PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Q1

In an individual atom, electrons exist in discreet energy levels, occupying the lowest energy states
first and filling out toward higher energy as those lower states have been filled. In molecular
substances, these energy states cannot exist at the same level as each other due to the Pauli
exclusion principle, so they spread out into bands.

In an insulator, the distance between the valence band and the conduction band is very large,
meaning that a huge amount of energy is needed to liberate an electron, which allows electrical
conduction. In a metal, the valence band and conduction band are so broad that they overlap,
meaning that electrons can move freely between the valence and conduction bands. All that is
needed to induce current in such a material is to apply a voltage difference across it.

Once a voltage difference is applied to the metal, an electric field will be generated which points
from the positive terminal to the negative, and electron flow will be opposite this, toward the
positive. This is a result of the electrons moving toward their lowest available energy states.

Q2

In solids, the valence band is the highest energy band that electrons will occupy at zero kelvin. Above
zero, electrons will temporarily occupy higher energy states when excited thermally or otherwise,
which gives rise to the concept of the Fermi level (the non-quantised imaginary energy level where
there is a 50% probability of finding an electron at a given temperature).

The conduction band is the band above the valence band where an electron (if given enough energy)
is able to become mobile within a solid and conduct electricity.

In an insulator, the valence and electron bands have a large separation, making it extremely unlikely
that an electron will be liberated and become mobile. Semi-conductors have a much smaller
bandgap, allowing easier liberation of electrons with varying temperature. Conductors have
overlapping valence and conduction bands, meaning that they have a constant supply of mobile
electrons ready to conduct electricity.

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Q3

a)

We know that:

𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑛 = 𝜎
Where:

𝑛 = electron/hole density

𝑒 = electron charge

𝜇𝑒 = electron mobility

𝜇𝑛 = hole mobility

Solving for 𝑛:
𝜎
𝑛=
𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇𝑛 )
Subsitute in given values:

𝑛 ≈ 1.6 × 1016 𝑚−3

b)

Using:

𝜎 = 𝑒(𝑛𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝜇𝑛 )
For the Phosphorus case:

𝑛 = 1.6 × 1016 + 1022

So:

𝜎 ≈ 224Ω−1 𝑚−1
For the Boron case:

𝑝 = 1.6 × 1016 + 1022

So:

𝜎 ≈ 80Ω−1 𝑚−1

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Q4

a) The Fermi-Dirac function is:

1
𝑓(𝐸) =
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓)/𝑘𝑇 + 1

Where:
𝐸𝑓 is the Fermi level energy.
k is Boltzmann’s constant
T is temperature in K

b)

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

c)

d) In the N type semiconductor, we expect to find a high concentration of electrons in the

conduction band, and a minority of holes in the valence band.
e) At low temperatures, the Fermi-Dirac function shows that there should be few electrons
above the Fermi level, with bands below the Fermi level being mostly filled. At high
temperatures, the Fermi function starts to overlap with the conduction band, allowing a
larger number of electrons to find their way out of the lower energies and into the bands
above the Fermi level.

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Q5

The work function in a solid is the energy required to liberate an electron to vacuum from the Fermi
level of the solid. That is, for an electron at the Fermi level, a photon carrying at least energy equal
to the work function for that atom would be needed to fully liberate the electron.

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Q6

Schottky diode in equilibrium

Schottky diode under forward bias

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Schottky diode under reverse bias

At the barrier, electrons in the conduction band of the semiconductor flow into the metal to achieve
a lower energy state. This has the effect of reducing the electron density in the conduction band,
moving the Fermi level closer to the valence band. Since the Fermi level is drawn as constant in
these diagrams, the bands must bend to show this.

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PHTN221 Assignment 2 40607860 Christopher Bagnall

Note:

All diagrams drawn by Christopher Bagnall using MSPaint.

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