. 5.-Photomonic and iatpinIion of eIcmuI SB 2 ahowrng th

toplap of mcga-forcaot or dlinoform., which morgr impornoplably into
hothoatily-brddod, brrowcd topoot Loo. 4 in Fig. 1.

Sarlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bank and dnne facies architectare 265
 SW 0SD2 NE
SD 2 _- 78 D. hobichi, glauc., pebble lag
0SB 2 0SD2
0SB2
.12
170

SB2

FIG. 6.Photomosaic and mt pretotion of top of element SB 2, which

has o pebble lag, i bsserowed by Dipioeeatorioa habkhi m.d glaoconitiaed.
Note the megn-foreocta gondm.11y .teepemng down the dip. Loe. 6m Fi8. 1.

w E

FIG. 7.A shows top port of mngo-erosn-bed of element SB 2. Note avolanche bnds. Migration dienction towacd the east. Loe. 7 in Fig. 1. C
sigesoidal foreseto that geadoally steepen dowodip. Migeation direutioo shows the toageotial basal portion of mega-breado of element SB 3. Loe. 12
toward the east. Lou. 8 is. Fig. 1. B. shows the steep, middle portion of a in Fig. 1.
mega.eross-bed of element SB 2. Foresets are simple, SO- to 30-em-think

Surlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bank and dune facies architecture 266
 A
FIG. 8.A, shows compound mega-cross-hed of element SB 3.
Migration toward east. B and C show details of sandstone tower to Ihr
right in A. Note the large-scale trough cross-bedded inlrasets formed hy
3-D dunes, which migrated toward the southeast at un ohliqnr angle
down the slope of the sand hank. Loe. IO in Fig. t.

Surlyk and Noe-Nygaacd Sand bank and dune facies architecture 267
 SE SW
----0SB 3
B3 0SD2 0S3283
0SB2 5D2

SB -- SB2
SB2

0SB 2 12

FIG. 9.Pbotomosaic sud ,ulerpeetution of elements SB 2 sud SB 3. Note

the estreroety planar nature of the pebble-strewn, glauconitized sud
burrowed omission surface 0-SB 2. This surface corresponds to the math
plateau level is south Jameson Land. lt can be mopped over obont 900 km
Loc.5ie Fig.].

Sunlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bank and dane facies archirectare 268
 SB- 0-SB 2

Pio. 1O.Photomooin od mtcrprottioi. of olemoot SB 2. Noto tim thon

goomotry, ItnrI nabot nod front uoiformity of ihn progrodiog imit. Loo. 9
ir Fig. t.

Sand bank and dune facies architecture 269

LSurlyk and
_..._.....N ...... ____.... a._N__._R

A B C
FIG. 11.Aerial photographs showing horizontal section lhzongh large-
scale planar crosn-bedding representing fields of linear sand dunes.
Migration dinection in connislently lo the sonth. Loc lin Fig. 1.

Surlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bank and dune facies architecture 270
 N

-- -- OS82 -
27
- 98

FIG. 12Photomosnie and rntorprelation of large-scale planar cross-

bedded sandstone of element SD 2 representing major southward-migrating
field of linear dsmes. Loe. 11 in Fig. 1.

Surlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bank and dune facies architecture 271
 . -!
- oSS
SS

os ___
96
114 r-104

FIG. 13.Fhotomook od mtcrprettio., of eIemet SD i ,d SS 2 (oe

Fig. 3). 0 idicote ou omhniou uefc of the top of ou urehitontunol
elemeut. Loe. 2m Fig. I.

Surlyk and Noe.Nygaard Sand bank and dune facies architecture 272
 E

A B C

FIG. 14A shows large-scale cross-bedding of element SD i hori000tI bottomart or 100501 or element SB 3 (compare Fig. 7C).
overlain by low-amplitude trough rross-brdded od burrowed elemeot Migratioo toword the sooth. Loo. 2 in Fig. 1. C shows low-amplitude
SS 2. Migrutiou toward Ihr south. Loc. 2 io Fig. 1. B shows large. troogh cross-bedding of elemeot SS 3. Very high density of U.borrow
Saale planar cross-bedding of rlemeot SD 2 overlaon by the near. Diptocraterioo hobirhi. Migratiou toward the north. Loo. 3 in Fig. 1.

Sand bank and dune facies architecture 273

LSurlyk and

n = 122
B than she former rlemcntn. 4. The SI (sillotone) element forms sheets varying in
FIG. 15.Rene diagram (non-liurae frrqnonry scale) showing dip
directions of the megn-cross-beds or elinoforms of the SB elements. The plot
is cnmntntive for all recognized SB elrmrnts. The sample gronp to the upper
right represents SB 2 und SB 3, the gronp to the nppee left SB t and SB 2,
and Ihr gronp at Ihr bottom SB 4. Notr the nnimodal distribution showing
an average migration direction due east. The average alrecurrent direction
of the intranets in the gianit foresets in toward 135 i.e., defleetrd 45
toward the southeast of the bank foresels. The parallel lines in the three
sample-group areas ore trend lines of the sandbank margins. Location of
area shown by rectangle in Fig. 1.
Saflyk und Noe-Nygaomd
icdscaung tIse place in the succcsion of the indiniduat element. The SB etcmeets are
volumetheally domieaet. Sf1 and SB2 are overlain by SS elements (SSI und SS3),
whereas SB3 is ovcrinio by ne St clemeet, and SB4 forms the sop nf the studied
succession. Etemoets SD1 and SD2 both nvrrlie ae SS etemenL A sequence nf SB, SS,
SD elements in thus repeated twice.
The upper boundaries nf Ihr SB, SS and SD elemeeLs in mnnt canes we developed au
planar nmtsoioe surfaces. The mess important urn 0-SS2, 0-SB2, 0-5B3 and 0-SB4,
wherew these topping the SD elrmeeln are lees marked (I4g. 3).
INIFJSFISrTAO1000FTIIEELOMcNTS
Archiiretsral rlemenls
Foor main elemeeln are eecognized in the Fyeselv Member, t. The SB (sandbank)
elemeet forms sheets 15-50m thick, which cover at leant 900 km2, and have volumes of
about 30 km'. Migraline wan mainly offshorr to the cant. Pour SB clemenl sheets are
recogntred (Fig. 3). 2. The SD (sund-duce) element ternis sheets 2-8m Ihick, vehivh also
coves ut trust 900 kot5. and have volumes of about 6 kin'. Migoatioe of dune fields was
southward, parallel to the coast and lo the banjo anis. Three SD-elrmeet sheets arr
recognized (SDI, SD2 and SD3) (Fig. 3). 3. The SS (sand-shoot) clrwent femes sheets
2-10 m thick, which, like the SB and SD rlrmentu, cover ut leant 900 kw', and huvr
volumes of at leant 2 tan'. Transport direction was coanl-parallel lathe nouth Orlo the
noeth. Three SS domed sheets arc recognized (551, SS2 ucd SS3) (Fig. 3). The SS
sheets arr slighdy more variable, however, und their total lateral entent is probably tens
thickersn frema few metern lo about 20m, and which cover al least a few hundred km',
but wedge cot tolezally. At leant two SI sheets ase recognized in this member (Fig. 3).
The SB element is the most prominent of the four doc lo the thickness, volume, and
exIenI of the mrga-ceenn.bedn. The hautin formed along the western coaudine, hut details
of Inioutine aod relation to coastal features are ankeown due te lack of outrrop. The
banks mageated nlowly eastwards until they nolapped nr merged with the easiem basin
margin. Water depth in front nf the bunk al least equalled the thivknesn of the pmgtaiting
unit, i.e.. 15-50 es. The cxtrrme sheet geomelry, and the lack of scooting and wave-
formed structures on the buck narfare suggest that the waterman relatively doep over the
bunks, probably up te ahnat 50m deep, whereas the depth seaward of the bunko wan up
to 50m higher.
The two mao, naedbaisks, SB 2 and SB 4, migrated oree offshore silinlone (SI I and
2). le the cane of SB 4, an SD oeil (SD 3) occurs between the ndtotone and the bank.
The progoading banks are analogous ta continental-margie ctinofoncs ucd almost
approach sowe margins in dimensions. It in thus tempting ta compare the two typeu of
deposteonol system and ta apply nequence-slratigruphic concrpts ta hank interpretation.
The Iwo types of harm differ in onvhoee-offuhore teetanic-vuhnidence estes, and offnhoee
water depth. The subsidence rute ieceeunes in o seaward direction io the continental-
margin selling, whereas the iutracraloeic basin shows o nlight increase in subsidence rote
mward the center of the fouie and thee a decrease tomant the opponite margin.
The tower contact of the SB dominI isa dosunlup suefaee, ucd the banks migroled over
a gluuconitieed. burrowed omission surface nr over a highly binlurbated, condensed
sitatune (SI). Bank growth wan initiated during nra-level rim loading te highotand (Fig.
17D). Thick SI surctssionu uuggrst a high este of nra-level rise, whereas their absence
ssdicateu a nomewbat lowez rate, Thin in substantiated by thr absence of an SI domed
below the thinnest hunk (SB 3) (Fign. 3, 18).
Sand bauk and dune facies archilectorn
Ruiz ofpr'ogr'adalion
Bask growth was slow and idtemsittent, as indicated by the eecasiosal glaacooliueatioo
of the top soefoco of individual mrga-fnrrnelu. and especially by the eernerenee in nsoep.
uucccssivc avalanche foresets, nf transported fossil assemblages of adult forms
rrpeenentiog brnthir rommunilien with different species composition. Thin suggests that
fully-grown popalolions were dcveloped on the hank and along the buck margie brlween
successive avalanching events. If the average horizontal forereI thickneon is 30cm, and
¡ n
the growth to adulthood of the beethic nperieu is assumed tabo 3 yearn, il is possible te
airive ata foot-outer approvimatine of bank growth raIe of 10 cm/ycar. SB 2 cmps oat
for 30km in an 000hore-offuhore transect. The duration of migration of this poet oldie
bank in thus 30 s 3/0.0003 = 300,000 years, with orale of 10 mo/year. If we further
/ 1,
assume a uniform pmgeadatioe role armus the 125-km-wide banjo, the duration fmm
bauli initiation in the Mine Lund aera to bunk oelup along the eastern havis margin can r =205
be calculated ai 125,0.0001 = 1.25 m.y. Thin Bgarn, of coarse, in based Onu number nf
very crude assumptions, the mont important of which is thai the ease of nzdimrnt nupply
ta the bank margin was ucifoen during all stages of bank growth. The enleemely
uoifomn nausee of the SB element lends seme credeuce ta the hypothesis. The part of the
Fynselv Member studied here is of Middle Volgian L. gi-ozelundieuo Zone ne a slighdy
earlier age, to Early Ryaaanian basa] H. Oozed Zone age. The duration of this interval in -,,, SS
about 8 my. according ta the time scalo of Hoq and others (1987). Daring this period,
four SB elements were formed. This gives a toed duration of each SB and associated
elements of 2 my. When allowance is made for the time repmuroied by the much r'_f SD
thinner asnociated SD, SS nr St elemects and the hiatal (omission) narfucen, the
calculated urne foe bock progrudatios acrons the basin seems fully acceptable. Bark SB
apparently formed within one or several ammonite zones, and there in titee orno overlap
hvlween biostratigraphic ages of the bucks, although Ihr data arr Ion scarce Io allow 0) s,1
more precise coocluviom lobs drawn. Thus. SB 2 in fully cootained within a few rones
in the Middlr Volgion.
Errol of bunk ikpesiuos
A decrease in raie of sea-level rise resulted in u decrease in bank uggradatios, wheeled
by thinner or missing topsels. Thin trend wan nlighdy increased daring masimum
FIG. 16.Rene diagram (una-linear frequency scale) tor the large-scale
h,ghstaud and beginning fall in sea level. Increasing este of sea-level fall eenulled in
drceease in accommodation space. During high ante of fall, book taps osperiruved pIazze cross-bedded SD elements (black) and nome nf the Ibis trough cross-
noodeponilion followed by sheet erosion (Fig. 17C). This in reflected by the formutios
bedded nets of the SS element (stippled). The SD dale include nil recognized
SD elements, whereas the SS data are from one sample area only. Note the
of grovel veneres, by the lack of topsel, and by non-uigmoidal tangential formels asures
in SB 4 (Fig. 3). nnimodal southwards migration nf the large dune fields represented by the
SD elements. Locution area shown by rectangle in Fig. t.
Sea-level lowvtand was followed by ,ea-Ievrl rise. If the initial mIe of rise wan high.
the anca of sedbeesiation moved far westward toward the coasdine, und the bunk top
became a narface of noedeposition and was gluaroeitiaed and btarowrd by D, hiabiohi
(Fig. 17E). Under icleresediate rates nf tise, thr bauktop sedimeets were rewothed by
npplra or low-amplitude 3-D dunes into o Iruesgreosive sheet nand uoder relatively lower-
flow-eegsme cnndtuons (Fig. l7D). 'fltis phase in repreneeted by the thin, strongly.
bintarbated, glauconitizeol SS elemeets, which overlie SB 1, 2 and possibly 3. During
increusrng mte of rese the surface nf the lop of the tiunsgressive sheet-rand sIso became u
surface of nondeponiline. It became intensely bueenwed and glauconilized, and deponition
of offshoro silty mudntooeu (SI) was eeentually initiated. In nome cases the area of
274

Decreasing rate of sea-level ruse n highstand
Send bank prvgradotivr
Sea-level fall
Ernsivn, cobble lass
CcoO parallel nod ettshsre
Rapid rate of sea-fecal rise
Glaucnnvnation ('I
U-burrows -
Soclyk and
Sea-level highstand
Sara dure vela
N
Slow rate of sea-level rise
Tranoaross so shoot-nord
Small 3-D dures
Ftc. 17.Block diagrams relating bank-tap modifications and
processes ta variations in rate of sea-level movements. A shows bank
progradatian (SB element). B shows formation of sand-dune sheet sand
(SD element). C shows erasian of the bank top and formation nf
pebble lag. D thaws the farmatian of a transgressive sheet-sand (SS
element). E shows the formation nf a glauconitiaed and burrowed
Saud bank and done facies Srchileclore
nedimonlaliao woved ao fue weslward dual only vory liuto fine-gruiaed aedimcel reached
the distant offshore areas, and the SS (or SB) Surface ja ltda casa eepresents an inspartast
hiatal omission siurface.
Altoenalisely, il is possible dial dur lowsiaod isleraal was short and tIse following atar
oapid aad of low awplitvdr, no that a new SB element rapidly progouded into the basin
before a significant amoaal of mad was deposited. This aroma la bave been dio cuse
betwore SB2 and SB 3 (Fig. 3).
lo some peoiods. fields of rapidly noudsward-migsntisg lierar to slightly sinuous dunas
appear to banc covered the sea bellom seaward of dur slowly progeadiog sand banks. In
thin way as estensivo SD sheet was dcvcloped dual oveobsally booawr covrerd by the
sand bask, which is soon in the SD 2-SB 3 ardue SD 3-SB 4 contacts (Fig. 3). If nra-
Ipso! riso occurred again before duo back reached dio oce.a, a dime field was loft behind as a
rebut, ucd a Iroesgeessine sheet sand (SS) er jans as omission surface was fanned endue
top of the SD clemeoL An esample of this is the SD 1-SS 2 enormI (Fig. 3).
Subaidraee ned ordiurteot atspply
The Fynsrlv Member con duos be inlerpretrd withis a arqsence-straogoaphic
foawawerk, with sea-level variatiecs as the wino costeolling fader. The ethee key
parameters, rotc cf sedimeot supply and rate nf subsidence, aro difficult Io samas. The
esifemely sniform nattier and perfeul short gromelay of due elemects sleongly suggest
that sediwent-iopss ruta was essentially soiform. The dowiaant wode of sand transport
appears te have been in essensive soathward-wigrating dose fields drivas by wiad-dnvea
and tide-enhanced coast-parallel connesso. Rifling and basin-margin uplift north of
Jameson Land created renace areas gar the r00000un amounts nf coarse elastic material,
and asnisted is funneling currents in a coast-parallel direction ceorespontheg lo the
orieatatiaa of the tectonic geuis.
The Succession deposited in Juenesen Land during this period shows pmnounced sheel
geometry en several scales. This is soggestive of relatively uniform subsidence by
thermal eoolractica, io markod vedessi lo the estreme wedge goewetey of
eeatempnraaeoss nyn-sifI deposits farther north (Sarlyk, 1978. 1984, 1989).
DlSccssloN
The essential sea-levcl cnoteol of due system prompts a few comments on seme of duc
key dogwan basic te the acqeonce-atratigraphic cencepts. They are presesled most
recendy in a arries of papers io SEFM Special Publication 42 (Wilgus and others,
1988). Third-nader am-level changes are regarded as eastatic in salare. Thus has never
been proved, and compariseos beIw000 different ocean-basin macgins are net convincing,
escept fee 100g-tees secular trends, as described foe the Jitrasoic by ¡Tallons (1958). It in
Iduely that most nf the regionally valid sea-level curves reflcdl ledlenic platr-margss
effects of changes in inleaplatr stresses, sa suggested by Cloelingh (1986). Thin would
still espIno correlation of nra-level fluctuations over very large arras within or along a
majar ptate. There ase se obvious diffeecnces regarding ceolrol and unfluenco on
sedisnentatino willsia a basin belweest this type of regional sea-level changr widna large
areas and truly custode flarWalions.
The sequence-stratigraphic appeoach is based mindly on passive ceulmrntal margeas,
whereas ment edlcrep succestiess represent introcralanie or foredeep settings. The
Jameseo Land basin iv ieteucrateaic, but this tends te simplify due sitsatien compared to
the passive margin, in that tretenie sabaideauce in not inemeasiag armas duo basin from
the coastline to due continental margin. This may espIna the entremoly regular dieci
geomelay of the aecbilocluaol elements. If tedlouic subsidence iaeeeased uyulemascalty
offshare toward the east, the bantou would rapidly have paused into floe-grinned dependo
analogous to the pussdelta clays ofacentanentat-margin delta.
The diffreenee between seismic scale and Iba scale ef most oslceeps is fondamental and
eequirea serious attention. The Fynselv Member is analogous too neinmic oequence.
Some of the elements desecibed here also satisfy due reqnirements of a neqarece in the
fact dual they are boasdod by anconfonnities. They are, however, abaut an anden nf
magnitude thinner thon the whete fermation nod duos of a scale mainly betew seismic
nesetutina. Van Wogosee and others (1988) and Posameatire add ethers (1988) inlnodoced
the concept efpue-asequences te cocer thinner building blacks of their sequenceS. A
par-aoeqarnce is dehned mn relatively conformable maccession of genetically related beds
ea bedsots bauodrd by esarieeflaadiog susfacee md their correlativo suefacm. The genetic
bachgeeued for the formation cf poravequencro versus sequencer still remains to be
satisfactorily evptinned. lt is not immediately ebvieus why o sequence, which is
interpreted an deposited belween custode-full isfieclien peinls, should comprise a
hieraechical system of poronequeruce Orts asd purasrqarncen. lt may be speculated, of
coarse, dial this hierarchy roflects short-leon low-amplitude sea-level fluctuations
superimposed es long-tees higher amplitude fluelvations (Posamentier and ethers,
1988). If so, dur scaling pmblem becomes oven more critical. The anderlyieg couse of
ma-level Suctastions bas been intemely debaled since the pnblieation of AAPG Memoir
26 in 1977 (Paylon, 1977). The Esson School still adheres ta a orce eustatic
esplanaties. Tectasium, snub as the intruptate-sterns field hypothesis cf Cloetiegh
(1986), is another popular isteepeelation. The concept of o hierarchical system of
ountatie changes with twe or there orders of time amplitude would probably reqaiec
different causal mechunmama for oauh level in the Itierarchy.
Io contrast there is sothing in the hypothesis of Ctoething (1986) that escIndes
smaller scale variations in strass superimposed endue longre wavelength stress patterns.
CONCLUSIONS
The Fynsele Membee wan deposited ia an inenemlonic seaway undergoing relatively
steady subsidence, during a period of uniform aedimenu supply. Fose basic aochiiretural
elements neo recognired, which can be interpreted mithin a framework of regional neu-
level fluetuatioos. A regional sea-level corvo is constructed foe Ihe Jcransic and
leuconnosl Cretaceecs of EasI Greenland (Sartyk, 1995). A detailed nea-tovel carve based
en the pmsenl study is shows in Fig. 18. Note that the vertical anis shems thickness,
not time. This resells in relatively sharp defleetivon oldie hiatal levels marked by the
omission surfaces.
The migreties rote of the sasd buck (SB) cleanest has beco estimated al about 10
enicyear, enrrespooding In a period of 1.25 m.y. for the migration oea land bunk areoss
the basin. lt is posaïble to reoghly estimule due amphtude of the relalive sea-level
tlucntouions mspssmibte berthe bank fesmnatioa and pregradation. The repeated occurrence
of the autunasl, thick and highly characleristie SB elemenl and its estreme lateral
coetinoity and uniformily tsggest that the nea.levol rise wan mughty the same for each
SS element. The thickneo of the SB element fives a minimum ligure for the rise, and
compaction effects can be eseluded in most cours dueto the dominant coarso-grained sand
liduology of due member, and the scarcity of mudvt000 units. The atached occarrence of
accecaI SB elements suggenus that due minimum figure for each rise is fairly etase te the
actual rise. Relative sea level dims serma ta bave uctuaued within a 30-50 w range
dseiag depositiea ef the Fyearle Member SB elements. These oseillatiem huta duration
cf aboul I m.y. and were superimposed on a long-term lomstand following the
Kimmeridgias highnuaod (Sarlyk, 1990). The lomstand bada dueauieo of abaul IS m.y.
275
 AowIaMuorS
Regional sea-level
Field work by the authors was supported by the Danish Nalaral Science Research
Council (SNF). the Caetshed Foundation, Norsk Hydre und the Geological Survey of
Greenland (COU). The first draft was written while Surtyk was recipient of a research
professorship awarded by the SNF. We are grateful to L. B. Clemnsessrn and SEPM
reviewers R. L. Brenner and D. J. F. Swift for constructive comments and te B. Sileleer
Hansen, L. Lautsnp, M. Larsen and B. Wanning fer technical assistance in Ose
preparation of the paper.
rcppsvNcr7
Auss. J. R. L., 1983, Studies in flaviatite nedinsentation: bars, bar-costptosrs and
sandstone sheets (low-sinsosity braided slrrasun) in the Brownstoneu (L Dnvonian),
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Bmnes.cne, T., C.u.s.onos, 3M., unn Fcenms. F. T., 1984, The ntratigmaphy nf the Upper
Jursosic and Lower Crelacceus sediments of Milne Land, crnlrat East Greenland:
Bulletin Grontands geotogiske Undresogelse, s. 147. pp. 56.
CLonnosen, S., 1986, Infraplase stresses: a new tectonic mechanism for fluctuations of
relative sea level: Geology, n. 14, p. 617-620.
Hauen, A., 1988, A reevaluation of Juransic eunlusy in the light of new dula and the
revived Bucen curve, in Wilgus, C. K., Huvlingu, B. S., Krndall. C. G. SL C.,
Posameatirr, H. W., Rosn, C. A., and Van Wagoner, J.C., edn., Sea-level research:
an integrated approach: Society 0f Ecenomic Paleoslelegiutn and Mineralogists
Special Pubhcatien 42, p. 261.273.
Has, B. U., ll.snesvovc, J., ene Van., P. R., 1987, Chronology 0g fluctuating seu-levels
since the Tesuras..- Science, v.235, p. 1156-1167.
Jacssvn. R. G. Il, 1975, Hierarchical attributes and a unifying mndnl of bed forms
composed of cvheuionless material and prnduced by shearing flow: Geological
Society of America Bulletin, v.86, p. 1523-1533.
Lemm, H. C., Amanvovs, G.. Munocsms, C.. Manm, S., une Sosunsnnns, L.. 1989. Deep
seismic dala from Ihr Jamrunn Land basin, East Greenland: Term Abstracts, y. 1,
en. 2-3. p. lO-Il.
McCcsv, K. R., Nsnnov, M. G., Cesso, P., von Dana, G. H., 1986, Collapse of dir
Caledonias rengen and the Old Red Sandstones: Nappe, v.323, p. 147-149.
Manu., A. D., 1985. Aechileclneal-clemenl assalyviu: a new method of facieu analysis
applied lo fluvial deposits: Earth-Science Reviews, v.22. p.261-308.
Nvnvuuns, W. R., More, E., ann Bocnun. A. H., 1984, Problema in larbidïte research: A
need for COMF,n,N: Cru-Munisse Lauern, v.3, p-53-56.
Purran, CE., ed., 1977: Srinmic slealigraphy - applications to hydrocarbon rnplomtien;
American Association of Penoteum Geologists Memeie 26, 316 p.
Fossanvnsn. H. W., Janssv, M. T., uso Vse., P. R., 1988, Eustatic control en elastic
deposition I - conceptual framework, in Wilgess, C. K., Hanlirgu, B. S., Kendall, C.
G. SL C., Pounmenline. H. W., Ross, C. A., and Van Wagoner, J. C.. edn., Sea.
level research: an integrated approach: Society nf Economic Paleontologists and
High.- ' Mineralogists Special Publication 42, p. 109-124.
uno Vue., P.R., 1988. Eastatie controlu en elastic deposition II - sequence
and systems tonal models, in Wilgssn. C. K., Hastings. B. S., Kendall. C. G. Sc C..
Fosamratirr, H. W., Ross, CA., and Van Wagoner, J.C., edn.. Sea-level research:
FIG. 18.-Regional sea.Ievel curve interpreted from the succession. an iategmtrd approach: Society of Eannamic Paleontologists and Mineralogists
Special Pabhcatien 42, p. 125-154.
Surlyk and Noe-Nygaard Sand bunk und dune facies urchileclore
lsncmn, M., Sanuorsn, M., Casasen, A., ann Buconc, M.. 1989, Collapse basin: A new
type 0g estensional sedimentary basin fevm the Drvenian of Norway: Geology, e.
17. p. 127-130.
lcn.rn. F., 1973, The Jueassic-Creluvnoun boundary in Jurnemn Land. East Greenland, in
Casey. R., and Ruwuon, P. F., edn., The Boreal Lower Cretsccnau: Geological
Journal Special Invar, y. 5, p. 81-108.
1975 Block faulting and associated marine vedimentatien al the Jorusnic.
Cretaceeus boundaty, East Greenland: Norsk Pefroleuwn Poerning, Northern Needs
Sea Juraunic Symposium, n. 7. p. 1-31.
1978 Submarine fan sedimentation along fault warps os titled fault blocks
(Jurassic.Crrlaceeas honudary, East Greenland). Bvlletin Geonlands goetogiuhe
Undrevegelne, y. 123, pp. 108.
1984 Fan-della te submarine fan conglomerates of Ihr Volgian-Vulanginiso
Woltanlen Forland Group. BasI Greenland, io Kosten. E. H., and Steel, R. J., edn..
Sedimenlelogy of Gravelu and Conglomerates: Canadian Society of Petroleum
Geotogints, Memoir 10,0. 359-302.
1989. Mid-Mesozoic s.a-rift turbidile syslemu 'centrals and predictions, io
Collinsen, J.D., ed.: Cesrelution io hydrocarbon enploralien. Norwegian Petroleum
Society and Geahaw and Tmunan, London, p.231.24t.
1990 A Jurastic sm-level curve for East-Greenland: Paloeegregrayhy,
Palamwhmotelogy. Falareezelegy. v.78, p.71-85.
Causeasen, J. H., Boeuo.on.R. G.. non Bnsssn. T., 1973. Stoasigeaphy ofthe
Jurounic 'Lomee Crrtareoan urdiments of Jamnuen Land und Scoresby Land, East
Greenland: Meddelelver em Grorland, n. 193,5, pp. 76.
Cann.sorunn, L. B., sun Luasm, H. C., 1981, Pesl.Puleeeoic evolution of the
East Greenland continental margin, in Kerr, J. W., and Pregasuon, A. J., cdv..
Geology of Ihn Norlh Atlantic borderlands: Canadian Society of Petroleum
Geologiuts, Mrmoie 7, p-61 l-645.
Hcnnn, J. M., Pvnssa,e, S., Roses, P., Sceorn,s, P. A., Snenocove, L., sun
Tnoosm, E., 1986. The Premian 0f the mestera margin of the Greenland Sra. A
futam cuploenlion largrl. in Huthouty, M. T., ed., Pulsee Petselesm provinces of
the world: American Association of Petonleum Geelogintn Memoir 40, p. 629-659.
see Noc-Nnncnun. N., 1989, Shelf sand banks and sand dune fields from the
Volgian-Valangioian Raukef e Formation Of Janvenen Land, Eats Greenland: Rapport
Gennlands Geotogiske Undernogelse, y. 145, p-74-75.
ann Z.uuanoon. V. A., 1982, Buchtid bivalves from the Upper Jueunnic and
Lower Creluceoun of East Greenland: Paleontelogy. v.23. p. 727-753.
I,ornn, T. S., awn t4.nasansoc, J., 1988, An overview of the fuedamenlals of ueqsence
ntratigruphy and key definitions, in Wilgus, C. K., Hastingu, B. S., Krndall, C. G.
St. C., Posamentire, H. W., Ross, C. A., and Van Wagoner, J. C., edn., Sea-level
research: an integrated approach: Society nf Economic Paleonlnlogissu and
Mineralogissu Special Fablcatien 42, p. 39-45.
Wn.ncn, C.K., Huronnes, ES., Knnnuu., C.G.SI.C., H. W. Pvnuusnmwn, C. A. Ross une J.
C. Vus Wanonna, edn., 1988: Sm level changen -an integrated approach; Society of
Economic Paleontologists asId Mineralogists Special Publication 42,407 p.
276
 FACIES CHARACTERIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
OF A MUDDY SHELF-SANDSTONE COMPLEX: RIO BLANCO
MANCOS B INTERVAL OF UPPER
CRETACEOUS MANCOS SHALE,
NORTHWEST COLORADONORTHEAST UTAH
DUCHESNE
RANGELY

MAIN
.
MEEKER

REX D. COLE
Unocal Corporation
POSSIBLE
SHELF EDGE
MANCOS B
UINTA
Science and Technology Dicinioet IDAHO
' PRODUCTION
Bran, California 92621
-'

ROBERTO. YOUNG
CAAON
Cannulting Geologist
Grand Junction, Colorado 81506
----H WYOMING

PRICE GARFIELD
w
cgt
RIFLE
Asetnucr The Manear B internal of the Upper Certscroue Msncos Shine ir rnpreneoted by w Q
op to 372m of thinly inleeateatilirdclryatonn, siltstona. sodncey foto. to f000.gesiurdssodntooe IS 'e--- ---- PRAIRIE CANYON
depoaierdotfrhoer,bnloerrsann-eesoebrsr,inthrWrstemloteoioeSnsway. TheMs000rBia
brasdexnloprdrlongDoogtrrCrerkAchinocestenColoradnsodateooUtah.wherritirs
major peodocoe of notereI gas nod r minor producer of oil.
zw I

f DOUGLAS CR. 9 poc

Ir
Combined anasigerphic end sodirorntologic data roggrst that the Mancas B ir a o Sr,,
pendette-pIume complen genetically related to dnitsio systems arrise along the weatero ARCH AREA Z GRAND
She.c
shoreline of the rereery. In outcrop sod subanefe,cr coreo, the Mancos B is chreacteriard by o z
leoticulre,cyclic,opeered.corrreoiogprerseqnenocs,erogingintbickonrsfeomSso32m.and
comparad of Sor mino tithofacies nitty clayrtonr. aandrtone-ctsyrtoese, randy silbaron. w
biotorbneed madly ssrdstoeee, rod randy dolomito (as boda erad c000eetinns). Sedimentasy LJ
EMERY
aencnsera include hoeienntsl lamination. eeeny lamination, lenticular bedding, flanee bedding. w H GRAND
ripple laminstion, nod hoeiaoneel lamination. Palnocumeot masseorments indicate an ancrage co MANCOS SEA Lad

aedirnent.terrtapnel direction to Ihn rnnehesnt (lll(. Terco fossile roo ctsaerctmiatic of the JUNCTION.
Cmairnrichnotrcier. LetnestlithofacirrcseistionsinMrncoeBpaoaseqoeoccr roechre.ceoe.
iced by Oansitinnr from biotoebstod moldy emdstoor litbnfscirn tito sandst000.clsyseoee
GREEN RIVER i' DELTA
oi MESA
litholacier then into randy siltalone nr silty clayrtone lithntroins. Hoeianns of randy dolomite
lithnfrciercrpmnatpreanrqorncrr and eepeerent peeiodanftoee aedimentrtion. UTAH COLORADO
o
MANCOS B

fr
ARIZONA
OUTCROP
NEW MEXICO o
Tho Mancos B, an infonnal member of Ihr Mancos Shale, is a thick sequence of
open-marine fior-geained sediment deposited in lhe Woslern Interine Seaway (Fig. I)
during Late Centacenas limo. The Mancas B isa major source nf eslaral gas and a
161 Klar
Or

32.2 Km
o, xa
<tJ Q
515
100Ml
minor source nf nil ou Douglas Creek Arch, n complon north-trending structure
approximately 10km wido and 81 km long, characterized by a socios 0f northwest- 20Ml
Io COLO.
troeding anliclinox and namorout esnrtbnaSl-trfnding faalln (Kellogg. 1977).
tO
Tho total areal extent cf Ihn Mancos B in not known with cortainty. It fnemsahroad, MOAB
poorly dofsned outcrop bell adjacoot Indie Book Cliffs nf eastern Utah and westem
Colorado (Fig. 2). From Douglas Crook Arch, the Mancas B can be Icacod in Ihr
sabsarfacr westward into 1ko nnalh-contrnl Uinta Basin, eastward into the south.
central Piorance Cmok Basin, and northward lo near Rangety. Colorada. South of loan. 1.Palengengraphic msp ni Western Interinr Seaway during early Fru. 2.General indos map nf eastern Utah and westren Cnlnradu illustrating
Douglas Creek Arch, Ihn Mancos B kan been eroded. Campanian time. Geaeral map mudifird 1mm MoGnnkry and nthers (1972). general nulcrnp pattern mr the Manens B and primary area nf Manonn B gas
Published mock on the Mancos B has focused primarily on its subsurface Pnsitinn nf shelf edge is postulated by Swift and nthers (1987). praduetinn nn Douglas Creek Arch.
characteristicS. Kopper (1962) first defined tIto stoatigraphic range of Ihn Mancos B
on Douglas Creek Arch and described its basic lithotogic and production

Cole and Young Muddy shelf-sandstone orchileclure 277

.mu.............. __.._... ..a.uu _.__._...s.

characteristics. Mathias (1971) provided additional insight into its reservoir
characteristics, and Kellogg (1977) published the first stratigraphic and lithafaciou
ss..N
MAIN
analyses. The regional stratigraphie fratnework for the Mancos B and oqaivalent units MANCOS B AGE E U STATIC NOMENCLATURE
CURSE
has been addressed by Yoang (1955), Hale (1959), Hale and Van de Graaff (1964), nase nase ,ivonw
PRODUCTION Roam TYPE WELL
McGookoy and others (1972), Foach aad Cushion (1979), Foaeh and albern (1983), EN5EAnCH ¿opt.
Rive rad Gaatier(1983), Cole and Young (1986; 1987), Cole (1987), Swift and others - IRRT coonour nuunsnisa.°" '.. enican1aaL.ii GENERAL PETROLEUM
(1987). and Colo und Frtberg (1989). 00
CORED WELL DOUGLAS CREEK NO.1
Rio BLANCO
uENERAL PETROLEUM G n.j S2a, T20, R103W
nouui,As CREEES )
U RIO BLANCO CO., COLO.
With respect to the Mancos B, three major ohjoctives arr addressed in this paper; CrnEn nan
UINTA @E'308-IT-4
I) ntvokgraphic definition; 2) docamentotios rad interpretolios vg lilbofacies; and
o
3) definition of facies architectsre. Both outcrop and nabsarface dato mr unod. The
4'» ii::
L.Z-- F
TENNECO
nubsarfacoinvessigatios included interpretativo of several hundred geophysical logs A BRUNEt TOP CASTLEGATE SS.
and the description of cores from thron wells; I) Tessano Bmnol E-28-10, 2) Citirs
Gas Service E-398-17-4; and 3) Ensearch Enptorauoo l-16 Point Lookout (Fig. 3).
Oalcrop work involved compleuon of voyou measured sections is the Prairie Canyon
nusvostas
--,,jmnaaruoea O UPPER BLUE
GATE SHALE
UTAH wB COLORADO - inn è-au'--'
roer, Colorado, on Ihr north flunk of Doaglas Crock Arch (Figs. 2 rod 3).
iiT+ O
UPPER
TOP (COLE AND YOUNG, 1906)
@1,071 FT.

as-SILT MARKER"

Much of the Upper Cretaceoan section is eastern Utah and western Colorado
LGARFIELD
ersonostas ,r.'ww
rs
an
D
t UNIT
TOP (KELLOGu, 1SC7(
ulanos (51,040 ri
(Fig. 4) i n represent by the Mancos Shale, which ranges is thickness from 1,0671v
1,524 m (Young, 1955, 1959; Kopper, 1962). Dincosery of unreal gru in sandy
GRAND IIIIIIIHUIIIIUII ow
-J UNIT
TOP (KOPPER. 1082)
UTAH ICOLO. ai @2,445 FT
intervals of the upper Mancos Shale is the tate 1950s led Io the informal designation PRAIRIE CANYON AREA
I
I.) .5
of the Mancos B in General Peiroleam Douglas Creek No. t neun 1ko crest of Doaglas
Creek Arch (Figs. 3 and 5; Kopper, 1962). In Ihm well, Ihr bane of the Mancas Bis 16.1 KmIIIU
MESA
Fis. 4.Generalized chronostratigraphic chart for Upper Certaceous ranks in I-as
ut to
BMB SURFACE
002,031 FT
chroacierired by a well-defined geophysical-log kick (depth of 871 mor 2,830 fi in
eastern Utah and westrrnmosl Coloradn. Eustatic sra.level curve frnm Haq and
nthrru (1987). Stratigraphie terminology modified PErm Young (1900; 1909),
tf-)Oo
the type well; Fig. 5) located -762 m (2,500 fI) stoatigeaphically above the Dakota
Sandstone. This log evcsl can be coroeluied throughoat the erstem Uinta Basin,
Fau. 3.Indes map of eastern Utah and western Colorada showing locationS uf
wells utiltred in e ore studies, field Study area at Prairie Canyon, and outline nf
Peterson and Ryder (1975), Peterson und nthern (1900), and Fnach and uthers t z.5
'U LOWER t IFT BREAK
(1983). Depnsitionat trqurnce names arr new, A depositinnat Seqnence is a a- BLUE SATE
Douglas Creek Arch, and western Piceanco Creek Basin. and in herein called the main Mancos B gas production. Crnss.neelion A-B in presented in Figure 6. relatively conformabte paukagr nf Strata hnnnded above and hrinw by regional a- SHALE
"honnI Mancos B (BMB) surface." D
nncnnformitten nr thriE oneretative eunfnrmitirs (Mitchnin and uthers, 1977),
Is the Pinto Wash aeon (Section 8, Township 21 Soath, Range 22 haul) of the
outcrop belt in rastree Utah, and at mattered other locations, the BMB surface is
overlais by a 4- to 14-rn-thick interval of marine, shale-filled, nod satsdnlone-osd-
shale-filled channels, herein called the"Psnto Wash interval" (FWI) of the Mascot B.
Descriptions of strata eqaivaleni tribe PWI rluewhere in eastern Utah are given by FERRON SS
Newman (1985), Newman and Chan (1985), Chan and others (1987), and Swift and hippocrepio zone (early Campanian) are present in dolomitic concretions -244 m The Mancos B rangen in thicknotu from 274 io 372m in the Douglas Creek Arch TUNUNK SHALE
others (1987). Together, the EMB sarface and PWI are thought to represent r type 2 below thetop of the Mancos Shale (Katich, 1959; Young, 1959; Cobbau, 1973) in Ike area, and is sabdisidod into apper and lower intervals (Fig. 5). The contact is placed
sequence boandary between she Upper and Lower Bloc Gaie depositiosat sequences TOP DAKOTA SS
upper Mancos B. In the Prairie Canyon asca, Gill and Hail (1975) reported the at ornear the "silt mocker" (Kopper. 1962), u well-defined, geophysical-tog event
(Fig. 4). occaerenceofflaculiirssp. with weak flank cibi (early Crrnprnman) in u sandy interval -189m above the SMB surface. The tower Mancos Bis further subdivided into units TOP MORRISON FM.
The upper Mancos B contad is gtadational and has been picked at different of Mancos Shale that in-82m below ihe Casitegate Sandstone. Thin interval appeurn "B-I" avd "5.2." Unit B-1 in-98m thick on the structurally higher parts of Doug las (JURASSIC)
locaiiost by varions workers. On the bonis of Mascas B gas prodactios, Kopper Io be just above the top of the Mancos Bus defined in thin siady (Fig. 5). Therefore, Creek Arch and -136 m thick vn the flanhn (Fig. 6), whereas unit B-2 uverages
(1962) and Kellogg (1977) placed ii ut 745 m (2,445 fi) and 716 m (2,349 fi), these data saggnst that the age range for the Mancos B is laie Santonian Io early -98 won the higher parto of the arch and thickens Io 128w vr wore off siructure. The
respectively, tu the type well (Fig. 5). Cole and Young (1986) recognized thai other Cainpaniau, or ponsibty early laie Campasias. apper Mancos B rangea in thickness fmm 1101v 157m and alto shows thioning over
sandy intervals (generally nonproductive) esist throaghout most of the apper Mancos Previous straligraphic siudirs (Kellogg, 1977; Fouch and Cashion. 1979; Poach the crest of lhe arch. Mont hydrocarbon prodaclion comes from the lower Mancos B,
Shale in Ihr Douglas Arch asen and moscd the upper Mancos B contact loa depth of and others, 1983; Rice and Guatier, 1983; Johoson and Finn, 1986) suggest that the mainly unit B-2.
570m (1,870 f1) in the type well. Thin petition is approsimrtely 183 w below the top Mancos Bisan offnhorr eqaivalont of the Emery Sandstone Member of the Mancos
Flu. 5.Definition nf stratigraphie terminulugy fur Manens B interval uf
of Castlegatr Sandstone. Mancos Shale in the type well, au presented by Kopper (1962), Kellogg (1977),
Shale (Fig 4). The chronostratigraphie dala, however, saggent that the mnge of Ihr
Fossils of the Deosrtovcaphitzn bavoleri indes zone (latest Sanlonian; Kalich, 1956, and Cote and Young (1986), Location of writ shown in Fignee 3. Log eneses arr
Mancos B (as defined in this paper) is much greater and inclades a large part of Ihr SP (left) and resistivity.
1959; Cobban, 1976) have been identified wilhin the PWI nero Wonntnide und Upper Blur Gate doponilional sequence. Thus, Ihr Mancos B ii also partly tiwc
Wentwater, Utah (Fooch and others. 1983; T. D. Frack, por, commas., 1989). In Ihr eqaisalest Io the llar Point Sandstone and Blackhawk Formation, in east-central
Book Cliffs area north of Grand Sanction, Colorado, ammonites of the Scaphitro Utah.

Cole and Young Muddy shelf-sandstone afch eclure 278

 Moscos O lishofacien chaeuctenizatioo iovoivnd detailed study of outcrops at
Prairie Cuayos und of drill core from Tenneco Bronzi E-28-10 (Fig. 3). Subsurface
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 coreelatioo from the crest of Douglas Creek Arch southward to the Peaieie Caoyoo

o
1
A

3.9Ml 3.2Ml 5.2Ml 4.0Ml 4.1Ml . 8.2Ml 3.4Ml 7.0Ml - 6.1 Ml

a 3.2 Ml
B urea (Fig. 6) isdicatos 1h01 thc Muocos B sabdivisionn defined io the subsurface
(Fig. 5) are present io the Prairie Canyoo area (Fig. 7), where the total thickness of Ihr
Muscos Bis-305m. However, barasse of low erlief and the weathered oaturr of the
tuefacc onposurru, the 0MB surface, PWI, unit B-1, and the upper Moceen B do nOI
form oulceops suitable for detailed study. The best enposuren arcar in the upper 91
reef unit 0-2. which hou u total thickness of 116m (Figs. 7 and 8). lathe Tenneco
Brunel E-28-10 well, the 5MB surface recurs at 1.073m (3,522 ft; Fig. 9). The cored
TOP CASTLE GATE
i I i I I I I inlcevul begins searthe middle of unit 5.2 und continues downward for 37m into unit
B-t. The contact between onitn B-1 und B-2 is defined by nhurp deflections in the
gamma-ray, neutron, und density logs.

I I I I
Internally, the Mancos B in characterized by upward-coarneoing (shale-b-muddy
uandstoue), high-feequescy (fourth- chrough fifth-order) paeuseqacscrs (definitional

I I UPPER
I BLUE GATE SHALE

I
sense of Weight und others, 1989). In Ihr exponed part of unit B-2 ut Prairie Canyon

I I I I I I
I (Fig. 8), four pueunequencns (A-D) urn present, eucging in thickness from lOto 32 w,
whereas in the Tenneco Bronci E.28.10 core (Fig. 9), night pamsequesces (l-8) are

I I I I I I I pensenl, eunging in thickness from 2 to 10 m. At Pruine Canyon, Mancos B

porasequencen arr composed of fine major lithofucien: I) silty claystone;

I I I I I I I 2) sandstese-claystose; 3) tandy sillstone; 4) hioturbuted muddy sandstone; and

5) sandy dolomite (Fig. 8). Each Ippe, with the noception of the sandy dolomite

I I I g
I
w
o-
lithofacieu, is also pecuerl is the Brand E-28-10 core.
Silty Clayetone Lirlsofurire

I
I
I
I I i I I I
o-
Lower parta of many of the oslcrop und core pazasequences arr competed nf fissile
silly cluyslosr, which is dark browo to black, carbonaceous, und shows good

I I I I I I horizontal lumination. Bore, lenticular naodstene-siltstnne laminad arcar tn this

I I I I I
lithofacies but huvr limited lateral diwensioos (Fig. lOA). Thicker lumtnue often
show internal micrograding. Burrowing is rare sad is represented by Clorndriieo.

I I I I g
The silty claystoon tilhefucizi is compositionally similar to the main body 0f Ihn
Mancos Shale (Uppre and Lower Blue Gute Shale Members; Fig.4). X-ray diffraction
I I I I w
analysis of the -2pm fraction of a sample from facies unit 14 al Pmirie Canyon (Fig.
8) detecled kaolinite (40%), dlite (25%), illite-smeclite (22%), and chlorite (8%).

I I I
UNIT B-2

joj Thnse values urn similar to those reported for the Mancas Shale in westrm Colorado

I I I
UNIT B-1
I I by Nadean and Reynolds (1981) sad Rice und Gassier (1983).

iu I I I I Sandrtone-Cluysrene Lithofacier

I I I I I The susdslooe-clayslone lithofucies is well nsposed in the upper Iwo-thirds of

BMB
SURFACE
I I I DEPTH
seqacoce A (facies unit 4; Figs. 8. 11. sad 12A) at Prairie Canyon sad is present in all
1hz srquences observed in coren (Fig. 9). especially sequences Sund 6 (Fsg. 13). Thin
lithofacins is charactnrired by inteelaminuted, very fine- to fioz-grained silty
IN FEET nondstone sad silly lo very silty claystone (Figs. lOB, 12A, sad 125). Ssadstone
LOWER BLUE GATE SHALE control esagen from 3010 60% and increases upward through u fixen sequence along
with groin sien. Most sandstonr beds am <3 cm thick und have limited luterul
continuity, usually <30 cm. Primary sedimentary soue turent nclude wavy lumination.
Ftc. 6.Stratigraphic cross section of Mancos B from Prairie Canyon to lenticular lamination, flaser lumination (wavy und bifurculed waxy types
northern nosr of Douglas Creek Arch (are Fig. 3). Stratigraphie subdivisions of predominate), rippin lawination, und small-scale noIe works. Truce fossils include
Mancos B arr based on log picks. Plunolireo sad Choridriieo, plus small chexeon-shaped crawling tracen.

LCole and Young Muddy shelf-naudstoxe urchileclure 279

 t'io. 7.Index map of Prairie Canyon area, Colorado, showing the Mancos B
BUCK TONGUE D

(
CASTLEGATE SURFACE ontcrop belt and locations of measnred sections. Upper and lower Mancos B
XO j (1 contacts were projected from snbsnrface (see Fig. 6), then mapped on
4I- -J T7S topographic quadeangtrs. Cross section C-D docaments the 1go 5" dip of the
TENNECO OIL
DO L)
h T8S
I -- _"( i. Mancos B to the north. Becaose of the weathered natnrr of Ihr outcrops, the BRUNEL "E" 28-10
positions of alt contacts are somewhat generalized.
.1UPPERBLUE
i, I GATE SHALE BAXTER PASS
ROAD
FACIES
UNIT
CORED INTERVAL

14
ûÛ
.--.--..- GARFIEióUNry
MESAcOUNTY;
13

PRAIRIE CANYON 12 --
- SEQUENCE D LITHOFA CIES
RoAD::; EXPLANATION --
- - 1- I MIOTAOnATED MUDDy
I-..'1 SANDSTOnE
11 :-:-:i P11SANDYSILTSTONE
MANCOS B -- SILTY CLAYSTONE

T8S
A MEASURED SECTION
4 t -- SEQUENCE C lTY SANDSTONE.CLAVSTONE
ICOMFOSITE)
BMB SURFA B - u: - SANDY DOLOMITE
T9S - (CONCRETIONS)
2 MI
gj
O
t
--) SEQUENCE B
LOWER BLUE. 3.2 Km zw
U)
w
4 os
GATE SHALET. -20
z to-
4

4
MANCOS B EXPOSURES SEQUENCE A as-
B

CASTLEGATE D
BEND IN SECTION MARKER
MESA GARFIELD
'. 5,400 oo usan sunFocE canna nay inni
BMB SURFACE BEST OUTCROPS (1646m) SCALE
- z Mossy SanDsTone
luresLapaluaree ns Ann nit
C
I-.
4
4,600 Fis. 9.Log section throogh part of Ihr tower Mancos B in Tenneco Brune!
-J E.28.10 showing position of the EMB surface and general sedimentologic
8.8 MILES w FIa. g.Componite ntratigraphicseetion ofnpperpartofnnttB.2 in Ihr Prairie characteristics of the cored interval. Note log kicks thaI define the BMB surface
(14.2 Km) VERT. EXAG. = 7.8 Canyon nera. and the contact between units B.1 and B.2.

Cole aod Young Muddy shelf-sandstone architeclure 280


TENNECO OIL
BRUNEL "E" 28-10
o SILTY CLAYSTONE
ID
0,
o and/or bedn (Figs. 8, 12D, 14, ISA, and 15B). Concrelions sango in Ihicknens from
(81
(I)
Ftc. 10.Core photographs from Tenneco BroncI E-20.10. (A) Silty elaystone
lithofacies from srqnence 20f onit B-loto depth nf 977m (3,204 fI); rorr has a
diometrr of 10.2 cm. Note lamination, general lack of burrows, and presence of
streaks of coarse siltstonc and vrry fine-grained sandstone. (B) Sandstone-
elaystone lithofarirs from sequence 4 in nuit B-2 at a depth nf 963 m (3,160 fI).
Note interstratification of silty claystone and vrry fine- lo fine-grained
sandstonr, which forms streaks and well-defined ripples with internal mud
drapes on foresets. Rice and Gantier (1983) referred to this bedding style as
"composite stratification." Also note horinontal sand-filled burrows, possibly
Plartolitet and Choadriaen. (C) Biolurbated maddy sandstone lithofacics from
sequence 40f unit B-2 at a depth of 964m (3,163 fI). Lower one-third of this core
segment has been moderately burrowed and homogenized, whereas npper
two-thirds are less burrowed and characterized by lenticular and Baser
stratification. Burrows include Chrndrilea and Plannliteo.
Cole and Young Muddy shelf.sandslene architecture
Ripple foresets (Fig. t2C) is the sandstooe.claystooe lithofacies is the Prairie
Canyon acea aro the oniy rcliable soaecos for generation of paleocareest data.
Tweoty.eight measurements made at measured sections 3 and 4 (Fig. 7) itsdicate a
narrow. snimodat yottcm with a mews azimuth of 111" (S695) and a standard
deviatioo of 26".
Sandy Siltntone Lishofacieo
SEQOENCE u The sandy sdlstone liuhofocies is best developed io the lower pacts of sequesces B.
C.and D (facies anits 5.8. and Il; Fig. 8)al Prairie Conyoo, and io soqoe000s 5.6.
aod 7 of Ihr Tenneco core (Fig. 13). This facies consists of clay.eich tiltslone with
saciable asnoants (201050%) of srry fine, to fine.grained sandstone. This lithofacies
LITHOFA CIES geseratly lacks stratification because of intense harrowing, which ranges from 501e
BIOTUO OAT E D
nearly 100% discaplion. Individual harrows are generally difficult to see hat are
:çI MOODY SANDSTONE probably Crsaiasa types.
SANDY SILT5TONE
BiosarbaId Muddy Sasdatase Liihofacirn
SANDSTONE.
CLAYS TO N E The bioturbated muddy sandstone lithofacies forms the most massive onIcrops at
Peairie Canyon and dominsles the spyer yanta of seq000cen B.C. andO (facies antIs
6, 9, and 12; Figs. 8, 14. ISA. and l5B) at Prairie Canyon, and Ihn upper parts of
- SANDY DOLOMITE seq500ces 5.6, and 7 in din core (Fig. 13). This lithofacies has the highest sandstone
4 content ïn the Mancos B, ranging from 501080%. Correspondingly, this facies is an
SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES imporlAsI producer of hydsncaebons.
iI
Vs'tseee preserved, sedimentary structuees in the bioturbated maddy nandstone
litltofacies include wispy horiaontal lamination und low.omptitude nvymmetrtc ripples
midi very thin mud doapes (Figs. lOC and 15C). BioluebaliOO intennity Tanges from
4Otn nearly 100% andin gesreally proportional Iodio sandstone content (Fig. 14).
Many harrows ace indistinctand not saitable for idenlification. Te,'brllioa (Fig. 15C).
nOniZONOAL LAMINATION Plasoliien, and Chasdritea meen the only types identified.
(MOTTLED) Sandy Do1ovsdn Liihirfacirn
UNto o
MISCELLANEOUS
At Pmieie Canyon, sequences B, C, and D are capped by thin intervals of
runt.coloeed, sandy, ferroan dolomite(facien units 7, l0,aod 13) Ihalfoem eonoretionn
is t sEnTlcaL00000wS
UNIT 0.2 ta 1.1 m and in length from 1.1 10 9.1 m, with the lateral spacing belween
ONly t concreti ons ran ging from 5 to 76 m (Fig. l5A). Faoies unis 2, the most laterally
*4 eanuoNucnoos MATTEO persistent bedded dolomile, cas be traced for more than 3km in outcrop. Dolomite
000erelions and bedo hase very sharp upyen and lomen eoolacts and a molded
(burrowed) iotoenal fabric. The sandy dolomise lilhofacies was not noted in any of the
core alilieed in thin stady.
¡oierprenaiion
Ño. 11.Detailed measored section of sequence A of nuit B-2 at locatiou 3 (ser Vertical lithofacien suocennions in Mancos B paraseq005cen is oolcrop and core are
Fig. 7). Facies units 1 through 4 are same as in Figure 8. Sorface gamma-ray quite similar. A model for generation of those saccennions is depicted in Figoee 16.
curve generated by baudbeld sciutillometee; readings taken every foot. Waler depth daring Mancos B deposition inset well understood and probably varied
somewhat. The high.mud content and the conspicuous lack of hummocicy cross.
stratit'scutioo sagfest dial Mancos B sedimeotation look place below storm.wave
hase. Paleogeographie reconnteuctionu indicate dial the Douglas Creek Arch area may
have boon an machan 161 kto offshore daring most Mancos B deposition (Fig. 1; see
alno Kellogg. 1977; Rice and Gaulier. 1983).
281
 si.*u. ... .... TENNECO OIL
BRUNEL E" 28-10

Fm. 12.Photographs of unit B-2 in the Prairie Canyon urea. (A) Thinly
interstratifled sandstone and shale in sequence Aal measured section 3; staff is
1.5 m high. (B) Ctosenp of sandstone-shale compositestratiTiralion in seqnenee
A at measured section 3; hummer for scale. (C) Detailed closeup of Composite
stealilication of seqnence A showing wett-defined ripple lumination and wavy
lumination with distinct mud drapes; bed io 6.O cm thick. (D) Bed of sandy
dolomite (facies nnil 7; Fig. 8), which caps burrowed muddy sandstone of
sequence B at measured section 5; hammer for scale.

seouence 7

SCOUE5CE S
LITHOFACIES

-IRONSTONE
CONCRETION
[ sasos 5ILT5005E n.

z
SEDIMENTARY
STRUCTURES

MISCELLANEOUS
FIs. 13.Dotailed core description of sequences 5 through 8 io unit B-2 in
Tennero Brouet E.28-1O.
rgcuesTICoL BossOnS

CoIc and Young Muddy shelf-sandstone architectuTe 282

 TEXTURE & In slage I (Fig. 16), the depositiosal site receives mad primarily by sunpeusion
STRUCTURES sedimentaLios, thus forming a nitty claystune lithofacies, whereas bosh sand and mud
SAND 1511.1
BI OTU R- deposition occur in stage 2. Initially io stage 2, proportions of sand and mud are
B AT IO N approximately equal; however, with lime, sand becomes domisaol over mad.
SURFACE .CLAY 0 50 100
Correspondingly, the sasdstonc.clayslone lithofacies characterizes early stage
GAMMA-RAY LOG 2 deposition und tho bioturbated muddy sasdslono lilhofacien characterizes tale otage
2 depesitios. Intersteulificotios of mud and very floe. to fine.groined sand during
UNIT 13 stage 2 deposition, plus the presence of wavy laminalios and rippte tasninalios,
suggest that sediment l000vpoet altrroaled between suspension and traction. The
"temporal acceleealion" modet described by Rice and Gantier (1 983) and Swift and
Rice (t984) provides an evptanalioo of this proceso, In shin model, episodic storm.
generated and/ne lide.gonerated currents accelerate and decelerate with lime. During
acceleration, a given cortesI wilt erode the sea linon and take mud and the fiumI sand
fraction isla sospesnion. leaving behind Ihn coarser sand fraclion, which is
transponed by traction (nippte trains). Deceleralion of the cureent drops the
suspended sediment, thus creating albio, graded, sand-mad coaptes (e.g., Figs. tOS,
IOC, and 12C(.
tonlage 3, the supply of sediment iv greatly reduced, Ihas allowing formation of the
sandy dolomite lithefacies. II is probable that stage 3 corresponds loo small increase
is relnlive sea level. Such a transgression would leap sediment is coastal
novironmenln, Iban diminishing the ovailabilily of sediment for teanvyoel offshore.
Il is also possible Ihat stage 3 simply represents a shifl in the dieeclion of offshore
UNIT 12 Cuerculs.
w
C-)
zw Palencuenrol dala from unit B.2 al Prairie Canyon show connistent trends lo Ihr
soulheaut, Ibas suggesting that the Mancos B oedimeolsouecen wren lo the northwest.
o Probable nources nf sediment were the various laie Santonian and early Camponian
wove-dominated delIzie systems (e.g., Emory. Slur PomI, and Blackhawk) localed
Lii
(I, along the weilern shore of the Crolaceous seaway. Fine'grained nedimens from diete
delIzie systems apparently byponved the strandline in a process described by Swift and
others (1987), bated on sludiex of the Kenilworlh Member of the Blackhawlv
Formation. Swift and others (1987) have shown Ihat sediment coarser than 105 liJo
is preferentially deposited io tower ceased-plain and delta.fronl (shareface) seltings,
whereas sediment finer than 105 um forms "prodotta plomes" 1h01 migrate offshore
via storns'genoraled, shore.pueallnl, downwelling cuzorots. The grain size of Mancos
S sediment in is agreement with the prodelta.plumr model. Textura] analysis of
15 thin sections of biolarbatcd sandslone lilhofacies peovided on average grain size
of 91 pm.
After bypassing the shoreface, the prndrlta.ptume sediment was widely distributed
UNIT 11 lo offshore arnas of the Ceelaceous seaway as a complex of tenth' and nonthrail.
progeading vedimrol mantes (Pig. 17) Ihat downlappod the 0MB surface and PWI
(Fig. 18) and gradually produced the stacked Mancos S paruxpoumners visible in

SEQUENCE C
Fis, ]5.Photographi of unit E-2 in the Prairie Canynn area. (A) General
lOO 150 200 outcrop characteristics nf upper part of sequence C and all of sequence D al
COUNTS/SECOND measured section 2, (B) Closeup uf uppermost part of seqnenre C (facies unils
9 and 10, respectively; Fig. 8) near measured seeliun 2; staff is 15m high. Note
Fis, 14.Detailed measured section of uppermost part of se queer e Cand all size and oval eeosssection ofdoloinitic concretion (facies unit 101 posilinuedjast
of sequence D at measured section 2. Facies units are same as in Figure 8; above staff, (C) Closeup of muddy bioturbated sandstone lithofacies nfseqnmnrr
lithologic symbols are explained in Figure 11. Surface gamma-ray curve D at measured section 6; lens cap is -6.1 cm across, Note remnant ntrati8oation
generated by handhold sciutitlometre; readings taken eveey foot. and Terebelliaz (donut) burrow's.
Cuncxacd cv pa5e 295

ma..........................
Cole and Youvg Muddy shelf-saodsl000 archileclore 283
 E F
DOUGLAS
CREEK
PRICE ARCH PALISADE
GREEN RIVER
SUN N YSIDE
UTAH !CdLO.
V
SANDY t-
DOLOMITE w
BLACKHAWK FM. w
/ BUCK TONGUECASTLEGATE
STAGE 3
BIOTU R BATED SC AH
MUDDY lIIre._
STAR
SAND STO N E
POINT UPPER BLUE
GATE SHALE

EPISODIC
CURRENTS
SS.
/
EMERY SS,
BMB SURFACE & PWI
80.5 Km
LOWER BLUE GATE SHALE

SAND STO N 50Ml

CLAYSTONE
NON MARtNE COASTAL SHALE

REGRESSIVE STRANDLINE DEPOStTS

FACIES
REGRESSIVE SHELF SANDS AND MUDS

SILTY SHELF MUDS (MANCOS SHALE(

C LAYSTO N E

FIG. 18.Diagrammatic regional steattgraphic cross section from Prier, Utah,

to Palroadr, Colorado (see Fig. l7), illustrating relationships between BMB
surface, Mancos B interval of Mancos Shale, and other Upper Ceetaceons nnits;
general facies types also are illustrated. Abbreviations for members or
Blackhawk Formation; SC = SpringCanyon; AB Aberdeen; KN = Kenilworlh;
SS = Sunnyside; GR = Grassy; DS = Desert.

Fis. 16.Diagrammatic, three-stage model for generation of paraSrqucoces
and litbofocics in Mancos B. Esplanation given in test.
Frs. t7.Generation nra prodetta.pinme comptes from the slrandline nf the
Western tntrrtor Seaway with transportation of mud and very One- to tine-
gratned Sand offshore. Ltnc or section ja Fignre ISis shown; PR = Prive, Utah;
SS = Sannystde, Utah; GR = Green Rtvee, Utah; SL state line; PL = Palisade,
Cotorado. Current vectors and position of shelf break from Swift and others
(t9S7).

Cole and Young Muddy shelf-sandstone acchitectuee 284

outcrop. corn, and geophysical logs. Although it is suggested that Mansos B
paraseqaences are genetically related te regressive dellaic sandstones to the
northwest, ills tot possible at present lo correlate specific intervals of the Mancos B
with all or parts of the Emery. Star Point, and Blackhawk tystemt. The
seditnenl-dispersal pattern depicted je Figure 17 is similar to one detcetbed by Kent
(1968), based on studies of plaoktoeic foraminifera from the Mancos Shale te
northwest Colorado.
On a very brand scale. slructurally controlled seahottom topography may have
influenced Mancos B deposition and the regional facies architecture. Although most
structural deoelopmentofDoaglas Creek Arch occurred during the Laramide orogeny
(Johnson and Finn, 1986), older slractaral movement occurred during Fenesylvantun
development of the ancestral Uscompahgre highland and Trsasstc development of the
ancestral Douglas Creek Arch (Stone. 1977). Movement of these old er structural
features during the Sevier orogeny (Gem, 195g; Ritama, 1955; Kopper, 1962; Tweto,
1975; Dries. 1983) may have created a foreland-basin high that snlluonced Late
Cretaceoos sedimentation.
Accordiog lo sedimentation models proposed by Slats (1984), pertods of
stractarally induced shouting create higher energy condttinns whereby mad is
partially misnamed from the shoal crest Onto the flanks of the shoal. Thus, both
thinning and sand concensratios should occur os the shout crest, with thicker, mud-
rich deposition on the flanks. Results of this study sapport this hypothests. Units
B-1 and B-2 and the upper Mancos B this over the crest of Douglas Creek Arch
(Fig. 6). In addition, the highest gross tend content and the coarsest grain sire tn Ihr
Muscos B occar on the crest of the arch in the must gas-production area (Kellogg,
1977; Rice and Gassier, 1983).
Along the limited extent of the Prairie Canyon extcrop belt (Ptg. 7), no ssgetficonl
lateral changes in parasequence architecture were noted; seqaences AD remained
essentially invariant from a tilhofacies perspective, bal did show minor flactaulsoss
io thickness osera distance of 6.2 km (Fig. 19). le the subsurface, the absence nf
closely spaced cores precludes a detailed aealysis of lateral facies vanatioss.
However, based os geophysical-log signatures. lithofacies packages idenssfied tu the
Tenneco BroncI cores appear so correlate laterally for a distance of at least 9.0 km
(Fig. 20), with some thickening and shinning. Vaniatinns in gamma-ray sntensity,
which correlates with gross-sand content, suggest that intervals with high-tend
contents grade laterally into shale (seo alte Kellogg, 1977).
The combined sedimeetologic data suggest that indivsdual Mancos B peodelta
paraseqeences have broad, lenticular geometries, possibly an shown io Figure 21. In
cross section, the thickest, central part of a gives paraseqaence cansistn of un npmaed-
coursening succession of silty claystone lithofacies into sandstone-claysione
lithofucies or biotarbated muddy sandstone liihofacies (Fig. 16), whtch grades
laterally (downcnrrent?) into sandy siltstone lithofacies or silty claystone Isthofacien.
The gradant upward ieceeaso in sand content is each paramqsesce suggests thai
canees strength increased daring deposition. The increase in canent strength was
pmbably produced by shoalieg due so generstion of a large-scale bedform (sand esdge
or bulge). Shoaling may also have occurred by differential sediment compac000 or
by mieoe uplift of local structural features (stage 2 of Fig. 16).
At Prairie Canyon, the sandy dolomite lilhofacies caps the upper three Mancos B
paraseqannceu (B, C, and D; Fig. B). Individual dolomite horizons have esceltent
continuity, show only minor fluctuations in thickness (Fig. 19), and may represent
time lines. They also may act an permeability barriers to hydrocarbon flow te the
Cele and Young
uabuurfacr. Several enamples were noted where concretion bosons graded laterally
into a continuous dolomite bed. The boot ruample is facies unit 7 at the top of
sequence B (Figs. 8 and 19). WesI of meaunred section 4 (Fig. 19), facies unit 7 is
2 3 4 5 6 7
chaeacterizodby concertions, whereaueastofmensaeed sectionS, ilforms aperuistest
bed. The saodydotomitelithofacieswau notfound in anyofthecoromateeial obserced
4,000 FT 2,100 3,300 1,200 5,600 during this study. This is most likely due to statistical probability (i.e., iotersecliot
(1219m) (640m) (1006m) (366m) (1,707m) (1,21 9m) Isa FT of small target by an even smaller drill bit), rather than the absence of the sandy
116m) dolomite lithofacies io the subsurface. Resistivity spikes suggestive of carbouale
beds are occasionally evident in geophysical logs al the tops of upward-coarsening
paeasnqoences.
"narOu
SEQUENCE D We thank those isdicidaals who contributed to completion of this paper.
M. A. Krey, W. SPecs, Jr., W. S. Peen, Ill, B. Wendell, A. N. Yaler, W.B. Cushion,
and T. D. Fouch provided access te well logs and other datu. P. S. Cole assisted with
preparation of the manuscript and illustrations. M. A. Chan and C. W. Keighin
reviewed earlier versions of the monascripl and provided useful saggentionu for
tmprrvemeut. The senior author thanks Unreal Corporation for allowing time for
iso field work and manuscript preparation.
SEQUENCE C
Co.szi, M. A., Kwtnv. K. C, eso Kovnseau. L. F., 1987, Deposition and diagonesis of
nolitic ironstone io the Cretacroas Mancos Shale, Book Cliffs, Utah (abrI.):
SEQUENCE B o Society of Economic Falcostalogiuls and Mineralogista Midyear Meeting, v.4,
p. 13
Coanas, W. A., 1973, Sig nificanl ammonite finds in uppennoul Mancos Shale and
INDEX MAP
overlying formations belween Barker dome, New Mexico. and Grand Sanction,
Colorado. in Payroll. J. E., ed., Cretaceoss and Tertiary Rocky of the Southern
Colorado Flalcau: Four Corners Geolngical Society Memoir, p. 148-153.
1976, Ammnsiiz record from Mancos Shale of the Cande Valley.Price-
rO 00 SEQUENCE A ra Wandsido area, east-ceetral Utah: Brigham Young Univoruity Geology Studies,
y. 22, part 3, p. 117-126.
Cose. R. D.. 1987, Creracennu rocks of the Dinosaur Triangle, so Averett, W.R., ed.,
r /S'5 27
TOn
Paleontology and Geology of the Dinosaur Triangle: Museum of Western
Colorado ned Grand Juoction Geological Society, p.21-35.
ossu Faremo, J. F.. 1989, Slrutigeaphy and sethmentaliOn of the Book
-t Cliffs. Utah, in Nummedat, D., and Remy, R. R., edn., Cretaceous Shelf
Sandstones and Shelf Depositional Sequences. Western Interior Basin, Utah,
nitaW Colorada and New Mesico: American Geophysical Union, Guidebook for
International Geological Congress Field Trip T-119, p. 13-24.
ave Voseen, R. G., 1986. "Mancos B" interval of Upper Crrtaceosu
Mancos Shale. Douglas Creek Arch. northwest Colorado: a"sbelf-sand" comptes
(absl.): American Asuocialios of Petroleum 000logisls Bulletin, s. 70, p. 1035.
Fin, 19.Correlation of sequenoen AD aceren outcrop hell it. Prairie Canyon
eras 1987 Depositional madrI foramuddy shelf-sand comples
area (see Fig. 7 for location). Correlation basrd primarily on horizons of
dolomitic roncretians or dolomite beds. and its relationship to rrservoir development: "Mancos B" interval of Upper
CretacrouuMaocosShale.nnrthwrutColoradoaodnortheastUtots(absl.): Americar
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin. v.71, p. 540.
Muddy she)f-sandslone orchileclore 285
 G H
COSEKA FED. FEES KIRBY- TENNECO BRUNEL PROVIDENT NORRIS STEELE PROVIDENT GOVT.
3-20-4-102 EDISON 20-3 E 28-10 7-34-4-102 1-35 10-25

B.
4

¶EI EPISODIC SHELF

CURRENTS-.
SHOAL

W
DATUM
O
U F
WE
OO
c'1

siiIÇ!' Jj
- BMB SURFACE

LOWER BLUE GATE SHALE

I 5 MILES
(8.1 Km)
14

Fis. 20.West-east tog cross section on the cres or Douglas Creek Arch (see
Fig. 3 ror locagion) showing position or cored interval in Tenneco Brunet Eso. 21Conceptual rocies architecture ror the Mancos B. Scalr is
E-20-10 with respect to adjaceot wells; datum is contact between units B-1 and approximate. Symbols are enptained in Fignre Il.
B-2. Within the cored interval or E-20-10, correlation lineo at the top or
sequences 1, 2 (datum), 4, 5, and 7 are shown. Other sequences below cored
interval nrc correlated on basis or gamma-ray profiles. Note excellent log
definition or the BMB snrrace asd the similarity in log signatnres between wells,
suggesting that Mancos B parasrqnrnces bave latrral dimensions in escess
or p.o km.

Colo and Young Muddy shelf-sandstone architecture 286

Fouca, T. D., sou Casmos, W. B., 1979, Disteiboliou of rock types, lithologic groups,
and deposilional environments for some lower Tertiary and Upper and Lower
Crelaceous, and Upper and Middle Jurassic rocks is the subsurface between
Alarment oil field und San Arroyo gas field, north-central to northeastern Uinta
Basin, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 79-365,2 sheets.
Lastren, T. F., Nicuos, D. J., Gtatoon, W. B., arto Contas, W. A., 1983.
Patterns asd timing uf synorogenic sedimentatios in Upper Cretaceous rooks of
central und nurtheust Utah. in Reynolds. M. W., and Dolly. E. D., edn., Mesozoic
Paleogeography of Ihr Wett-Censoul United States: Society of Economic
Faleonlologislt and Mineralogintn, Rocky Mountain Section, p. 305.-336.
Gus., JR., uso tIsa., W. J., Jo., 1975, Steatigraphic sectionS across Upper Crotaceons
Mancos Shale-.Mesaverde Group boundary, eastern Utah and western Colorado:
U.S. Geological Survey Oil and Gas Investigations Chart OC-68.
Dow, K.. 193g, Donglan Crook gas fteld, irr Gurdebook to the Geology 0f Utah,
No. 5: Utah Geological and Mineralogical Survey, p. 139-146.
Omen, R., 1983, NOrlh-sOulh compression of Rocky Monomio foreland noucturen. in
Lowell, J. D., and Oriel, R., edn.. Rocky Mountain Foreland Basins and Uplifts:
Rocky Mountain Ansocialion of Geologists, p.9-32.
NaLn, L. A., 1959, lntcrlonguing Upper Cretaceoun Sediments of ourtheaulern
Utah-uorthmettern Colorado, in Huan, J. D., and Weimer, R. Jods., Symposium
nu Cretaceoun Rooks of Colorado and Adjacent Areas: Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologints, p. 55-66.
arto Vast ne Ooaarr, F. R., 1964, Cretaceous utoutigraphy and facies
paltnrns-nnrlheantern Utah and adjucent areas, in Sabutaka. E. F., ed.,
Gaidehook to the Geology and Mirerai Resources of the Uiusa Basin:
lnlemtountamn Association nf Petroleum Oeologinln, p. 115-138.
HaQ, B. U., }[snnnnnvs., Lavo Van., P.R., 1987, Chronology of iluctaatiog sea levels
since the Tniansic: Science, y. 235, p. 1156-1167.
Joasson, R. C.. ano Foco, T. M., 1986, Crvtacnoas through Holoceno history 0f lise
DouglaS Creek Arch,Colorado and Utah, in Stone. D. S., ed..Nem Isterpretationt
of Northmesl Colorado Geology: Rocky Mounlais Ansocialion of Grologinln,
p. 77-95.
Kursen. P. J., Ja., 1956. Some noten os tise Cretaceous faunas of eastern Utah and
western Colorado, in Geology and Economic Deposiln of tasI-Central Utah:
lntermoantain Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 116-119.
1959 Late Cretaceous faunal zones, western Colorado. in Haun,J. D.,and
Weimnr, R. J.. eds., Symposium ou Crelacroas Rooks of Colorado and Adjacent
Areas: Rocky Mauntaio Association of Geologists, p. 26-29.
Keu.ouu, H. E.. 1977, Geology and petroleum 0f the Mancos B Forrsalion, Douglas
Creek Arch area, Colorado and Utah, in Veal, H. K., ed., Esploration Frontiers
of Ihe Central and Soulhern Rockies: Rocky Mountain Association of OnologisIs.
p. 167-179.
Knnav, H. C.. 1968, Biostnutigmphy of Niobrara-eqaivaleol pars of Mancos Shale
(Crncntecuus) in northwestern Colorado: Americas Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, y. 52. p-2866-2115.
Korona, P. K., 1962, Douglas Creek anticline and adjoining area, in Arnuedo, C. L..
and MotI, M. R., uds., Euploralion for Oil aud Gas in Norlhwenlern Colorado:
Rocky Moantain Association of Geologists, p. 1(28-1 tO.
MaTsuan, J. P., 1971, Successful stimulation of a thick, low-pressure, wuler-sensilivu
gas rnservot'r by pseudolimitrd enley: Journal of Petroleum Technology,
February, p. 185-190.
Cole und Y000g
McGoonert, D, P., Haus, J. D., H.sun L. A., Gannets., H. G., McCvnurv, D. O., Weoavo, Wmoroo, R., Karostar, D., Morerz, M, I., aso Zero, R. 5., 1989, Coastal and shallow
R. J., artoWuur, D. R.. 1972, Cretaceoun system, io Mallory, W. W., rd.. Geologic marine cyclicity, is Nammedal, D., and Remy, R. R., edn., Ceelaceous Shclf
Altas of Ihn Rocky Mountain Regios: Rocky Mountain Association of Sundstones ood Shelf Deponitional Sequences. Wrnleeo Interior Basis. Utah,
Geologists, p. 190-228. Colorada and New Mcsico: American Geophysical Union, Guidebook foe
Moevuvss. R. M., Van., P.R.. aval Toossenos, 5., 1977, The depositional sequence an International Geological Congress Field Trip T-119, p. 25-33.
a basic unit foe stratigraphic analysis. in Fayton, C. E., ed., Seismic Yovocv, R. O., 1955, Sedimentary facies and intertorguing is the Upper Cretaveoss
Slraligraphy-Applicatious to Hydrocarbon Accumalution: American of the Book Cliffs, Utah-Colorado: Geological Society of America Ballotin,
Association 0f Peiroleam Gootogislu Memoir 26, p. 53-62. y. 66, p. 177-202.
Naorau, P. H., aso Rn050LOS. R. C., Ja., 1981, Bored and contact metamorphism in 1959. Cretaceoan deposits of the Grand Junction area. Garfield. Menu and
the Mancos Shale: Clays and Clay Minerals. T. 29, p. 249-259, Delta Counties, Calorado, is Haun, J. D., and Weiwer,R. J.. edn., Symposium on
Nnwrtnsrt, S. L., 1983, Sedimentary and drpositioral history of shallow shelf deposits Cretaceoun Rocks of Colorado and Adjacent Aroas: Rocky Mountain Annocialioo
mithin thu Cretaceous Blackhawk Formation und Mancos Shale. rant-central of Geologists. p. 17-25.
Utah: Salt Lake City. University of Utah, Unpuhl. MS. Thosis, 158 p.
arta Court. M. A., 1980. Ancient shelf deposition: a study nf the
Crntacnons Blackhawk Formation und Mancos Shale, eans.cnnleul Ulals (ahnt.):
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Midyear Meeting.
v.2. p. 68.
PnTvnnos, F. P., arto Rouen R. T., 1975, Crelacroas rocks in the Henry Mountains
region, Utah, and their relalion to neighboring regions, in Punsest, J. E.. ed.,
Canynnlandn Country: Four Corners Geological Society. p. 167-19g.
aso Lam, B. E., 1980, Stratigraphy, urdimenlology, und
regional relationships of the Cretaceous System in the Henry Mountains region,
Utah, in Picard, M. D.. ed.. Henry Moantainn Symposium: Utah Geological
Association, p. 151.-170.
RIce, D. D., aso Oactrnn, D. L.. 1983, Pallems of sedimentation, diagruesis, and
hydrocarbon accumulalion in Cretacenus rocks of the Rocky Mountains: Sociely
of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Short Coarse Notes No. Il.
317 p'
Reezons, H. R., 1953, Early Cenozoic history of thu Sund Wash Basin, northwest
Colorado, in Rilema, H. R.. and Oriel. S. S., tots., Guidebook to the Geology of
Norlhment Colorado: Intermoostain Association of Petroleum Geologists and
Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 36-40.
St.avr. R. M., 1984, Continental shelf topography: key to anderutauding distribution
of shelf sand-ridge deposits from Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway:
American Asnovialion of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin n. 68, p. 1107-1120.
Scorte, D. 5., 1977. Tectonic history of Ihe Uncompahgre Uplift, is Veal. H. K.. ed.,
Esploration Frontiers of the Central and Southern Rookies: Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists, p. 23-30.
Sneer, D. J. P., arto Rice, D. D., 1984, Sand bodies on muddy shelves: a model for
Sedimentation in the Wenlem Interior Seaway, North America, in Tillman, R. W.,
and Siemers C. T., uds., Siliciclustic Shelf Sediments: Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 34. p.45-ti2.
Hvonuson, P. M., Boettera, R. L.. arto Tostarnos, F., 1987. Shelf
construction in a forutard banns: stouts beds, shelf saudhodies, and shelf-slope
deposilional sequences ir the Upper Cretaceoss Menaverde Group, Book Clsffs,
Utah: Sodimentelogy. o. 34. p. 423-457.
Tweco. 0., 1975, Lurumido (Luto Creraceous-early Tertiary) omgeny tu the southern
Rocky Mountains, in Cursis. B. F., ed., Cenozoic History of the Southern Rocky
Mountains: Geological Society of America Memoir 144. p. t-44.
Muddy nhelf-naedstone archileclare 287

CONTRASTING STYLES OF LATE NEOGENE
DEEP-WATER SANDSTONE DEPOSITION,
OFFSHORE TEXAS
ROBERT A. MORTON
Bureau of Economic Geology
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas 78713
Abalraot: MiddlsMioosne nndmiddisPiiovanedrnp-watnrodatoonresrronoaofthswratsrn
Gnif Coant Banin aaaoviated with failsd aheif margiot and subregional nnconfoonitiaa
eefssrsdioasaubmasinepedaosnu. Thsanbmarinspsdimcnutosmrdbroad,cnnven.landward
arcs along nnndeitaic alopra and on Ihn aoothncrstnm tlsnha nf aubjacnot daitaayatsma. Thsy
'nn,ecrsatsd by samogosaainc faihtsv and wers inter sniargsd by amaine dnring prtioda nf
ioncassd ssa lanci. At thons ni inwemd asn iene!. Es dssp rmbaymeota that vasnsd into An
cootinrntai pirtform fnnoeisd nearahors sand, dowmnalops to baain-iioor fans.
The padicnmn wars firatbacklillsd by dsnp-walr, modatooea dspnaitad by mana-nanapnrt
psncsaass. Thsaa lump bincha and high.anragy turbiditsa enbibit mounded tn chaotic ariamic
asflsciora that dip iandwatd. Latrr. aaod.rioh channsi-isnes comptntaa masa dnpoaited abnss
Es bmnai mudatonsa aad ncr thy arinoic-facisa traoaition from chaotic tsflsctinoa an nosrlying
hnriaontni nr waoy sslisctinnn. Thcpre.snesncbcnrnlmoaphoiogyofths shaltntarginwan
hnallyseatorsd by coslrscencs of small, prograding dnitan that ara anonadad na ciinnfonn
Unconfmsd tnwnr.aiops nod baaio.fionr fana aaanciated with tbr submarina pad itosots are
gsoesatlyaandpoor. Thraand.sichinwatnnd-tnodapoaits asereaeictcdanbighiysioogats, dip-
orisntsdirosedohasaria that manic Aa psiocipai pathways ofardimsntnr.nspnrt.
Saodatnnea confined to ievecd chnnnria nf thn uppsr.ian nod psdmrsnt Tall ars ths moat
psoiiBc hydmcsabonssamnnira nithia nach anali gaaphic asqnsnce. Thsas chantant sand atnOaa
rnhibit high masticai continuity bat low ancrai continuity bananas iotaebnttded tusbiditr
muthtonsaincrsaasnwayftomthschannelaosa. Thinaandatonrtotthelowsrfanmaysnhibit
high tntrrai continuity. bot they typically hnos psm.raasavnir prnpsrtisa bananas of high
eoncaoOntiona nforiginal muddy mania.
In many ardimowiary basian world-wide, hydrocarbon enploration is carrsntly
focnsed on deep-watsr depotifs for two main roatsnt. FissI, lbs consspin of ara-levai
flucluationt and arqasncs stratigrnphy (Vail and otbern, 1977; Posamsntisr and
others, 1988) provids models that prsdict the potcntial for depotition of reterooir-
qnaiily tandatones farbasinwardofthsthslfwarginasdindsposilionai environmsnls
thai ars normally charnctssized by thick marins ohals having so onploration potsnlial.
Second, dosp-waler sandttonea offes new fronhsrs for esploration in basino whsre
drilling has muchsd the motase stags and whoro fatnro drilling will ho dono silber
1) In leu ampo and abyssal-plain racist of older rooks at grant depiha os2) io rsplors
for relahvely ynnng submasino fans and oEse lnrbidire dspssils in preteal offshore
Snsdslenen depositsed in rslatively deep wales (>200 an) typically oshibil cnmpinn
inlsral voriabilily in facies and lhsrefom hays iena prethciablr rsservois prsperties
than sandstones depesitsd in relativeiy shall ow wator. At a resait of thit
hcierogoneiiy, dssp-water sandtlonss have asare of Es lowest arcovery efficienciss
of any class of hydrocarbon reseronirs.
Ths diffeesncgr in facial noriabitity betwssn thailow-water atd dsop-watsr
dspotilts ars generally relawd to hydrodynamics of the depooilional snvironarenlr and
modes of sediment traosport at well at io temporal mmd spatial gradieetn of the
Marlou
physIcal procesars. Waoss ano toogsftore cnrrentu in relatively ahallow waler
combine la conceotsole sand cnntinuoutiy within a long bat selatively saresw band
near the conlemporansoas shoreline. In conteaot, sand dsposilien basinward of the
shelf edgs is sporadic and poorly cosrtrained bscaane slopes arr anstabis and
sediment tsaospoos is rainy by tarbidity cnrrsnts or tiamping (Bnama and others,
1985).
One of the most difticnil tanks facing modern sxpiosationittr in peedicting Ihr
location of renersoir-quabty sandtlones in deop-waler deposits that mers greally
inllnonced by the interaction nf san-Insel floclnationt and contsmporaseoas growth
stractares (malts, salt and thais diapirs). An objective of Ibis study it le documsnt
Ihr Ihese-dimentional facieo amhilooclars of Iwo late Nsogene slope systems (Fig. I)
thai mero affected by changss in tea lovel and tyndeposilional deformation.
The Iwo slope systsma werm selected because Amy repmstsnt two differeni phyaical
tellingt that resulted in diffsrentdspositionalprodncto. The middle Mineros soample
isa slighdy faulted entrenched syslem thai formed laadward of lbs conrsmporaneoaa
sholf edge. The drpotilss buckfilling the sstesnchsd system were latesally confined by
rmlatioely sloep walls. ta contrast, the middle Plincess noaarpie emphasiars
nncosftned submarine deposiliion basisward of the sttsifmargin onacontinenlai slops
deformed by sull and shais diapies.
In thit study, megascspic (regional) and macroscopic (inlraformational) scaiss of
rnsrrvoir heterogeneity (Alpay, 1972) are anatyzsul by joinlly esammning hthofacies
and ssisaric-facioa pallorns. Also emphasized ars the sscnsring eetatienships between
opecific lithologies and soitmmc pullmans that would indicale pretence nr absence of
rsservoir-qaality sandttonet.
Regional Geologic Setting
Middle Miocone deep-water deposits is the wsstorn Gulf Coast Basin (Fig. t)
include shose sedimento riraligraphieally associated with Ihe Cibicidso opiata
forammniferal nasembiage (Fig. 2). They occur abose Ihn eogionai Arnphiotegisa B
stratigraphic masher and below lbs regional Bigeserioa hamblsi marker. Oinlal
deltaic and ttrandplain sedimnato below the Amnphioiegisa B straligeaphic markrr
(Pigs. 3 and 4) rrprssewlapesiodofsabtlantial peogsadatien of the continental margin
(Morton and ethers, 1985; Galtaway and nihers, 198b). Thin period of platform
contlooction wan followed by a ssteogradatiooul phase of dsponitios that culminated
in the basinwide Amphistegioa B transgression asd sea-level highstasd. At Ihr time
of waoimuar flooding, the shoreline had relreaied -4) km lasdwasd of the lower
Miscons theif margin (Morton and others, 1988). The broad lower Mioceneplatforrn
was inundated attendant with this peosouncsd landward thif t in coastal onlap, and Ihe
platform was sabseqaendy baird by a thick saccosrion of trantgrsssivs marino shuls
(Mortes and others, 1905. 1988).
Primary features of tho middle Miocene slope system are the snbmarins psdimest
and the associated snlap wrdge of deep-water deposits (Fig. 3) that have distinct
sedimenlologic and palsoocoiegic pesperties. Submarine pediment ita term usnd by
Mgnton and nthsrs (1988) to deocribe those nsndettaic foiled shelf-margin feataases
that are widor than they are long and that formas a result of retrogressive slope faunes
and submarine seotion. Thus, they do nom fit the standard merphologic er gsneiic
dsfinisinn of a dmep, relatively narrow incisod saltoy and canyon formed al the shelf
margis by river onlrenchment an arena lt of lowered sea level.
The middls Miocone submarise pediment forms a beoad cooves-lasdward ato that
is -100 km wide parallel mo palsostrike asd -25km long paralisi to paleodip (Figs. 4
Slyles of deep-waler suadstune deposirion
EXPLANATION
O 2Owi
Middle Mincene slope syslem
301m Middle Pliecese slope syslern
13216
Etc. t-060mo map nf nffsbnre Texan shnwiag general lanatiss.s al ihr middle
Mincene nati middle Plinesae drep-watrr depnsits.
and 5). lbs pediment occupies a broad sote bounded on its basinward edge by the
lower Miocene shelf/slope transition (Fig. 4) and en its tianko by tandy wane-
domtnatsd doltaic and bassisr/strandplain systems (Morton and others, 1985;
Galloway and others, 1906). These prominent constructional feuturet and the
pee-nslsnng indenlios of the shslf margin probably istlaencsd the position of the
pediment (FIg. d); however, the pedamenl is yonogsr than ali lbs ssbjacest shors-aoae
systems. Thut, il formed is an interdellaic aching rather Ihan at the mauth of a major
rives as io cemmsnly envisaged for estreached vailsys and canyons near ths shelf
margas (Vail and otheso, 1977; Nelson and Nuten, 1984; Steffens. 1986; Posamentier
and olkors, 1988).
çn
doy,ategra r
Fao, 2.Slraligraphie chart tllastratiag late Nengene hiant atigraphie und
ehroasotrattgraphic correlations tsr the wen eran GalfCaast Ban n and the glubal
caree nf enaslal nalap psessatrd by Haq aad nthees (1987). Hachured calumas
ohow the stratigraphie iatervala investigated in this atatly.
Tho Cibicideo opirrua submariem pedimenl estesdrd -20km landwaed of the shelf
margio or about one-half the width of tho cnalinmnlal shelf inundated by Ihm
Amphistsgisa B esgional transgression. Lasdward sotent of the pedimeot was
conlsollsd by the magnilade of loweerd sea level aod by the ttsrpnesl of ihe
coaatinsntal shelf. The length 0f thm pediment is fesalest across the low-gradient shelf.
whereao it is coosiderably less esiensise along steeper sia pet sachas noar Ibe formsr
sholf margin usd neuwaed of the delta system. The pediment is moody confised to
downthrown fauls blncks batinward of the lower Mïoceme fanit eons (Fig. 5). This
relationship ssggests that contemporasseus faults isflnsnced ne disecily controlled
lIso locations and ateopsess of tomo malls of lbs emleesehed system.
Cross sections (Fugo. 6-8), seismic profiles (Fig. 9), asd henlhic foraaninifesal
assomblagos show that alope and shelf deposiin backfulled the pediment. The
pediment fill, which is 500 te 680m thick, formt a baoinwued-thickening wedge thai
sermmnales updip sear the lowce Miocese fault zoos (Fig. 5). The wedge is obscared
by lbs shadow anne bennalh the middle Miocene faults (Fig. 3) and becomes
indistingaiskabts from pmogradatiosal and aggradaliossl slopo deposits along Ihr
middie Miocsue slope. Ihr largest offshore field in Tesas produces frem these
middle Mincene slops dopesits (Fig. 8) and from slightly younger resrevoirs
deposiied near Iho shelf margin (Metsloa and others. 1988).
Liahaaaratigraphic Correluuoso asd Paleosavaronoto
Sedimeots overlying 1h5 rarsional aneosformity al the base of the oniap wedge
compose a vertical succession nf iotssheddsd sandstenss and mudstonen (Figs. 6-8).
Thelowsrmostpaetoflhewedgs iscoarposedefa thick secrioanfmndstonedspoaited
in upper-slope and lowes-siope enviennmrsts (sanes 4 and 5; Fig. 8). Simple
iandward thissing und possible onlap is the basal ahale ars indicalmd by electeic.log
correlations, whereas seismic reflections lypicatly reveal more comples stealal
patterns (compass Fugo. 8usd 9, A-A'). Lithologiss of the middle Io opprrpart nf the
288
 B B
PLEISTOCENE 2000
-__ - 4000
- 6000
- 8000
iS,500
-12,000
- ia.000
middle Miovnnr
fouit none
lower Miocene shelf margin
Dominantly sand
Submarine pediment I 2 3 4rni
n nterbedded sand and shale Fault O 2 8km
n Dominantly narine shale i0 Hydrocarbon produetioo Su 0900
Fm. 3.Structural croon section illustrating tithologier. biostratigraphie
markers, and structural style in the Galveston area, offshore Tesas. Specific
features include Ihr submarine pediment and middle Miocene espunsion fault
sour. Cross section location, shown in FigureS, coincides with seismic line B-B'.
From Morsas and others (19es).
onlap wedge are mom irregular aod may be composed of either mudttooe or cootinrotul slope. Furthermore, tIte middle Msocene tuebid.watee assemblage is
interhedded madsione und ouodstone (Figs. 6-8). similar to that contained in other turbiditos deposited in both older and younger
Saodstooe beds are conceotrated on the rastem aod western flanks of the Tertiary Gulf Coast embayments (Stackey, 1964). Thus, 1ko elocieic.log patterns
entrenched system (Fig. 15), aod they pinch out nene the margina (Figs. 6-8). Mont (Settoy, 1978), faunal evidence, und pateogeographic setting demonstrate that these
wells encounter net.nandstone thicknesses of <30 w, hot as mach as 120 m of sol deep.water sediments were deposited within the entrenched system by stamps and by
sandstone han been penetrated. The asen of greatest saodstone thickness are aligoed small, restricted submarine channeln and fans.
in roaghly north.soath trends (Fig. IO>. Howrver, these trends actually foros oblique Unconfined submarine funs, which extend businwurd of Ike lower Miocene shelf
southwesterly angles compared with the regional trend of deposilsonul strike. This margin, reprenrnt a second stylo of deop.malee deposition associated with the
preferential snathwenterly orientation in also displayed by ynnnger incised channels Galveston slope system (Morton and others, 1988). Few wells have penetrated these
cat into the broad shelf (Breryhilt. 1987). nubmueine fans because of Ihele great depths seaward of Use fault none. Therefore,
The middle Mioceor strata contain arenace055 bonthic forasninifees that lived in they are not included in thin study. The narrow apron of muddy fans seaward nf the
outer-shelf to abyscul.plain environments (zones 3-6). The species are indicators of interdellaic emhuymrnt was supplied by sediments escavated from the entrenched
cotd bottom watercontuining high concentrati005 of suspended sediment (Echols and system and by slumping and other gravity.inducod processes opreatiog along the
Curtis, 1973) nach an those produced by turbidity currents flowing down the unstable slope. Precise correlation belween she busin.flooe fans and slightly younger
Morton Styles of deep-water sondslone deposition
-.:.-c2.------- ----.L. .2----..c'-
5t4 S74,
j
cd
50 mi
o 60km
EX PLANATION
Prnnimal deltuie- burnier-strnrdpinin sandstone
Sinful deltuic-burrier-ntrardplais sandstone
Morire (prodelta-vhelf-vlope( shule
Hydrocarbon prnduCtinn
Fouit Zane
Stute- federal boundary
Updtp limit uf pediment
Q 4132 iO
Fis. 4.Regional genlagie map of offshore Tesas showing pnsitinn nf middle
Minceur submarine pediment in relation In subjacent lower Mincene
drpusitinnul systems. Map modified from Macton and ethers (1985).
backfitted deposits is prevented by tange stratigraphie displacements across the
middle Miocene growth faults (Figs. 3 and 5).
The reported tap of the Cibiciden opima faunul acne is inconsistent compared with
ntratigruphic carrelati055 made os ihebasisofetecteic logs und seismic profites (Figs.
6-8). Those Iithnstratigruphic and bioutratigraphic dincrepuncirn can be explained by
environmental controls on the beolbic population and possible reworking of
sediments containing the estinct species. The lust occurrence of the Cibicideo opima
faunarises in the section where subsidence raten were gnoaler and greater water depths
were maintained foro longer period (Figs. 6 and 8). Furthersoore, submarine erosion
und subsequent redeposition of older sediments may nccoant for the uppeamoce of
FAULT
2' C. 8'
MlDDl,
EXPLANATION
av s Uydip limit of submnnive
prdiment and orinp nedqe
n Well eoetrnl
Seismic line
Cr oss sec tins
Fis. 5.Principal geologic features and locations uf seismic linen and wells
penetrating Ike middle Minceur submarine pediment in the Galvrston area,
offshore Texan.
biostratigraphie markers both below und above the sandstone facies in different wells
(Figs. 6-8).
Fatroecologic zones at a particular utratigraphic horizon generally indicate
systematic luodwued decreasen in muter depth an copecied (Fig. 8). However, Ihr
range of water depths (-1,500 m) exceedn the upparent accommodation space,
indicating sea.level fluctuations as well osa steep seafloor gradient.
Seismic Facies
A broad, thick zone of irregular soïrmic reflections located abono und Iandward of
the lower Miocone contincotal platform (Fige. 3 and 9) und near the Cibicideo opima
steutigraphic bonzos identifies die submarine pediment und depositionul apron on
seismic linen. An approximate reconstraction of the submarine pedimeot and
overlying onlup wedge provides a more accurate representation of prrdcfoemolionul
continuity and attitudes of internal seismic refleclions (Fig. 9). As shows by this
reconstruction, the basal pediment surface eshibiis a steptike longiludinal profile,
especially along its baniowurd limit. Stop Ivngth decreases heudward, bol step height
may either increase or deceeuse io the name direction (Fig. 9).
Seismic reflections of the pediment fill are discontinuous, have highly variable
dipn und umplitudem, and seenot arranged in simple geometric pulieron. Despite the
lack of synlemutic order, some generalizations can he mude about the ntacking
geometries nf seismic reflecoons. Retleclions are mostly mounded, tuodward
289
umuas.ae. ss........_a. ...a ....._a.
I
sr sr ir sr -ac
sr
sr ssli
J
ni.ze,i
Ftc. 6.Stra graphie ulrike snntinis l-l' illustrating middle Mineene
litbofanies, tail neuurrrnee nf henthie furaminirers, and pulenecutonen. Lncatinn
shown in Figures.
dipping, or chaoLic in the deepest and moat seaweed pari nf Ihn onlap wedge. The
disconnected hummocky and chaotic patterns suggest disorganized mans movement
and redeposition of sediment derived from Ihr shelf (Lehner, 1969). whereas the oshee
patteras portray original dnpositional sorfuces.
Seto of reflneltotin dipping londward lypicolly occur immediately above and
lermsnate near or against the boast uneonforwity (Fig. 9). These luodwoed-dipping
reflections have apparent dips nf as muchas 10'; slightly greater paleodips would be
calculated if the profiles were adjusted for basinword till. Minor listric fantts and
rotation of ntump blocks explain some, hut nul alt, of the landward-dipping sets of
reflections (Fig. 9). These small landslides appose to ho concentrated in the deepest
part nf Ihn rnlrruchrd system. Apparently the erosional unconfoemity acted as a
detachment sarfacn along which basmnward slip nccorrrd. or. conversely, the shallow-
fault plane aerated the basal discontinuity at nome lovalinni. The predominance of
loadward dips without foals rotation nuggentn lateral accretion processes, with
sediment hemg supplied by sources parallel te depositions! stellar.
Basiowued-dipping sets of reflections urn mont common in mid-dip areas near she
inflnclion zonn, where ctinoforms and reflections subparatlel lathe upper boundasy
characterize ihn uppermost pant of the wedge (Fig. 9, A-A' und C-C'). The clinoform
Morton
-
H
e5
trh
rs a,Qez,,,nzOvvolr,
i,
ovairisi
reflections record progrudutinu of u muddy sholf and slope that produced as upward-
shoaling facies architecture.
Some sets of tandward-dipping reflections arr osertain by seaward-dipping
reflections. In these coses, the seau of thsergent reflections arr commonly separated
by a single reflecten or ses of hnrizosial in wavy reflectors. Some nf the wary
reflectors appear tabo ternes associated with channels of a submarine-fan comptes.
If present, u complete vertical succession nf seïsmie sirutat patterns consists of
t) landward-dipping, moundrd, or chaotic, 2) subhorizontat nr wavy, and 3) seaward-
dipping reflections (Fig. 9). Some sets of lasdwurd- and busiswaod.dipping
reflections form bidirectional dowetupping mounds that way oudise uslremety small
tobes of submarine fans (Milchsm, 1985).
Facies Architecture, Sasdssone Cononaiiy, and Renerroir Potential
Sea-Irvet fluctuutinss nod attendant changes in fucint archuseetorr eantted she
positios and thickness of middle Minceur sandstones, their continuity, and their
potential as hydrocarbon reservoirs. Patrorcologic assemblages record initial
upward deepening, then abrupt deepening, and finotty a prolonged period of upward
Styles of deep-waler sondstone depositian
s.-,o
..)v
¡Ï I environments (zones 4 and 5). ludividast sandslone packages nf ihn channel fill arr
Ftc. 7--Stratigs-uphie dip iretion 2-2' illnutratirig middle Minceur lithutanies,
tasi uzeurrenee of bruthie furaminifers, and palrnecnannes. Lunalinn shawls in
Figures,
shouting (Figs. band 8). The initial upward dreponing accompanied u retallen riso in
sea teert und highstand that resulted in the Amphisieginu B regional transgression.
Hcmtpetugic mudstase drupes und extremely thin turbithtes were deposited in outer-
shelf to tower-slope environments (rones 3-S) by tranugressive und highstand
systems tracts, using the terminology of Posausentier und others (1988). The basinul
mudssones contain no sandstone or only estremely rare sandstone beds (Figs. 6-8)
because the site wan far from the shoreline and active roue of sund deposition.
The nest significant event was abrupt deepening euuued by degradation of the shelf
margin und erosion nf the uscooformily. At thai time fine-graisrd sediment was
slumped and romuved from the continental ptulfoem and transferred lo the stope as
mod-rich submarine fans. The few inlerbedded sundssonen depoxited us pediment fill
are c6 w thick, limited in arroI estros, und discontinuous (Fig. 6). Mudstoneu make
uts as leant half of Ihn eretico observed os electric lofs and account for nearly uil the
iotercal in updip wells (Figs. 7 and 8).
The upward-shoaling phase 0f depositino was initiated by development of a
umstand systems tract, which deposited mud.rich funs as wett as overtying channel-
fill sandstones with subordinate inierbedded mndssuoes. The thickest eonceotrutiosss
of sandsivnr (Fig. 10) coincide with these sharp-based sandstones thatdisplayoseratt
upward-fining und upward-thinning profiles (Figs. b-8). Paleasceologic oonaoonn
indicate that these channel-fill sandstones mere deposused is upper- and lowrr-stnpe
v20 m thick. They have mixed blocky, upward-coarsening and upward-fining
profiles, are separated by mudstonen that are commonly 3 to 5 m thick, und are
laterally separated from ether sand-filled channels by these thin mudsiones. Thene
saud-filled ehansels near the sups of the submarine funs and attached sand tobes arr
the pnmat'y hydrocarbon ennervoirn in the section. The interval nf channel sandstnnes
in relatively continuous, but individnal nandbudies are highly cumpartinrotatized by
numerous nhate beds that reflect turbidite deposition,
As deposition continued, the sea Bane was eventually enntored to a position
comparable te that before the pediment surface was eroded. Sandstone deposition
dmsinished us the relative rise in tea level eounioeacsed the supply of coarse elastic
sediments. Aithal time, the teunsgressiee systems tract deposited mudutunen and thin.
highly discontinuous sandstones above the sand-prone internal, ut the top of the
pediment fill, and immediately above the pediment fill. Despite being deposited
tnairdy in outer-shelf envirunmenis (aune 3), this lithofacies exhibits hïghty variable
thece-dimessional archuloclarns that seenot repeated in nearby wells (Fig. 6).
The final phase of upward shouting was related to another highsiand in nra level und
renewed construction of the shelf margie. The highiiaed systems tract peegmded
across the sarfuce of maximum flooding, depositing saud-rich nearshure sediments.
The dominandy uandutnnn hthofacies consistently forms upward-coarsening and
apward-nhuatisg profiles at the top nf the tocsins (Figu. 6-8). These sandstones and
subjacent madslonrn were deposited io enter-shelf environments (zaun 3, Figs. band
8). Individual sandstone beds arr sery thin (l-3m) andare separated by mudstonrn
uf comparable thicknenues (Figs. b-8). There wetl.snrted peogradationni sandssours
arr highly continuous and productive in nearby fields (Fig. 8).
Time.te-drpth cunsernions between seismic profiles und electric logs reseat the
relationships between facies architecture and seismic sirotai paiturnu (Fig. 9). The
basal-mounded, landward-dipping, and chaotic reflections are the seismic signatures
nf ee-nrdimrnted stampi nr deep-water madstnnen deposited as turbiditen. The
slumps were locally derived from the flour and walls of the pediment but remained
after the upper luyren were transported dowuslope. These residual slumps are overlain
by muddy iarbidaleu derived from mure distant soured, such nu the shelf nr headward
erosion of the entrenched system. The sand-filled submarine channels occur above
the mounded and tnndward.dipping reflections near the tranuitiun with overlying
horieostat to wavy reflections (Fig. 9). The strutigeophicalty highens seit of seaward-
dipping reflections coincido with the apward-nhoaiing and upward-coarsening
prograduttoeni suceossien of shattow-watee madstancs und sardslnnes.
Regional Setting
Middle Plioceso strata investigated io this study (Fig. I) include those sediments
bracketed by the regional estioctiun horizons nf din Otobigerina nepeniheo and
Glzboquadrina aliiopira fasnat assrmbtagrn (Fig. 2). This strutigraphic interval
records the influence nf sea-level fluctuations und growth structures vn deep-water
sedimentatino both edward and busioward nf the paleoshetf margin. Emphasis,
however, in placed on the submarine channels und funs depunited on the tower ulope
und basin goor.
290
 3 3,
te Sp

EXPLANATION

Gos well
..
u
Z4
u
I
Dry hole
Estteeoted depth
of peditetent fill
.u
u
8h 5/gerettet/tee ho,nb/y/
u
Co

843
Cibic/deo op/teto

Redo/es 43
..
u Z5

Z4 Paleneen zone 4
.u
u Fts. 9,Lier drawing nf tnlrrpretrd seismic profilen illnttraling Iwo-
dimensional geometry and reflection characteristics of the middle Minrenr onlap
wedge. Thnsr dip-aligned profiles arr only partly rreonstrnetrd (along fanti

.u Z6
planes). They are not decompaeted nr adjnsted foe nonfaulting deformation.
LD = landward dipping; SD seaward dipping. Locations shown in Fignre S.
ft
oo
er

.u -150 km wide and 50km long (Figs. 12 and 13). The basal unconformity displays
>gag m of total relief, which decreaans landward. Releogreosive failure and erosion
of subjacent strata are indicated by intraformational slumping and internal reSeclions
having the same seismic espressios as channel cut-and-fill deposits. Backfillisg
sediments above the unconformity form as oulap wedge that thickens basinward
(Fig. 13). The wedge terminates updiy neue the upper Miocese shelf margin (Fig. 14),
500 50
and it panses dowedip iota confennoble obpo deposits that are dinrapsed by growth
faults and satt domes (Fig. It). Some of the langent Ptio-Pteislovono fields in the
o western Golf Coast Basic produce from deep-water naodssooen associated with these
or similar slope deposits (Morton und others, 1991).
o
te the west because thry mrrr deposited demuslope of the entrenched system and mere
set reworked by oceanic currents flowing subparallel so bathymetric contoneo.
Except for local channel-fill deposits, sandstone abundance decreanro tandward
mhree the sequence onlaps the basal unconformity. The prircipal asen of abundant
sandstone are highly elongate, dip oriented, and 7 to 10km wide (Fig. 18). They
rshibit soatheely alignments 1h01 are parallel to the primary direction of sediment
transpon. A secondary seis of sandstane deposition is poslaloled lo esist in Ihe
eastern part of the study area where well control is sparse. This inferred depositinnal
unis cannot be traced updip became younger sequences are extremely thick and few
wells have been drilled deep enough to penetrate the Glohoquadrisu ultiepiro

ji
R43
943
Pto. 8.Stratigraphie dip section 3-3' illostratiag middle Mioeene lithofacirn,
last occurrence nf benthie foraminifers, and palenrcoaonen. Location nhown je
Figare 5.
The early Plioceoe geologic hiotory of the ooutheasl Teoao cootiocotal shelf aod obrupt inflas of coarse terrige000s clantics seto the slope and basin floor (Fig. Il).
slope began wish basinwide progradation aod platform coostruction (Fig. 2). Doring The soarer and conduit for these coo roe elastics masa broad submarine pediment
this period of shoreline regression. dellaic depocentero rapidly advanced the (Figs. 12 and 13) eroded into the continental shelf on the soothwrotom flank of an
continental margin of offshore Louisiana. while the Texas shelf subsided and early Pliocene delta. Sand and mad that were excavated from, and that bypassed
remained a nondellaic margis. Progradolion of the delta-flask margin was limited through, the entrenched system were deposited on the slope and bario flanc an cannai
becanse it received only minor amounts of mud supplied by the Louisiana deltas sobmurine channels and fans (Fig. 14). The pediment was subsequently backfiIted,
(Mortor asd others, 1991). Later, dnrirg the middle Fliocene, the monotonous and later the shelf margin was re-established by small, coalescing deltas.
depositino of progressively deeper water mudstones is Tesas was interrupted by an The middle Pliocene oabmaeise pediment in also a conves-taudward feature that is
Lithoutratigruphic CcrrrlalicsrS and Paleocovirootnenlo
The middle Plioceno stratigraphie interval in composed of sand-rich packages an
much at 75m thick nrpurated by mudot050s of variable thickneno (Figs. 19.-17). The
interval cas be subdivided into fose nella on the basis of lithofaciro and stratigraphie
position. Thick mudstoues deposited is lower-slope and abyssal environments
compose the basal unit (Figs. 15 and 17). Overlying these mudntones arr
amalgamated sandstosen deposited io upper-otope environments. These sandstones
are widely distributed within the middle part of the stratigraphie srqnencr. but three-
dimensinoal continuity of individual sandbodien is highly variable. The third
lithefacies unii overlies the tord-pence section and is characterized by mudslones and
inleebedded sandutoors of variable thickness. The uppermost nsit, like the basal unit,
also in composed of lower-slope and abyssal-plain mudotoneo that record a return to
deeper water conditions. Together, Ihn paleobathymeteirs, sandbody geometries, and
stratification types indicate that these deep-mater sediments were deponited by a
submarine channel-and-fun complex.
The sand-rich submarine charnels and fans that dominate the basioal part of the
genetic sequence form a brood band -80 km wide (Fig. 18). They abruptly pinch eut
Most wells penetrating depositisnal ases encounter 301090w of net sandstone,
and a few wells penetrate us much us 180 w of nel sandstone (Fig. 18). Sandstone
thickness is greatest toward the basinmard terminus of each depesitiesal axis, in
palenbathymesric lows, and around young diapirs that postdate sandstone deposition
(Morton and ethers, 1991). Faults aodsaltstruclures on lheslopeeserledtocalcontrol
on sandstone dislribstion, which is reflected in local facies variability around
producing oteadores. Seme large emergent structures trapped the coarse bedload of
tarbidity Currents and prevented deposition farther downstepe. Still other
bathymetric highs merely deflected she seganiand feed er systems and focused their
discharge of sand between growing structures. Reduction er absence nf sandstones
around some domen indicates shut uyodepesitinnal sail structures diverted om sud
created downcurrent shod ow eones. This istrrfereoce with sediment transpon caused
local thinning and shale-out of some potential saudslone reservoirs (Fig. 15).
The sand-peer middle part of the slope system is composed of thin inteebedded
sandotsues and mudosones deposited in nuter-shrif and upper-slope essironments by
shelf-edge deltas and small submarine funs. The fans overlap and coalesce
immediately baninwued of the shelf/slope break, fencing a narrow apron along the
puteomargin (Fig. 14).

Styles of deep-water sandstone deposition 291

LMorton
 D D,

soun° Map a,,,

- w

$ :,,:
_o_g__, OthE
29°I5'
+29nA
JO

60
FAULT
V', 4r

Interbndand nra ana shale

nnn,noet ir nur ne evota
EXPLANATION
Updip limit nf nub,rtrint High Island
o 20 0!
pedimenr ond onlsp wedge Fouir
o
High lslnnd East addn
0 30kO, WetI vonfrol High Island
Contour inter ut I 30 w South ndde
Ftc. IlSeismic profile and interpreted structural cmos sertion illnstrating
Fm. 15.Net thickness of satsdstones within the middle Miocrnc onlap wedge. tithologirn, biostratigraphic markers, and structseal style nf Plio-Pleístucene
Stratigraphie datons io a resistivity-correlation marker hrlow the base nl the sediments, offshore Tesas. Specific features inctsde major enpannion faults, salt -"AGalaestan
sand-rich section. diapirs, and withdrawal synctines. Vertical lines represent nearby melt control.
Location shown in Fignre 12. Modified from Morton und others (1991),
4.

The moot updip part of the onlap wedge, which coincides with the submarine
pediment (Fig. 13), is composed moody of mudstone. The few disconlifluOun
lenliculae sandstone packages, which are inlerbedded with mudstones, consist of
eesedimvnled oster.shelf te lower-slope deposits (zones 3-5). In opdip positions and
toward the lop of the wedge, sandstones become thicker, more continuous, and
display upwaed.coaemning patterns that reflect deposition in peogressively shallower
water.
Seismic Facies
Seismic facïes patterns of the Globoqandrina ateispira nlealigrsphic oeqsence can
be grouped into these distinct cenasen the basis of reflection strength, continuity, and
concordance. The most landward none, which coincides with the submarine pediment
(Fig. 13), consists of high-aosplitade, discontinuous, and divergent rrllrctinns that
unconformably overlie and cascate high-amplimde, conli550ut reflections. Seme
pediment-fill reflections are moonded or wavy and many dip lasdward.
Bmiawurd-dipping clinofoenst are not well developed in the middle Pliocene
sequence and are restricted to updip areas within the enleenched system. Where
ye050us, clin000ems occur near the top of the interval and downlop onto the divergent
and hummocky reflections, mete irregular seismic patterns and geometric
arrongemerin are similar lo those observed in the middle Miocene pediment fill
(Figs. 9 and 13).
Divergent reflections of the pediment fill are replaced basinwoed by alternating
high- and low-amplitude, parallel, continuous reflections, Is turn, these seismic
patterns grade laterally aud basinward into either low-amplilude. parallel, and
conlinuouu reflections ora thin 000e (0.2 sec) of moderate-amplitude, diocontinunus,
huwmocky-to-wavy reflectionn. The zone of discontinuous, divergent reflections
also contains local slump features and areas of chaotic reflections, indicating mass-
transport deposits.
The mostbasinwmd seismic.facies patterns consist of low- te moderate-amplitude,
moody discontinuous reflections. A few high-amplitude centinu050 reflections
commonly both underlie and drape ever the groups of variable-amplitsde
disconlinuous reflections. Fosl-depositiooal deformation obscures any entornal
geometries such as bidirectional dowetup of reflections that would indicate
submarine-fan loben (Mitchum, 1985).
Facieo Arrhiterture, Sandstone Continuity, and Resercoir Potential
Facies architecture and sandstone continuily within the middle Fliocene slope
dcpositv are highly variable owiog to fluctuations in sea level and shifting siten nf
turbidite deposition. The these-dimensional sandstone heterogeneities aro primarily
related to the principal components of the slope nyotem. From oldest to youngest they ont Breaks , 5ec6s5'6w
are loben of the lower submarise fan, submarine channels and leseen nf the upper fan, +27°45'
and the nubmatine-pedimenl fill, including minor shelf-margin deltas. Sandstone
discontinuitien may also be caused by erosional unconfoesnitics that locally remove D,
as much as 120m of section (Fig. 16). O 2Omi EXPLANATION
Puleobathymetey of the Globrquudrina altispira seqoence records a serios of un_0 Cross section - Well control
alteennting upward-deepening and upward-shoatin g events (Figs. 15 and 17). Lower- 0 50km - Seismic line au 3222
slope and abyssal-plain mudstones at the ham of the interval aod immediately above
the Globigerina nepeuthes marker record systematic deepening of the slope. This Ftc, 12,Locutions of well control, seismic lines, and stratigraphie rrnsn
npwurd-deepentog phase of hemipelagic mudseose deposition was related te a nertinns osed to interpret middle Pliocene deep-water deposits of uffnhore Tesan.
regional riso in sea level and highntand (Fig. 2). Thun, these modntones are products
of tranngeessive and highslaod syntemn tracts.
The overlying sand-prose submarine channels and faon, which were deposited in
upper- to middle-slope environments (eones 4 and 4.5), represent a sadden upward
shouting (Fig. 17) canned by lowering of sea levrl coupled with slope aggradation that
exceeded rotta of subsidence. The facies urchitecluee of the lowee towstand fan
consists nf saadstones 61015m thick that hove irregular, spiky tospwaed-coaenening
log profiles (Figs. 15-17). Highest intruwell continuity is exhibited by these thin
sandstone beds of the tower-fan lobes.

MorIon Styles of deep-waler sondslooe deposition 292


ri-
Fis. 13.Line drawing uf interpretad seismic profile illnstrating two'
dimensional genmetry and refiretiun characteristics uf middle Pliueenr
deep-mater deposits. Ibis dip-aligned profile is not adjusted fur sediment
decompaetius. or nnnfaalting defurmatiun. LD = Ias.dward dipping; SD =
seaward dipping. Lucatinn shuwi. in Figure 12.
In contrass to the lower fan, facies arcbitrcluee of dse upper fao in characterized by
aggradational and retoogradational sandstone packages 20 50 60 m thick having
blocky or irregular SP responses that exhibit an overall npwaed-fining and upwaed-
thinning prefije (Figs. 16 and 17). These log pasterns represent sand aggendation
within the upper-fan channels followed by diminished supply of Ilse coarse fraction.
The basal sandstones in these packages commonly eroded into underlying madstenes
of the lower faa (Figs. 16 and 17). Al the regional scale of mapping (Fig. 18), ases
of primary feeder systems can be identified; however, the positions of individual
channel-levee complenos cannot be predicted with great accuracy.
The channel-fill facies has the greatest vertical sandstone continuity but the lowest
lateral continuity (Figs. 16-17). Sandstone continuity decreaset toward the margins
nf she primary anis, where the number and thickness of msdnloso inteehadsincecano.
The interchannel deposits eshibil ireegulur-to-serralo leg responses, reflecting Ihr
greeter abundance of mudstenc tarbidites that accumulated in oveebank and levee
environments (Figs. t) and 17). Modstoses ef the channel-fan comptes aro thick
enoogh te isolate the sandstone beds, creating sepurate hydrocarhaa roseoirs, av
indicated by variable hydrocoehon/water contacts even within the tome well.
The lowstand submarine channel-fan depositi may have ontupped the paleoslope
und pinched nui before reaching the contemporaneous shelf margin, bat such a
relationship is net indicated by composite sandstone continuity (Fig. 18). Sossmsc
facies analysis it alio icconclanivu as to whether nennt the slope sandstones entend
updip and intersect feeder channels osan attached fan system.
Landwardef the lowsiand channels and fans isa Oese of peogeadaijonal saodslones
interpreted toben towstard wedge, using the terminology of Fosamestsee and others
(1988). The facies architecture of the lnwstand wedge consists of aggradaunual,
upward-coarsening sandstones that are 3 109m thick. The boundary between these
upward-coarsening sandstones and the moro bosinward upward-fining sandstones
closety apprenimutes the poleomargis (Fig. 12>. Nearly all mid-dip wells escnunter
sandstone lenses, but sandulone thickness and concentration are highly variable
(Fig. 15). The saud-prone islervalt are moderately continuous because of
overlapping leben and the vertical offnot-stacking areungement of sandy facies.
The return in lower-slope and abyusol motee depths (zones 5 und 6, Figs. 15 and 17>
Morton
and the concomitant hemipelagic madstono deposition at the top of the sequence were
related to a relative rise in seo level. These deep-water mudstesea, which contain the
regionol Globoqsadi'isa oluopit'a esliactien hoeieon (Figs. 15-17). represent
deposita of a t000sgrensive systems toues.
The facies aechiteclare 1h01 charncteeizen the pethment fill (sol shown) consists of
stocked sandstnao packages having mised irregular npward.coarsening and upward-
fining profiles (Morbo sud ethers, 1991). Thicknesses of these aggradutioaal
deposits typically range freto tg 1045m, but they muy bean abichas 105 to. Updip
componesls of the onlap wedge are bockfillisg and aggrodational lower-slope te
upper-ulepe mudubones ahoco the submarine-pediment surface. Theternasdual slump
deposils and tarbidites are overlain by thin, outer-shelf deltaic deposits representing
minorprngradatios of thu"shelf margin" mithin theesteenched sysiem. Together, the
mised upward-fining und upward-coarsening sandstones recerd submarise
entrenchment, slope nggradation, usd deltaic progradotion across the continental
platform.
The slump and luebidite mudstoncs at the bate of the pediment till correspond to
she mounded asd hnmmncky seismic reflections. The shin irregular sandnloses ocean
above lItase divergent reflections, and the upward.coursening interval coincides with
the clinoforms at the top of the pediment fill (Fig. 13). These seismic facies and
lithofacies relationships aro similar lo those of the middle Miocene pediment lilt
(Figs. 9 and 13).
The principal middle Plioceue depositiocal systems responsible foe teansportiag
reservoir-quality sandstones to Ihr slope were a tumstand submarine-fan comples and
a lowntasd shelf-edge delta. The sandstones are composed of floe-framed lo vety
fiso-geaiued quartz with nome micaond feldspar graina. These were the coarsest grain
sizes available becaasc they were derived from multicycle coastal-plum sedimoetn
and mero deposited far from sources of first-cycle sediments.
Sorting of the sand feuclion can be mndeeate to poor depending os energy of the
tarbidily currents und opyoriunitien for removal of the muddy maoiu. Even the
thickest sandslonc beds contain subatontial amounts of primary marris. Despite 1hz
lack of uniform soeling. these unconsolidated sandstones have excellent poro
properties because mosl have becs buried «3 km and have not boca diagonetically
Styles of deep-woler sandstone deposition
ullered. Axa result of these favorable cosditiosn, porosities commonly range from
30 to 35%, and permeabilitira rango from several hundred to several thusnand
millidurcies.
Initial rates of productiva feom iadividual wells can esceed 500 & of Oil and
135,000 m5 of gas per day. Development wells compleand is the channel fill typically
maintais bottee reservoir pressures, have higher yields, and have greater letal
recovery than wells completed in the fan lobos or levees. Production efficienciea
are lower fer fun-lobe und levee reservoirs because heterogenieties disrupt
commnaicalius belween wells, resulting is incomplete draisage.
Many modern and ancient submarine funs were deposited ulong active plate
margins, where high tepogrophic relief and stery-seofloor grudiontv between she
source and basin 000e contribute In the tonsleuclius of coaese-grained radial fanv and
debris aprons (Walkee, 1978; Nelson and Nilsen, 1984). Clearly the upper Neogene
slope deposits of the western Gulf Coast Basiamo peoducts oft) unstable aboyen that
were reduced brtween source and deposilional site by shelf.margin failure und
creation of submarine pedimenln, 2) deposition of mad-rich elongate fans, and
Galunslun South Odds
3) formation of interfun chocada confined by levees that promoted domnnlope
leanspoel nf sasd fieros distances from she shelf margin.
There are distinct similueitiet between the middle Mioceno and middle Plioceno
submarine pedimeutu and deep-waler deposits. Beth submarine pedimenix me wider
than the shelf-embayed purl uf the Mississippi Canyon (Coleman and others, 1983;
Goodwin ned Prior, 1989> eves though the y mero noi fnrmed by principal rivers of
continental-drainage systems. The two pediment surfaces represent the most
prominent nod essensive erosiouul unconfoesnities observed in the upper Neogese
basin fill of the western Gulf Couva Basin. Both anconfoensities wore eroded after
regional marine transgressions flooded the costineubol plalforsn, depositing thick
blankets of deep-waler shale. Both unconformities formed broad, crescent-shaped
submarine pedimeass along nondeltaic slopes sod na the southwestern flanks of
aubjocenl delta systems, ralhee thon at the mouths of mojor rivers. The submarine
yediments spread lsndward arrosa the vubmerged continental platforms by
reteogeevsive fallere of the nhclf margin and prolonged collupvn nf sleep, unstable
slopes, such as those described by Forre and obhers (1983) and Prior and Coleman
o Z5mi EXPLANATION (1978).
The deep embayments Ihal carved mb ahe platform funneled neneshnee sediments
410
km
Dello and slrundpinin, sund rich downslope to mud-rich basiu.000r funs. Sandsionea ansociased with submarine
Slnpe, sand rich channel-levee complexes are the mosa prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs within each
depositionol sequexce. Each backfilled wedge above the unconformity and updip of
Slnpe, mad rich the banin-flanr fana also is composed of deep-water deposito (slumps, fous, and
channel-levee complexes). These slightly younger slope deposils also include same
Flavial dellaic anis aundsbonen of msernnir quality. The sand-prose interval in generally located sear the
Submarine channel - fon guis bosinward part of she onlap wedge ir the middle of the zone of irsvgalar seismic
reflections, rather than al Ihn base as would be enpected foe incision by fluvial
I:. :1 Poleobathymelr)c low channels. The spdip sand-prose facies occurs above the basal mounded seismic
reflectmous and near the transition with overlying horiountal or elinoform refleelionu.
Hydrncarbnns ou neon Unconfised funs deposited basinwued of the shelf edge are generally sand poor.
Fis. 14.Principal depesitional systems nf the Globzguadi'ioa alliapir-a genetic Sandstones associoted with lower-fan deposits may exhibit high lateral continuity,
sequence in the western Gulf Coast Basin. The map represents a compnsite nr but they are generally thin und may have low peemeabilisien because of peor sorting.
subjacent tnwstand systems tracts, teansgresaive systems tracts, and suprajacent In centrant, confined channels of the middle and upper fan uccount for the highest
highstand systems tracts. Mudified from Morton and alhers (1991), sandstone cooceutrulions und benI pore properbien but the buwesb lateral continuity
(Figs. 16 and 17).
293
 5e
4 4e G
G
iu us-pea ssruligssphie dtean

I I. Z4.5 i

I a.
Per I
a-- su nu

Iu
I II
I
I
EXPLANATION
Dy InI. Sov000vn
EXPLANATION
G 0000eo.nI'i,,r un/Ss-fr.
Zn Paneen ,n. 5 M
G sos *111 Sendstsse
G Dry hule Mudsynne Z4.5
un 6/aboqeZOri,,. ama,,,.
Z4 Pnl.eeen asen 4

FIs. 15.Stratigraphie strike Irrsinn 4-4' illustrating middle Plineenr Flu. l6'Stratigraphic strikr section 5.5' illustrating middlr Plinrrne
lithofarien, last ocrurrence nf plaisktnnie foraminifers, and patenecoonnes. ltthufaeies, last occurrence nf plaaktunir foraminifern, and pate0000znnrs.
Loratinu nhown in Figure 12. Location shown in Fignre 12.

Components of both middle Mioceno and middle Pliocene slope systems consist of
1) normal upwaed-deepening slope deposits, 2) a submarino erosional uncosfonnily,
3) submarino channels and facs and slightly yoanger slope deposits IhaL onlap and
baclsfill she unconformity, and 4) progeodutionul deltas that roconstrs,csnd the shelf
margin. Sandstones associaled with nubmaeise channel-levee complenes aro Ihr most
prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs withïn each depositionul sequence. Al the regional
scale of exploration, axes of primary feeder synloms can be idonlifleal (Fig. 18);
however. lhe positions of individual channel-levee complesen ruanos be accuralely
peedicled.
The upper Neogene deep-waler sandstosen are ideal targets for deep-basin
exploration because, in theiroenpnctivr areas, they are the oldest penneable beds with
teals that can be charged with hydrocarbons. Thus, they repensent the liest available
leaps for oil and gas migrating 0010f the basin. These submarine cbaunet-and-fan
deposils are similar lo those of the middle Frio Huckberry Embaymenl (Tyler and
Reistroffer, 1987) and other deep-water embaymeots that ocean throughoul the
Terliary of the Golf Coast Basin. However, Iho middle Mioceno and talo Pliocene
submarine pedimenls and oelap wedges had briefer histories and toss relief, which
resulted in thinner successions of deep-waler sandstones.
Portions nf this reseuech were funded by grants from the U.S. Depuronsens of the
Interior, Minerals Management Service, ander MMS Agreement No. 14-12-0001.
30387. Appreciation is espeesuod to Fairfield Industries and TOO Offshore Inc., who
provided selected seismic lines, and to BP Enploratios, Texaco USA. and Mobil
Exploration and Producing. Inc., mho provided paleoxtologic repos-lu for the sludy.
The manuscript was reviewed by Tacher Hertz und Noel Tyler.
At.rsv, GA., 1972, A pruclicul approuch to defining reservoir heterogeneity: Journal
of Petroleum Technology, v.24, p- 841-048.
Beouvtotr, H. L., Je., 1987, Late Quaternury facies and structure, northern Gulf of
Mexico: American Associulion ofPetroleum Geologists, Studios in Geology 823,
287 p.
Bornas, A. bi, Noesuslnt, W. R., ovo Barons. N. E.. 1985, Submarine Funs and Rotated
Turbidile Syslems: Nom York. Springer-Verlag, 331 p.

Morton Styles of deep-waler sandxloee deposition 294

 ove Goi.i.ow.sv, W. E., 1988, Middle.upper Miecene
6 6' depositionat sequences of the Tesas coastal plain and Continenial shelf: geologic
framework, sedimentary fario,, and hydrocarbon plays: The University of Tenas
al Austin. Bureau of Economic Geology Report of Investigations Nu. 174,40 p.
Soirs, R. H., ovo Jtotc, L. A., 1991, Plie.Pleistocene deponilinnat
u so sequences of the southeastern Tesan conlinenial shelf: geologic framework,
u sedimentary facies, and hydrocarbon distribution: The Universily of Tesas al
Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Report of Ieventigativas No. 200,90 p.
5t,atl,,irsie an
NeLsON, C. H., ANO NtLnvN, T. H., 1984, Modern and ancieni deep.seu fan
u sedimentulion: Sociely of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short
Courue NeIn No. 14,404 p.
Posas,rvemen. H. W., Joovvy, M. T., ovo Von., P.R.. 1988, Eastalic controls on elastic
- dvpesition Iconceptoal framework, in Wilgus, C. K., Hasnegn, B. S.,
Posameotier. H.. Van Wagoner, J., Ross. C. A., and Kendall, C. G. St. C., edn.,
u Gol Sva'Levet Changes: An Integrated Approach: Society of Economic
u
I Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Pablicatian 42, p. 109-124.
Pnsoo, D. B., ovo Cos.vra.ux, J. M., 1978, Disintegrating retrogressive landslides on

IaI
very lom.angle subaqueous slopes, Mississippi dolts: Marine Geolechnology,
y. 3, p. 37-60.
Svu.cv, R. C., 1978, Dipmrlrr and leg motifs in North Sea uubmurine.fan sands:

Ia Z4.0
American Association of Petrelesm Geologists Bulletin, v.63, P. 905-917.
Smrrevn, G. S., 1906, Pleistocene entrenched valley/submarine canyon systrm,, Gulf
of Mexico (abut.): Ameeicun Association of Petroleum Geologists Baltelin, v.70,

I
u
EXPLANATION
p.1189.
STvexvv, C.. 1964, The stratigraphie relationships of the }tackberay, Abhevitte, and
Hueang faanal asnemblagen: Gulf Coast Ansociation of Geological Societies
O un, E-:: Sean,,, Transactions, y. 14, p. 209-212.
O Ony sul. U Uud$t, Tyi.nn, N., neat Rcs,rnorrea. J., 1987, Rrrnploration of usbmarmnr fan and canyon
resrovoir, at Port Arihar (Hackberry) Field, Jefferson County, Tenas: Contract
Report to Ga, Reanarch Institute. Contract No. 5004.217.0924,30 p.

Fia. 17.Stratigraphie strike sentina 6.6' illustrating middle Plineem.r
Iitbofaeies, last occurrence nf planktanir foraminifers, and paleneenannes.
Lacation nhnmn in Figure 12.
Cot.ox,ov. J. M, Pta00, D. B., orooLeco,ur. J. F.. 1983. DomInic intluence, on ,hrlfedgr
inulability prucosurn, in Stanley. D. J., and Moore, edu., The Shrlfbreuk: Cnticul
Interface on Continental Margins: Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists Special Publication 33, p. 121-137.
Ecnos.s, D. J., con Cmerss, D. M., 1973. Faleoniologic evidence for mid-Mioeenr
refrigeration from subsorface marine shames. Louisiana Gulf Coast: Gulf Coati
Ansociation of Geological Societies Transaciioos, y. 23, p. 422-426.
Faeno, J. A., McGoc500, B. A., Rece, W. B. F, ovo Rosa, J. M., 1983. Breaching ihe
shelf break: passage from yoolhfol to motore phuse in submarine canyon
evolution, in Stanley, D. J., and Moore, G. T.,The Shelf Break: Critical Inlerfuce
on Continental Margins: Society of Economic Fateontelogisis and Maneralogists
Special Pablicalion 33, p. 25-39.
Gcu.owsv, W. E., Iront, L. A.. Mouron, R. A.. axe DuRen. J. R., 1986, Lower
Miocene (Fleming) depositionat episode of the Texas coastal plain and
continental shelf: structural framework, facies, and hydrocarbon remaron: The
Univrrsily of Tenas al Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Report of
Investigations No. 155. SOp.
J. B., Bean, J. N., aNn H.srt.v,.m, W. G., 1977, Seinmic ilratigraphy and global
changes in sea level, in Cluytoa, C. E., ed., Seismic SiraiigraphyApptications
io Hydrocarbon Exploration: American Association of Petroleom Geologist,
Memoir 26, p. 49-2 12.
Guouwea, R. H., one Peton. D. B., 1989, Geomrlry and deposilional neqaencea af the Wortton, R. G., 1978, Deop.water sandstone facies and ancient submarine fans:
Misninsippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, V. 59, models for exploration for stratigraphie traps: American Associaliun of
P. 318-329. O 25ml Petroleum Geologists Ballens, y. 70, p. 1189.
lIco. B. U., H.sooevnot., Sven V.sn.. P.R., 1987, Chronology of flactaunng sea levels
siocotheTeiassic (25ømillionyearsagelepresenl): Science,v. 235,p. 1156-1167. O ¡ 40lire
Leaven, P., 1969. Salt lecinoics and Pleistocene siratigraphy on conttnental slope of
EXPLANATION
northern Golf of Mexico: American Association of Felroleam Geologists Salt
BoUdin, y. 53, p. 2431-2479.
Meecoost, R. M., 1985, Seismic espressïon of submarine fans, in Berg, G. R., and s 10091
Woolverton. D. G., Seismic Stealigraphy 2: American Asnocialten of Petroleum
Geologists Memoir 39, p. t 17-136. r-i 00-500ff
Monroe, R. A., Jtonc, L. A., sen Focrre, R. Q., 1985. Deponilienal hiniory. facies ri1 500-l000fl
analysis, and production characteristics of hydeocarbon.bearing sediments.
offshore Texan: The University of Tesas at Austin. Borran of Economic Geology
Geological Circular 85.2.31 p. 00 ¡322:
Fas, 18.Composite net thiekneun nf Glabagaadm'iva altimpia'a ,andntn.men.
Mndit'ied fron, Morton and other, (1991).

Morley Styles of deep.watee sandstone deposilion 295

*mNma....* m__s.. 55Ns
ARCHITECTURE OF THE WINTERS SUBMARINE FAN,
SACRAMENTO BASIN, CALIFORNIA
VICTOR B. CHERVEN
3764 Toronto Road
Shingle Sprirago, Cal(forraia 95682
Ammaoau A biroaochy of aobmnrino.fan aocbitcctoral namorO nod aoatigrrpbic diacontiooitjoa,
rrpoatod th000gh 600 mol aOata, giom far Wiolora Foamarioo, Sacom000to Bmio. Califomia, a
oomplrr ntrosgrapbic aacbitocttoa thot in tho phmaayconool on gan disOibution io moat flotA, mo
f000aoon baa b000 mappad m dolad th000ghorn iodioidoaf gar folds inmodoaato dolait ovar f00 Or
moro towonbipa, ara mom grnoralf y th000gtsoot f50 braie io ordrr to roamior aoaoanoio 000tinuily
atnañouaaeioraandtodoliooatofrnmobloaubonv'oomorntofmovarigraphino,pa Dincootiouihr,
moor from oboioraa amad-acolo rro,ionaf mogocaa to largo-acallo gonmally urorcogoimd mudnt000
blaokoto that aap,ratr Ihr foamntioo oto diacroao ,Oarigaapbic artillo
Fioaa. and aoeond-ordoo olomovo rod dj,eoorinuitirn ojaiblo io corm ioclrcta crona-boddiog ama
and art b000darira dopoairod io 000dy bod fonoa 00dm atoady.flow coodirionn (font ordoo) nod
Boama aoqeancoa dopoaitod rmdrr oaoyiog.flow conditiona (second ordar(. Thiod.mdm olomnnto
iocludomdioidoalanodor000bodndelmoirodbyaadimomgravjtygo.oa Cro,aarcaionaindicatrthat
moaaaandst000bodnaaalocalin rntont aodh000roloriorlyconformablobanrn,botaordgamarioo
aloogmiooromai000lmrfacoa(dtiodrdrdoeoof0iourayrnjdantotioalIymincmaxr,djogya
Sandst000 boda rar ovrrlam by falo boda o, paooiogn of hrmipolagic medotonr (thild-erdor
dincoorinmtirn) that aoducn yormoabdity red gina a amarro charactar to log motilo.
Aooallyrntonnaoobondl000faandatonabothformfomth.mdmchramofraodmomath Stackod
vbonnrin aodmoondn er aopaoarod by focoth.00dm ditoontiouirim croarod by modrraloly rntcvninr
mudar000 blankem that amo acomol morma thiak. Fm lobon aro atm lrogm tifth.00doo bodirn that
comprar atackod ,rqn0000a of fmoth-mdm foatomn. Lobos amo aomaochat oloogato io ahapo rd
ortend loom tha lor000alopo to for noam fan. Lobo, room fad by dolta.trorrr dope chmoelo and mo
tbrckrntiothoappar.t,n000i000ffthamooth,oftho,ochnraarla, Dariogaobaoqornaprogoadarionat
arroto, abaodonodlobaa 0000odtopographiebigbnoothoamafloorthatdinocrrdanbarq000maodimarr
granrly flowa mto adln000a Iowa; tborrfore yoamgm loboa nro offaot.atackod roto the tlaoka of
01dm loboa. Thr 100roatioo coornion mano faro 23 of thom agtoadarioo/abaodonmma cyclra
(dopoaatrooal naqur000al, and olfato atncking of far lobe, ginaa thrar aoqomwm a markedly
ondulation morphology.
Moat lobo, arr bouodad ]ntrrally by oaodgo.ahapod bodioa of mudnamoo thrt form fafth.00deo
dancontromtam m lar ooroasoir. Thr mudotonr blaokrrn that 000011, lobo, aro moor maronne
aaxth.00doodomoarouiuoo bar loran diatioctioo rogional markoobado or rmintinity log,. Filth. nod
atollo-rado, dincootrouitimn arar nor pomrot, h000000a, whom moral md atonally adjacrot Ioboa
conlraoed 0m lobm acarrad tlnongh andar]yiog muda000oa hlnnkaro into oidar lobo,. Coalracod od
nmalgamarodlobmlomrrnomiooaaodrtoorahmu(ajaob.mamalrmrno(d.rcanboogoro,
ofkdomotra,alongdapoairiooalaoika Wfa000nniuolaradloboatharmrmcmrdionaudotooaform
thacrrro oo,00000n thot brrr ,oparato gao-orator contano nod dhlformot prrn,mon. loboa mithin
anodat000 ab000a oppoar tobo io fluid mmmmicatioo.
Thoappormdlonrrmomboraaortho1aogrararcbomaamalolomonoadg.dsthrwintoorFatim
Each of thmar aooeoth.00doo otomano la compoand of arread aaodntonn farola rod many Ina lobos
Tho mmobora mr arpnmrnd by a thick (500e 1ff m) mudatono bbmkrl that ambo 0,cod '-110e km
along noiko,
TheWmrersFoomamiooisacomplex naluoal-gasresoevoiothatproducosfrom moor than
35 (folds in 60 conttot arad southern poolions of 4to Sooraosrnto Banjo, California (Fig. I).
Tho fornaataon an Lato Ceetacoous in ago god moo doposifod as a submarine-fan syslom ut
the baro of a progrodaliooal doltaic obpo (Oamuia, 1981; Chrovear, 1983). Namomos
shalow cbataarelo fed primarily saody nedimeat from 4to dolla front down tho obpo to Ihn
baoin lImar, whero locally sf50 m of codimont aconmulatod (Fig. 2). Aggradation of dro
Chervee
.__a. ........u.s.
Winmoes fan nyolem, coupled with soulltwrstwaed progradation of the coaerlalive Robons
Inland siope nyntrm nod Starkey delta system, foiled the Socrommrlo Basin during theE and
D-2 bonthic foraminiferul coros of thr raely M000loichtiun and 104 10 partial filling of the
noethem Suo Jouqtaia Basin itt talo Ma000ichtiun timo (Fig. 3).
mr Wintrrs Foonratiar in much broudor paeallel to dopooitiorul nteiho 6am it is 100g
e pe,perdicolorto strike (Fig. 2). Thisoveeollgvometay in doeprimarily to the many, though
TaIN epbemeeab, sodimonl-input poiots (f00400 channols) along the easto,r margin of the basin
and in in contrast ro the g000rally olorgate feomolay of individual tedimrob buildups
basiowaod of the months of thrse channels. Simfae elongate bodios have been observed
in the modem Mississippi nod Amazon fana (Bosmu and othros, 1964; Damuth and 060es,
1988), as well coin Ihr anciont Slrvons and Ftigg fans (McFhoenon, 1978; Hrritirr nod
others. 1979), und bavr bren trovad "fanlobos' ne "ctmanool-loveo complosna." Choevoo
and othorn (1990) nommaoizo enamplrs of eloogato fan lobos itt 16 thffeeent fans, and
FiwherandCberven(1989)porcentamodrlinwhichoffuelutockiogofsacoonsinorlorgalo
lobearan prodace eadiol, olongule, or brood laos, depending on otherfucmors snob as basin-
floor topography und foedor-ohanrel migration (Fig. 4). A combination of 1) offset
ssackiog of rlongote lobos, 2) somrroua feeder channels, and 3) dir Ovreolf shape of the
Saceaanenlo foaoaav basin m005nls for the broad nhapo of the Winters fan (Fig. 2).
cl -.
Wrsr,ra
The Wmlres remrvoie consista of rumerom pay zones seporalrd by suoligeaphic mmd
O sleucluoal discontiatoihrs, such an mudslone bedo and lisuic noensal faults. These
51
co doscoohnutsoeo ionge from thin, impornislent, msdstosr paelings between amalgamated
tuobodite bodo lo veny duck, onlensivr, modulare "blaohoto" that deserve membre slams.
Thesandutonebodirsthamaeoboondodbythrsethocoounuinksopananimibeamgeofamle
TIN This scalo vana000 has become opparrot only dating the past fow years, as a result of
detatled strotogruphic coanvlution wook aimed at subdividing the fonnotion into mappublo
osas mothon which rroeevoir trends und hydeocarben migrolios paths could be predicted
Winters Gas (Mosa Verde Esploration und Production Services, 1988). Detailed eoamplrn from this
Fields monk are confidontial, buta general discussion of the various typen of reservoir elements
ood dtsconlormtios and the methods foe their recognition muy sea-vean a starting point fer
unalyrmg ssuhgmphic variabthly in other aabmurioe fans.
20km
10 mi
In doscr.bing msorvoie hel000genoity in unoirot fluvial dopomits, Miall (1900)
pmgrosnrd from small-ooalo features to buego-wulr featuern, sopurntiog them inboasisfold
hteraxchyalreseenoioelemestsonddiscontjsuition. Thopoimarygoalofthepmnentnolume
S rook ana as lo doteernone whethee the faden archilrcsueo of other depositional syolems ran be
s nimatarly deciphered. My observations of the Wintees fan system suggest that reservoir
etemeobu and beusdiog dis000linuities cas be organized iota a sevenfold hierarchy
(Tubbo t). They range from small-scale frataoes that uro evident OOly io ooms to large
aB feawees that are noticeable only ra long stratigraphic croan sections. In this eespect,
'palm sobonrfocr fans nach as the Winters boidgo the gap between ocbceoppiog funs oeil most
modem faoo: smull.tcale features bave been well documented io outcrops cf aocient-fan
depoots, und large-scale foulures bave bren well documented io long mismic linen acronu
modem fam. Subsurface fans are therefore poelicutarly useful for developing fan models
bol bave been neglected in moot models.
Fao. l.Lnratioaa of Wiastrrn gao flntdn in Sara-amonto Barbo, California. Dotlrd lino
separator fields in npper member from those in lower member of Winter, Formation.
Fm. 2.Net.sand isopaeh map nf W'mtrrs Formation (modified from Darein,
1981), Sedimrnt trunspnrt wan generabty northeast to southwest, bnl formation is
elongated northwest to soatbeast, pueabbrl to hanta aufs. Contnnrn a trot. Repriatrd
by permission,
Submorine-fan architecture
296
 Shalt Eeat,
N Tusco 1.Hierarchy of submarine-fan architectural demento and diocontinuitieo
SE slop u io the Winters Formation.

Order Element Discontinuity

Fissi' Bedsets (cross-beddiog. Sol boundaries

boeisootat bedding, ele.)

Secondi Cosets (iotervals is Bouma Coset boaodarien

NEutROS sequence)
Cli WI SW A'
Third' Svdimest gravity flows Bouma E inleevat os hemspolagsc
mud (top); erosional or conformable

Basin
Foaottr5 Channels, wounds 5- tS-m-lhick mod blanket (top);
eeouiooat baso (channel);
conformable base (mound)
Osardoved Lotus
%S

jtpeR WI'9 notinG Lube

Fiftht Fao lobes Mud wodges (laierai>; 000forinoble
to erosional baso

Sioth5 Sandslooe sheets 20- 5omtbick mud blankets

Seventh' Members 50- 100-rn-thick mad blankets

LOWER WINTERS
SWCRRNEWII
Feu. 3.Regional north-southeast structural cross section showing depositional
relationships between Waiters and younger submarine fans to correlative slope and
deltaicsystems (modified from Chrrven, 1983). Stipple pattern representssandstone
unshaded areas represent shale. Stratigraphie boundaries within Roberts Inland
siepe system are represented by solid lines (thick shale marker beds rrprrsenting
o
o
A
Slt Fis. 4.Suhmarinr.fan depositionat model from Fischer and Cbeevru (1989).
Elongate fan lobes imply that sediment transport in longitudinal rather than radial,
bat offset stacking of non-synchronous ohm leads to radial fasi geometry if feeder
channel is relatively stationary and fan o not confined by lateral restrictions.
Confinement by basin margins or basin.tloor uplifts produces elongate fans. Broad
fans also are compmed primarily of elongate lobes hut are fed by many (mostly
non.syncheonous) feeder channels, and arr relatively nnconfined by basin-floor
topography; tbeyaretherefoercomposedofmanyonerlaPpingfan lobes. Wiseteesfan
is of this type. No scale implied.
The following discossion of fas architeciarebegioS with small-scale featores, which are
familiar und require titile docamenIation, aod proceeds to larger scale elemeotu. winch
require mach dala and painstaking analysis md have gone unaddeessed by most woskees.
major sequence bosudaries) and dashed lines (thinner marker bests). Vertical trate
in kilometres and thousands of feel. Datum s-3,000 ft. Stockton fault, at lower left, Firoi.Order Elements and Disconlinuitieo
separates northern San Joaquin Basin from southern Sacramrnto Basin. General
location shown in Figure 1. Reprinted by permission. At die small end of the scale are features thai record local transpoeialiooul und
dcpnnitional processes, such as sets of planar bedding or ripple cooss-heddiog. Them
'° Small-scale festoies that cao unly ho idsotified io coreen outcrop.
'° Enidnotontvrlllotsundcsts0000000lyhrmnppcdonnrpaoeratiofatonoihip.
Large fenrosos thai are enidrot on seismic bees sod urn mappable oner tees of
aqumn kilemvines with covorotioesl ruphysical logs.
Tcuocable fon muny snos of kilumniors alcng depocitionul strike md ferai traut u
few tocs of kit omelets perpendicular io snikr.
lissai-wide fesmeos moppuble ever thousands of square kilomotorn.
seditorstaiy soudures occuo io the BandC iotervals of the Bouma ssqannen, mspectivrly,
and record deposition indie upper- und lower-flow regimen (Fig. 5). Both seodtoron arc
present io Winters coren but less commonly than massive, goaded sandstone. Individual
sets of ceoss-bedditig range from acestimeler or Iwo in thickness and afear coulimetors is
lrsgth to being several cootirneters thick nod longer dise dir diameter of a 10-cm cose.
Bed-mi boaudarim c005istule hssl-adrrmservuie discontinailies and record the passage
of muttipin ripple trains nr muting nf gioino with different hydraalic properties, but no
ebange io general flow regime.
Atthoagh 01,000 Winlern megs have been drilled, <tO have been cored. Hence,
qaastlifative dala rrgardisg tise nifecl of first-order disconlinaitirs on lateral or vertical
poeotityasdprrmnabilityaroananaihalrin,halmany setsatncommosly present within nach
puy rose, suggesting that the effect on gas prodactios is tosati.

Submarine-fan architectare 297

Cherven

Second-Order' Elesne,00 artdDtrvennnuitueo
The various intervals within the Bouma sequence constitute second-order elements
(Fig. 6). These elements ase larger than Lost-order elements, mnging from a few
centimeters in Ilsiclasess for Bouma C andO intervals tomore than ameterinthiclatensfar
Boums A intervals. Each interval records tsstttport and deposition in a particutarpotlion
of the flow eegime, and the boundaries hetween these intervals record changes inflow
regime. In some casos, these boundaries are sharp (such as between Bouma C and E
intervals), and in other cases the boundaries am gradational (such as between the B and C
intervals). In the Urdan Island t)rld, where corns are available from wells that peneteated
rnservoirsltsaseontainntackrdBoumasequeseesmwellasrrsesvoirsthatarrmoeemassivn
and anifoms (primarily Bouma A and B intervals), discontinuitins between stacked
sequences reduce the average porosity and permeability of Ilse reservoir and nigssiftcandy
rrdaceprodaction raurs(WilliamsonnndHill, 1981). flschdiseantinuisiesmayalsoinhibit
production to suhvommercial rutes in other areas, but thin cannot be smdied with present
well spacings of handerds lo thousands of meters and without noms.
Third-Or-do,- Elersesto astdDiocontinnitioo
At dro nest Inert of the hierarchy arr individual sandstone beds. Those commonly
contain error more fans- and second-order elements and arc therefore thicker and mom
estensivo. Thnyrangefromhedsl oe2cwtobedsnrleast3mtlsick. Sedimertatysmtctaerr
indicate deposition from sediment gravity flews. Thin beds cantals mostly Borona Cand
E intervals; thicker beds commonly have athick, nongruded Bouma A interval onerlain by
a thinner B interval (Fig. 7). However, v-mdiographs of the A interval reveal horizontal
Ftv. 5,Cneo sample teem MCO Rmnarern Hastings Ranch #6.22, TSN R2E S22,
showingenamplesnfrsrst.nrdrrarchiteclnealetrmeatsanddineonliaujtjminwinten
Fnrmatinn, Horizontal lamination at lop overtien net of small-scale eronshedding,
which lies on thin mudsrnne hed (black), Mudstnnrbedoverliestsnnsetsnfsmall.ncalr
trough ernvsbedding, Field of view is -4cm,
Cherveu
Fts, 6,Cnee rumple from Citien Service Notan #1, T5N R3E S15, showing
nuosplete Bnama sequence and illustrating nnamplen nf secnnd-nrder elements and
dinetsatinuilien in Winters Fnrmation. Thicknms nf sequence is -10 cm.
Fm. 7Core sequence from MCO Resnoecen Haslings Ranch#6-22, T5N R2E S22,
showing third-ceder elements and discnntinuilies, Dark, laminated or hinturbated
mudstone lenses and thin beds (discoulinuities) separate massive nr crombedded
sandslnne beds (sediment gravity flows), Cardboard tabes replace intervals nf
massive sandstone beds that were removed for cere analysis.
Subesarise-fan urchilodlure
bedding or low-angle planne crow-bedding within as much au 40% of tho interval
(Williamson and Hill, 1981). In sorer cases, layers of modstonc rip-ap dusts, erosional
contacts between medium-grained sandstone and overlying coarse-grained sandstone, re
eones of inverse grading indicate that thick massive beds actually consist nf thinsre,
ansatgussated beds deposited by mnitiplr sediment gmvity flows.
Senic leg pomsities may encood 35% in shallow-buried massive sattdslone beds. Core
p000silies aro semewbul lower, andin the Union Islard field, where the Winters is present
at depths of 3.000m, core analyses of massive. ansalgaeruted beds ïndicutc that porosity
remains fairly constansalbeswecn 19 aod25% (WilliotnvoeandHill, 1981). Pcrtsscabilisy
varies from «10 te >500 md. suggesting that amalgamation muy have morn effect ou
poemeabslrly than on porosity. Atstalgatstaties may therefore produce third-order
discontinsitios that affecl hydrocarbon prodsdlion.
Mudslonc in the Rearen E iolerval or thicker hcmipelagic reudvtsne that overlies
sandstone beds forms third-order discostinailics dial clearly reduce reservoir qualily.
Forosily ranges widely, feom 25% to«3%,incoresofintorbeddedsundsteseandmudstnnc
enatnineal by Williamson and Hill (1981), and permeability is relatively low, avemging
only a few mdfidarcics. Even though they arc relatively thin, the wudstese.saedstcnc
Intervals appear so be modnmtely effective as hydrocarbon seals and are inferred by
Wtlltamsoe and Hill (1981) lobe the main caute for multiple gas-waler contacts iodio
Union Island field.
The lateral entent of Oiled-order elemonts and discontinoitim is difficult to mtimate
because of the uncertainty of bed-to-bed correlations os electric logs. Isolated sandstone
beds thus orear within a thick mudstone interval, sachas that shoves in Figure 8, can be
distinguished (or cossolalcd) with relative confidence, particularly if they see bounded
above and below by distincliec low.eesistivity correlation markers. These markers have
nel becs cored, but they are regionally eelensivr andare thought to comisl of very fase.
grained shale thaI was deposited during regional pauses in sandstone deposition (fersen,
1983).
Cross sections such as thomu is Figure 8 indicate Ibas many third-order elements are
lstrrafly discnnlinsoss and cannolbo correlated between wells,even with 500-m spacings.
Sandstone beds grude laterally into tandy. silly wsdstone, amalgamation is cowmen, and
boduaregenemttypondedis topographic lows adjacent lo highs formed by bars or moands
in underlying beds, leading lo the phenomenon of offset stacking of successive reservoirs.
Offset stacking is ubiquitous anali scales within the formation and is alan widespread is
other submarine-fan deposits (Cherven and Fischer, in prep). Madstone beds that separate
these reservoirs thus form important discontiusities on all wars.
Sume third-order elements, such as beat 3 in Figure 8, aro unusually ostensive. Bed 3
cas be recognircd is >75 wells Overa «275-kot' area. In all of these wclls thin bed forms
asinglcspike onSPlogu, with 000videnceofamalgamation nflwoormorebeds. Itoccuen
within the lower purl of the mudstose interval shown in FigureS, which eutvuds over
thousands of square kilometers and oveelics an Ostensive sandst000 interval ai the top of
Ilse lower member nf the Winters Formation. The madstenc was deposited during
ahandoomescof the lower Winters fas, represenled by dio underlying sandstone, and bed
3 appears to represent a mujer sediment gravity flow during this ubandouwent phase.
Bed 3 reaches a thickness of 4.0 re in a few wells, but in commonly <1.5 re thick
(Ftg. 9). Thickness pottems show a marked linearity 005thng approsimately north-
northwest, parallel loa regional sol nf normal fualls, but even detailed correlotien week
cannot resolve a missing section that coald prove that normal faults were active doting or
just puer su deposition of this bed. This bed producedasmall aiuoael of gua is two wells
near the uydip pinch-out of the hod (Fig. 8).
Fourth-Order Elrreeuto andDircononuitico
Osa noesewlsat larger scale, deposits nf sediment gruvity flow tend to secar in bundles
or packets separated by thicker mudotone intervals. These handles form ovo typos of
architecuosl elements: channels and usoseds. Both range from afew meters le several tenu
of meters is thickness and from hundreds of meters lo «1,000 m in width (Fig. IO).
Thickness decreases dowsfan, bel width increases. Scored channels have been mapped
near >0km in the downfsc direction (Mess Verde Esploratios and Fredudlion Services,
1988).
Rundlesthalconsistofseveralturbidiles separatedbymudsloscform seeratelog motifs,
but amalgamation is common and produces blocky or boll-shuped motifs by the removal
of interbcdded modstone. Charnels have erosional harm 1h01 scour a few metres into
asderlyiog msdstone beds and locally through modsione beds ints underlying channels.
These basal scone surfaces form fourth-order disconlisailies in the reservoir.
Mounds am distinguished from channels by lack of basal scour rod evidence of
sedilneelaty diapo over elevated wound cress, indicating that mounds had lopognuphic
esprossion on the seallrme (Fig. Il). Noto thus wounds cascos be reliably distinguished
fromchanselsonthebusisoflogmolifs. Bolhconsislofthin-beddedfacicsmwollsathick-
bedded (amulgamoled) sasdolose and woald ho difficull to distinguish even in coros.
Abasdoned moaniis diverted subsequenl flows into marginal topographic lows, and offset
slacking nf sandstone bundles is common.
Both mounds and channels are overluin by fourth-order disconlinalhes formed by
mudstone beds thai are commonly 5-10m thick and are laterally moro ostensive than tho
mounds and channels themselves. The thickness of these modulone blankets decreasm
ferre the upper far to dic middle fan, making it moor difftcall to disliuguish bundles on the
middle fan than on the upper fan. Thin decrease in thickness may also affeoc their
effectiveness ashydtocarbon seals because uppor.fas and ulopo.chacnel deposits widen n
single dopositional soquence tend ta have separate gas-water contacts (Fig. IO). whereas
only the topmost channel within a middle-fan sequence is normally productive,
Fifth-Order Elensenso and Oiocostiouitieo
Groupa of mounds and chaocels form 5h11-largos clemenO thut urn separated from
laterally adjacent elements by wedge-shaped bodies of msdstoee (Fig. 12). Them fifth-
erdorelemonts, termed fan lobes, are large bodies that can be leaded for tens of kilomelees
along drpositiooal sinIse and foral leali a few tens of kilometers perpendicular lo strike.
The laogesl lobos arrt «200m thick on the upper f50.
Alita spdiy end, each lobe hasuuureow feederchaseel thaIs shallowly iwised into the
basin slope. Near the base of thy slope, the channel flares abmpdy and the lobo broadens
to sevoral kilometres io the upper-fan ergios (Fig. 13). lo this region, the lebe is thickrnl
andseparatedfrom esderlyingondoverlyinglobesbythickwudsloncblunkets, facililaling
lobe correlation between woEs. These wudstoue blankets are sixth-order discontinsities
thaI drape once more than one laterally adjucenl tobo (see later discussion). Dowefan, both
the lobo und its wudslano blaokets decrease in thicknem. niaking il mare difficult to
differentiate it from overlying cod underlying lobes, bui thelobos appear lo entend unto the
lower fan, where Ihey am tens nf kilometers across. Overall, they are generally elongate
is shape, jsdging from pmpnietary net-saud isopach maps of the sppee and middle fan.
In cross sections, seIning u datum that porways the morphology of a lobo ut the timo
ofita deposition is difficult, depending on the datum chosen, both the upper and lower
surfaces can rango from concave, Io flat, lo convex. Figure 12 circumvents thin problem
by using the upper surface of sedimenl gravity flow 3 of Figures Sand 9 as dro datum.
Because this bed mpcesents a widespread, inslanianceos event und vatios in diickoms by
Cosiisued vs page 300
298
 A'

. DOWNSLOPE THINNING
PONDING IN TOPOGRAPHIC LOW
A
AMALGAMATION 8
OFFSET STACKING
SP SN ASN
#6+
OP LOWER WINT
#2

3rd-ORDER ELEMENT: SEDIMENT GRAVITY FLOW THINNING OVER BAR CREST

(BED #3 OFFSET STACKED IN LOWS
FT ON MARGINS OF BEDS #1 & #2)
4000 FT
20M-floo
1000 M

Fis. 8.Dip-oriented stratigraphie eroso oeclion A-A' of thick mudstoue interval al
top of lower member of Winters Formation. Ibis interval, which rifles upward from
the base as recorded by the teftsvard deflection in short normat (SN) and amplified
short normat (ASN) resistivity curves, represents abandonment phase of lower
Winters fan. Oecasiouat high'density tsrhidity currents durieg this phase are
indicated by thin, generatty dioeoutivaoos sandstone beds (nambered) and tateratty
eqsivatent silty mndstone with moderate resistivity (mont evident on amptiñrd short
normal curves). Dotted liars show correlation of tow-resistivity shale marker beds.
Of the right sandstone beds shown, att are tonal in esimI eseept bed 3, which rauhe
traced over >23 km parallel to regional strike. Some beds arr amalgamated (note
serrate SP log), others are separated by madstone beds that are third-order or higher
order discoatinuities. Normat fastes (indicated by heavy dashed lines) based os.
structure contese mapping. Location shown in Figore 9.

Cherven Submarisc.fan architectoee 299


ISOPACH OF
SEDIMENT GRAVITY
FLOW #3 IFT)
Fsu, 9.Net.naml isopach map ofsandstone bed3 (cf.Fig.11). Note lateral thielmess
changes that noggent infilling of topographic lomo and thinning over highs, perhaps
related to northwest-trending normal faults (dashed irLes denote faults that exhibit
measurable offset). Cossto.sr interval 2 fI (0.6 m).
so more than -3m, ilis reasonable to assume that its upper surface was essentially list at
the lime of deposition. Thesspper suefaceof the tobe is slightly conves, astd the sixth-order
mudnlone blanket neparatsog bed 3 from the underlying tobe hies over the lobe crenC this
Is analogOUs te thinning of fourth-order mudstone blankets over mounds (Fig. 11), and
provides fsetlseeevidencothattheuppersuefacewasconvenattheconclssi000fdeposition.
Acorves uppersuofaceappears tobe thenorm foe Wintors fao lebes(seodiscussiosbetow)
Because lobes, like smaller-scale architectural elements, wem preferentially deposited is
topographic lows lateral te abandoned lobes, the lower surface of most lobes is slightly
concave. The concavity of the basal surface nf the lobe is Figure t2 in exaggerated by the
oricntatiosoftheseclioeobtiqartothrisopachsinFigoret3 (theseclienisevughtyporattel
lo deposilienat strike in the center, but eends upslope at both ends). Note that the baso of
theloheparallelsthe andcetyiogbeds,indicatinglhalititnelnleonglydisceedant(coecave)
or erouionat.
Lobespinch out into marginal mudstone wedges, which have distinctive symmetrical or
upward-coarsening log motifs thaI make them traceable upslope to the nhelf edge (Fig. It,
last two wells on right). The lobes arel adjacent modstose wedges constitute mappable
depositionat sequences (Fig. 14) that are bearded above and below by iuuchronous low-
resistivity marker beds (Pig. 15). Madstone wedges are thickest on the upper slope, where
sandstone bedo ale thin or alimonE Wedges thin dowustope, seda decrease in mudstone
thickness is accompanied by an iucrease in sandstone thickness.
Madstonr wedges forno effective lateral seals between adjacent lobes, as indicated by
offset stacking of gas-productive lobes in adjacenl gas fields (see later discussion).
Sùth-OrderEtrmerar assi Diocrntinaisier
Low-resistivity correlation markers such as those in Figures 8, baud lt car be naced
fer rsaoy lens of kilometers along depositional strike, matting it possible to determine the
steotigraphic position of many fan lobes (Fig. 15). Most nsarker.besnded depositienal
seqarnces cnntain mere than one lobe, and the undulating morphology produced by
laterally adjacent tobes given each sequence a hummocky "ridge and swate" topography
(Figs. 15-17). In sown canes, coeval lobes inlcrfmger, which produces nixth-oeder
sassdstonesbeotsttratnxtondforsoveedkitnmetorn along strike (Fig. tAB, lobe 4). In other
casex,nffvet-ntackedtobesureverticallyamatgamatedatonghasalscoarnsrfaces,pmducing
anaodstonesheelthatismoreestenuivrthareitherlobeindisidualty (Fig. 16B, lobes land
2). Becaam lobeo are thictsest is the upper-fur ergios, sheets aturare thickest in upper-fan
aeeas(Fig. lAB). Frrapstope,drpotitiosalaencensonoven thickeetbanentheappre
fan bat ace dominandy mudslose (Fig. 16A).
Lobes within suaressise naudttene theess am offset stacked, with the eses of younger
lobes situated in the swates between older tobes. Thin is nach a cenasen phenomenon
within nabnsarsttr faon that il can probably be considered the norm (see Cherves and
Fischer, in prep, sod refeecoces therein). Offset stackitog offres clearpreef that lobes form
elevated buildups on the seafloor that direct later turbidity flows into topographic tows.
During subsequent banal, sandstone tobes an more resislant to compaction than are
laterally adjacent mudstone wedges, which enhances the relief of the leben and produces
combioationlopegeaphic.anticinat hydrecaebonlrapstytetitieeaodnthern, 1979; Cherven
and Fischer, in prep).
Lebesarebeuudedbysinth-oedeemudstonrbtasskessthatarrrnmmonlyc2Omthickaud
exteado75kmalaogsttitue. Suodstonehedsamsarewithinthesebtankotuandaregrneedly
dsinandnftimilednntont. Theblankntsarnoeesnallycappndbyuregionatlynnlensivelow-
resistivity madstonc marker bed whose line geais size records the end of the depnnitioeat
sequence.
Offnel slacking nf tobes in mabjacrntseqsences causes gas fields to be sinsilarty offset.
For example, tebe 2 preduces gas in well 23 ef Figure tAB and is laterally offset from
structurally higher predaction in lobes4aud5 in wells ncveral kdometees away. Dty holes
(wrtls2üasd 21)separalcthesctwofictds. Withinindividaatfseldx,offsctstachiegoflobes
(or channels within lobos) peedaces sepasute poo1s (compare well t with wells 2 and Sir
Fig. 10). Sisth-oederdincontiositirsarethereforeseryrffeclivesraln tagosaccumulalioss.
Seceoth-Order Etesnenlr and Disronlinuitieo
At the largesb seule of thvision, a regionally estrnsise low-resistivity marker bed within
a vety thick (50-100 m) wudstenr interval separates the Winters Forwoties mb two
members (Fig. 18). These seventh-order elements comprise a series of sandstone sheets,
eachofwhichiscomposedofoneoemoeefan lobes,andrnctosingmuthtomseblankels. The
lower member contains benthic foraminifera of latest Campanian to early Muesteichtian
age and is correlative te deltoic deposits of the sixth (lowest) member of the Starkey
Formation on the east side of the basin. The upper member contains early Maestrichtian
foraminifres and is correlative so the fifth Starkey sandstone member. The Iwo Starkey
mcmbers rrprrscst separate, major pulses of delmaic progrudation, nod they wear the source
of sediment for the two members smf the Winters Formation. Each Winters member thus
reprvsents one major period of fas growth.
Thotowermewberisvsüom thickinthodepositiosalcenlerofthebasinardconstitutru
the majority of the formation, Il is primarily mudstenr sod thin-bedded sandstone is ib
towerparE sandstonemhertsbecomrmoreabsndantapward. Thebowerpartofthr member
lapsontotheflankofthrCampaoianLathropFonsatioo,which isamuchtargeesubwartse
fan in the northern San Joaquin Basin. The tower part of the formation also pinches outto
the sunk agaiusb a faulted slope that appeals to have formed an esearpmrnt.
As thr topograpttic tow between the Lathrop far and the escarpmenl al the noedsem end
of the Winters Basin became filled, tobes within the lower member migrated soeltsward and
began to onlap the soethrm margin of the basin in response boa simdar migration by the
della system as the easE Netttswaed climb and effsel stacking of tower Winlers sandstone
sharts is evident in the central portion of Figure 18.
A major shelf transgression, prrhaps rustatic in origin, drowned the nisth Starkey
delta sed caused abasdonment of the lower Winters far (Chervos, 1983). Daring dtis
ahandonmrstphase.asmuchas l00mofmadstonewasdrpositedosthrupperfas. Several
sediuseat gravity flows also deposited fairly thick lacbidites during thin interval, bol these
ars loo thin tobe secs in Figure 18.
Whrn traosgressios ended and progradation resumed, the slope migrated basinward and
partially buried the lower Winters far. The depocesterof tho appor member Was lies west
ofthedepoceotoroftbeboweemrmber. Likewise,fastieldsinthruppermembergeneeatly
lie mesI of those in the tower member.
Lobes and sandstone sheets iv the upper member am smaller than those in the lower
member,probabtybecausethebasin wasshaltowingardshriokiogardmorrnedimestwas
being retained in deltaic compleoes. As in the lower member, a genced noethwaed
migration of lobes is evident through time.
Basin fdling allowed dIe upper member te ontap the northern macgin of the basin beyond
the pinch-out of the lower member, and many thin and isolated slope channels are gas
productive is this sorthrm area (norrIs end, Fig. 18). Some of thme are snutigraphic amps.
but upper Wilsters gas fields ase more highly faulted than ore lower Winters fields
(Edmondson, 1980; Mesa Vords Exploratian and Production Services, 198g). Most
prospectgrnnrators draw extremely comptes fault patterns oc their maps, but welts rusxly
pearnute faults and mosl mapped faults are based on prodnetion anomalies, variations in
contour spacing. or seismic anomalies, muchas breaks indip or bnighl spots, and should be
considered questionable. Some faults are andoabtedly real, and a few of them are showu
in Figure 18. Some ter high-argtr normal faults thaI estend completely through the
Winlern Formation sed are down to the northeast; ethers see down to the southwest. Other
faults are lislete and sote out ioto shale buds within or below the Winteru. Lisnie faults
appear tobase controlled the pomitios of the shelf edge during much of upper Winters
deposition, as in the central portion of Figure 18. They are probably duelo slope failurr.
Some appen Winters tobes liest the foot of the faulted slope; than the faults played a dual
role by localizing the reservoir and forming the struclural leap. Cmm-fault migration
occars where rffsets are small sod sandmtene beds remain in contact aemss the fault, but
Is wont cases It appears that even a few meters of displacement that creates sand-against-
shale contacts cas form se effective discontinuity that allows gas entrapment on the
dowrsthrows bloch.
The ntain eonclasien of this study in that the hierarchical orderofarehileelaral elements
and dincestinsitirs eceognized in the Winters far,whomc intemal architeclare im among the
best known of any modem or arcieni fans, ese serve amas aralog forother farm regardtrss
of mectonte setting, frrding wecharism, sedimrmt toad, eroverall far shape. Architectural
elements and diveontinstiies like those in thc Wiutres fus should be present is most
other submarine fars. This im becaane, despite in active-margin melting, delluic source,
dominardy sasdy monture, and brood shape, it shares anc iosportant aspect with other
relatively welt known but otherwise dissimilar fans such as the Mississippi, Amseon, and
Stevens: all are composed of a multitude of isolated to partially amolgamatod, elongate
sandstonelobeslhalitnplytliatsedimentthspersat isnurmallylongitsdival,thatin,atahigh
angle Io depositienal strike. These lobes form elongate reservoirs that am offset mlacked
sed arr encased is mudstanr that forms au effective seat for hydrocarbeas.
In the Winters fan, these seats separate the reservoir sandstones into numerous
slratigraphically tropprd pools. Pinch-out trapn form at the upthp ends of slope and far
channels within far tobes, ard gromorphie.anticlinol naps develop os the crests of
anticlioes formed by compaction of mudslone bodies lateed to mounded far lobes. Theme
traps are secondarilyoffecled by syndepositional aodpostdepositiosal faults, which dissect
the reservoir assi probably decrease the sire of seotigraphic traps, bub may also create
additional structural traps. Carefol stratigraphie analysis of the formation yields detailed
mapsofproductivrardprarprctivrfontobesardthethscontiouitiesthtelocaliregaswithin
them. Thin approach should be useful is ether fans if detailed stratigraphie data sachan
electric-log markers. paleontologic assemblages, or high-resolution seismic data arr
available for suMividingthr fan intoeomponrnttarge-scalrarnervoirelemrnts, such an fan
lobes, sandstone sheets, wadstonr blankets, and members.
A second conclusion is that trap distribution is primarily a reflection of reservoir
discontinuity. Discontinaitiem within the Winters far ocean ut all scales, ranging from
small-scale erosional cootacts Ihuthave hade or so etfectes trap distribution sed roservoir
quality, Io mrdium- sod large-scale features such an imponorablr mudstooe blankets and
high-anglr assi listric normal faults that cenate traps or medify their tier and geometry.
Intermediate-scale discostinuities, mach as thin msdmtone beds sed lenses within more
massive sandstone beds, creato internal permeability borrirrs sed lower the overall
reservoir quality of peeducing coses.
The author thouks Witliano Atobrose, Seen Hamlis, and Noel Tylre for their reviews,
which led to substantial improvements in the original marusceipl.

Cherven Submarine-fan archileclurn 300

 B 5
DATUM HI
4th-ORDER ELEMENTS: CHANNELS
G AS
WATER

4thoRDER D MULNKETS
'SCONTINO! BASES

-
lOO FT

ISOPACH THICK OFFSET STACKING ISOPACH THICK 15 M f 2000 FT

DATUM -7500 FT
500 M

500 FT
lOO Mf
GAS
STRUCTURE SECTION I
0001 FT
WATER
NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION
2O M

Fis. 10.Stritce-orientedstratigraphicandstructuralcrosssectionsß-tVacrOssgas- gas-water contacts and reservoir pressures. Low-resistivity mndstone markers
bearing slope channes(fonrth-ordee etemrnts) in WrstThornton gas field, T5N R4E. separate the formation into severat depositional sequences, and more than one
Erosional bases und mud blankets npto -10m in thickness form discontinnities that channel is present within most sequences. Location of section is confidential
separate different sandstone.chaneet deposits into discrete reservoirs with unique

Submarine-fan architecture 301

Cherven
 NO THINNING OVER AXIS
SP SN QSN
THINNING OVER
C C,
MOUND CREST

#23
- 4th-ORDER
bSCONTINUITIES:
5-TO 1O-M-THICK
MUD BLANKETS
MAT ION
ErostIloxol SEQUENCE #22
CHAN NEi
BASAL EROSION EROSION DUTUM: 0000EO #21

- #20 ... ....

4th-ORDER ELEMENTS:
+................
t.,...........I CHANNELS & MOUNDS NON-CHANNELIZED MOUND
ISOPACH THICK
FT
SEQUENCE #22 4000 FT
20M_[loo
OFFSET STACKING
1000 M
ISOPACH THICK
SEQUENCE #21

Ño. ll.Strike-orientcd straligraphic cross section C-C' across lower Slope

channel and monnd sandbodies (fourth-order elements) in depositional sequence 22.
Both types of bodies exhibit a variety of log motifs, examples of amalgamation, and
rapid pinCh-outs into adjacent mndxlone, but npper and lower dioCuntionigies are
different for the two types of elemento. Location in Figure 14.

Cherven Submarine-fan architecture 302

 SP SN

D
DATUM TOP SANDSTONE BED 03

6ttr0R0 DISCONTINUITY:
4thORDER
---qK
ASN

20- TO 50 M T
ELEMENT: CHANNEL
MUD BLANKET

5th-ORDER ELEMENT: FAN LOBE 5th-ORDER

DISCONTINUITY:
MUD WEDGE

- 200 FT
50M-

6000 FT
2000 M
Fia. 12.Strike-oriented straligraphic crosssection D.Dacross upper-fan portion
of one fan lobe at top of lower member of Winters Formation. Datum is top of
sandstone bed 3(5er Figs. Sand 9). Lobe formo fifth-order riemeut, composed bere
of several partiafly amalgamated fourth-order upprr-fan channrls and mod-blanket
discontinuitirs. SPis the Spontaneous Potential curve, and SN and ASN arr the churl
normal aud amplified short normal resistivity curves. Location in Figure t3.

Submarioe-fan architecture 303

 +
Bouvsu. A. 01., Snns.rsvo. C. E., ovo Cot,evtors, J. M.. 1984, Mississippi Fas: ioteznul
structure atol drposilional prareows: Geo-Marise Letters, v.3.p. 25-31.
Conovcv. V.B.. 1983,A drlsa.slopr-submaeine fao model foriho Maesseichtianpaetofthe
Great Volley Sequence. southern Sscramenlo sod ooethern Sao baquio Basins,
2Ml Colifoessia: Asoeeicos Associsli000fPetroleumGrologislsBuiletiss, o. 67.p. 772-816.
Fiscuvo. P. J.. arco Horma, C. W..1990, Offset stackiog of eloxsgste lobes:
3 KM primary cootmt on entrevoir geometry in submarine fars: (absL) Amreicau
Association of Petroleum Geologists BuSetiu, v.74, p. 627.
ovo Ftscono. P.J..tn prep.. Fas Growth by offset sluctciog of elongate lobos:
esasoples sod play coocepts from modem sod socicos submarino fars: American
Association of Pruoleum Geologists Bulletin.
Dosxceo,J.E.,Fs.000,R.D.,Kowssxvvcv,R.G.,Bm.ovosov,R.1j,ovoGonro,M.A., 1988.
+ Auatomy and gsowtts pollees of Amazes deep-sea faa us revealed by long-rasge side-
SLOPE CHANNEL scan noose (Gloria) aud high.resolotioo nrivmic studies: Aetreicuss Associatios of
Poleoloom Geologists Bulletin, v.72, p. 885-911.
Eorzov000ns,W. P., l980,MrmbrrsuodsoftheWisseesFomsatioo: American Association
of Petroleum Geologists, Pacific Sectieo Proprios, 20p.
Fucssoss, P. J., ovos Ctmnvve. V. B.. 1989, Fun growth by offset slacldsg of elongate lobes:
examples frnm modem und ancient subosarioe foot (obst.): Americas Associatios of
Petroleum Grologiots Bulletin, v.73,p. 538.
+ Gonss.s, R., 1981, Depositiooul systems und their relationship to gus accumulatios io
the Sacrutnento Valley. Culifomia: Americas Association of Petroleum Geologists
BaUdio. v.65, p. 653-673.
Hoomvs, PE., Losttot.. P., orso Wwestvn, E.. 1979, Frigg Fieldlarge submarisr fas trop
in tower Eoceoe reeks of Needs Sea Viking Gmben: American Association of
Petroleum Geotugists Bulletin, v.63, p. 1999-2020.
McFvvosov. B. A., 1978, Sedimenlation und tmppiog mechaoism is opfer Miocrne
+ Steveos and oIdor turbidile fans of sootheastem San Jouquin Valley. California:
FAN LOBE American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bullrtio. v.62, p. 2243-2274.
Mess Vvoov Exrs.on.ssiov cOos P000ucnov Svovnccs, 1988, A study of the Upper
NET-SAND SOPACH CsetaceossWinteesFoemsttonin the Sucratsseoto Basis 0f California: Unpubl. report.
(FT) 132 p.
Mtau., A., 1988, Reservoir heterogeneities in Saved sasdstooes: lessons from outcrop
studies: Americas Astociotion of-Petroleum Geologists BaUdio, v.72, p. 682-697.
Wn.s.t.ssxnors. C. R.. orso 1-ltu., D. R.. 1981, Ssbmarisse-fast deposition of the Upper
CmlaceousWiulersllondslooe.Unionlslatsdoaspield.SacmmeotoVagey.California.
+ ir Siemers, C. T., Tillman. R. W., sod Wilhumvon, C. R.. mis.. Drep.vvuter Clastic
+ SedimentsA Core Woskskop: Secietyof Economic Puleonsologisls sodMioeraiogists
Core Workshop No.2, p.77-ItS.

SOC '09

Pto. 13.Partial net-sand isopach map of fax lobe shown in Figure 12. Lobe ix
cnrrently not mappable on middle and lower fan owing lo sparse well conlrol and
amalgamation with undeetying lobes. Bifsrcation of 500-ft isopaehssggrslsdownfao
branching into two lobes, perbapn doe to diversion around u central topographic high
canned by a lobe in an ondeelying depositional sequence.

Cherven Sobmarive-faS urchilnclure 304

 30y
CHANNEL

SLOPE

200
IGROSS INTERVAL

NET SAND
8000 FT
N $f s'\
OUND 2000 M

Fm. 14.IntorvI and oct-tond ioopach maps ofdcpositioot oeqoenco 22 (Fig. 11).
NotedowoutopetbimoiogofslOpe modotooe accompanied by downslopo thickrning of
fon sandstone. Contoor interval 25 ft (7.6 m) for the gross interval mop and 25 ft
(6m) for the net samt mop.

.*ø-s
Cherveo Submarine-fan architecture 305
adUUSR SSa**
1.7 KM 7.5 KM 1 2.3 KM 1.8 KM I 0.8 KM 0.6 KM 1.0 KM I 8.9 KM I 3.2 KM 2.6 KM I 0.9 KM 1.5 KM 0.3 KM 0.8 KM 2.3 KM 0.8 KM 0.5 KM I 0.3 KM 0.9 KM

M FT
-200
50-
NO HORIZONTAL SCALE

r,

FAN LOBE
a

FAN LOBE

r
MMN?N Ç c__i
ZJ.. ce::

Pto. 15.Amplified normal res ti ty-log correlation diagra.n showing log motifs
of distinctive low-resistivity marker beds mod to subdivide Winters Formation into
depositionol sequences (chronostratigrophic nnits). Section oriented nearly parallel
to depositionol strike of the sequences shown. Note thinning and draping of nome
sequences over fan lobes in underlying seqoeoces. Same logs as used to construct
Figure 16A, und heavy lines denote markers used in both ligares. Total length
IÇ
-
of section -40 km. Location of section is vonlidentiaL Diagrams such us this
constitute the principle evidence for fifth- and sixth-order elements and are the basis
for cross seCtions such vs those in Figore 16.

Cherven Submarine-fan architecture 306

 E

#2 C:MIDDLEFAN
AMALGAMATION

6th-ORDER DISCONTINUITIES 20- TO 50-M-THICK MUD BLANKETS

F THINNING OVER
LOBE CREST

B: UPPER FAN F

#1 5th-ORDER DISCONTINUITY:
i:
MOO WEDGE

' 6th-ORDER ELEMENTS: SANDSTONE SHEETS 5th-ORDER ELEMENT: FAN LOBE

BOt,t0530 Lto,: OCiO Of LOb, #3

i
G tO
A: SLOPE CHANNELS -400 FT
50 M -
G'
8000 FT
2000 M

Foc, 16.Strike-oriented stratigraphic cross sections across (A) stope and

(B) topper fan and (C) middle fan, showing fats lobos (ñfth.order elements) and sheet

#1
I sandstones (sixth-order elements) composed of two or more lobes. Note offset
stacking and amalgamation of lobes and thinning and fining of lobe sandstone Onto
flanks of topographic highs formed by lobes in underlying deposilionat sequences.
Low-resistivily markers )unmbered as in Fig. tO) are hif bty reliable on slope und
upper fan but disappear on middle fan doe tu downfan thinning of alt deposilional
sequences, amalgamation of seqoences, and sparse well control. Vertical
eSaggeration 205. Locatiou is conSdrotial.
B

A ::::::: 500 Mf 2000 FT

8000 FT
2000 M

Fao. 17.Reduction of Figures 16 A sud B showing slope channels (A) and upper-
fats lobes (B) at 2l vertical exaggeration. Blank intervals arc mudstonr, dotted lines
denote marker bedsaud black intervals denotcsandstone. Note decrease in thickness
of all depositional sequences from slope to upper fan but tremendous increase iu saudi
shale ratio.

Cherven Submarine-fan architectare 308

 NORTH 7th-ORDER DISCONTINUITIES: SOUTH
50- TO 100 M-THICK MUD BLANKETS

1500
5000
STARKEY FORMATION

0 10Ml

0 10KM
2000
7thORDER ELEMENTS: MEMBERS
7000 -

SACRAMENTO SHALE
LUPPER WINTERS

8000- 2500
LU
o,

n)
I-
- 9000-

10,000- 6thORDER ELEMENTS:

SANDSTONE SHEETS
/ z 5th-ORDER DISCONTINUITIES
MUD WEDGES
3000

6th-ORDER DISCONTINUITIES:
20- TO 50-M-THICK MUD BLANKETS
11,000' Ftc. 10.Strike-oriented structural cross section from near northern end 01
Winters depoxilional basta (T12N) to Stockton fault (TOS) separating Sacramento
Busm from San Joaqem Basin (location shown in Fig. 1). Only selected marker bedo 3500
and fanitx are shown for simplicity. Gua symbols shows! next ta producing eones. LATHROP FORMATION
Thick (100 m) mndstonc blanket (short dash pattern) formo se crush-order discontinaity

12,000-
that separates Winters Formation into npper and lower members (seventh-order
arcbitectnral elements), eacb of which is composed of several sixth-order sandstone
FORBES FORMATION It
sbeels, each of which contains a few fifth-order fan lobes. Note amalgamation and
offset slacking of fan lobes. Also note northward ontap of lobes und sheets and overall
tendency of lobes lo migrate northward over time. Thu section lies west of main gas
belt in lower member; hence, alt producing eones shown hcre are 'n upper member.
13,000 - Correlation of Luttsrop Formation lo basal Winters Formation is somewhat 4000
uncertain owing to lack of deep weil control in central portion of cross section.

Cherven Submarioe-fon architecture 309