BA5105 – Organizational Behavior

UNIT II
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
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 Foundations of Individual Behavior
Individual Behavior
Caused by

Individual Situational
Variables Variables

Socio –
Physiological Organizational
Psychological Job Variables
Variables Variables
Variables

1. Personality
2. Perception 1. Organizational
1. Intelligence
3. Learning Structure
2. Physical 1. Job Nature
Ability 4. Attitudes & 2. Organizational
Process 2. Work
Values
3. Age Environment
5. Motivation 3. Organizational
4. Gender Culture
6. Emotional
Intelligence
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What is Personality?

 When we talk of personality, we don’t mean a person has

charm, a positive attitude toward life, or a constantly smiling
face.
 When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a
dynamic concept describing the growth and development of
a person’s whole psychological system.
 Gordon Willard Allport said personality is ―the dynamic
organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his unique adjustments to his
environment.‖
 Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s
behavior.
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 Personality Determinants
1. Biological Factors
 An early debate in personality research centered on whether an
individual’s personality was the result of heredity or of
environment.
 Heredity refers to factors determined at conception.
 Physical stature,
 Facial attractiveness,
 Gender,
 Temperament,
 Muscle composition and reflexes,
 Energy level, and
 Biological rhythms
 The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of
an individual’s personality is the molecular structure of the
genes, located in the chromosomes. 7
 Researchers in many different countries have studied
thousands of sets of identical twins who were separated at
birth and raised separately.
 One set of twins separated for 39 years and raised 45 miles
apart were found to drive the same model and color car.
 They chain-smoked the same brand of cigarette, owned dogs
with the same name, and regularly vacationed within three
blocks of each other in a beach community 1,500 miles away.
 Researchers have found that genetics accounts for about 50
percent of the personality similarities between twins and more
than 30 percent of the similarities in occupational and leisure
interests.
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 Brain: The second biological approach is to concentrate on the
role that the brain plays in personality. Though researchers make
some promising inroads, the psychologists are unable to prove
empirically the contribution of human brain in influencing
personality.
 Physical features: A vital ingredient of the personality, an
individual's external appearance, is biologically determined. The
fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will
influence the person's effect on others and this in turn, will
affect the self-concept.
If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity,
they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could
alter them. But personality characteristics are not completely
dictated by heredity. There are other factors, which also influence
personality.
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2. Cultural Factors
 Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality
formation are the culture in which we are raised, our early
conditioning, the norms among our family, friends and
social groups and other influences we experience.
 Traditionally, cultural factors are usually considered to make
a more significant contribution to personality than biological
factors.
 The culture largely determines attributes toward
independence, aggression, competition, and cooperation.

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3. Family Factors
 Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person
can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which
selects, interprets and dispenses the culture.
 Siblings (brothers and sisters) also contribute to personality.
 A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the
overall home environment created by the parents, in addition to
their direct influence, is critical to personality development.
 For example, children reared in a cold, un stimulating home are
much more likely to be socially and emotionally Mal adjusted
than children rose by parents in a warm, loving and stimulating
environment.
 The parents play an especially important part in the identification
process, which is important to the person's early development.11
4. Social Factors
 Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires,
from the enormously wide range of behavioral potentialities that
are open to him or her.
 Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and
her new infant.
 After infancy, other members of the immediate family – father,
brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social
group – peers, school friends and members of the work group,
play influential roles.
 Socialization process is especially relevant to OB because the
process is not confined to early childhood, taking place rather
throughout one's life.
 In particular, evidence is accumulating that socialization may be
one of the best explanations for why employees behave the way
they do in today's organizations. 12
5. Situational Factors
 Human personality is also influenced by situational factors.
 The effect of environment is quite strong.
 Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and
represent important modifications of behaviour.
 An individual's personality, while generally stable and
consistent, does change in different situations.
 The different demands of different situations call forth
different aspects of one's personality.
 It exercises constraints and may provide push.
 We should therefore not look at personality patterns in
isolation.
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Personality
Types

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Andrea Jung, chairman and CEO of Avon,
scores high on all personality dimensions of
the Big Five Model. She is sociable, agreeable,
conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to
experiences. These personality traits have
contributed to Jung’s high job performance and
career success. Since joining Avon in 1994, Jung
has led a dramatic turnaround of a company
that had a poor image, slow growth, and
decline in sales to one of the world’s top
cosmetics companies and the world’s leading
direct sales brand. She transformed Avon by
developing and executing growth strategies,
launching new brand initiatives, and developing
earnings opportunities for women worldwide.
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Big Five Model A personality assessment model that taps five
basic dimensions.
a. Agreeableness – A personality dimension that describes
someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting.
b. Conscientiousness – A personality dimension that
describes someone who is responsible, dependable,
persistent, and organized.
c. Emotional Stability – A personality dimension that
characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, secure
(positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure
(negative).
d. Openness to Experience – A personality dimension that
characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity,
and curiosity.
e. Extraversion – A personality dimension describing
someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive. 16
Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria

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Other Personality Traits
i. Core Self-evaluation – Bottom-line conclusions individuals
have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a
person.
ii. Proactive Personality – People who identify opportunities,
show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful
change occurs.
iii. Machiavellianism – The degree to which an individual is
pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that
ends can justify means.
iv. Self-monitoring – A personality trait that measures an
individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external,
situational factors.
v. Narcissism – The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose
sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and
have a sense of entitlement.
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Personality Theories
1. Psychoanalytic Theory: (Dr. Sigmund Freud)
 The goal of psychoanalysis is to bring that which is at the
unconscious or subconscious level up to consciousness.
 Models of the Mind
a. Id: the id operates entirely at an unconscious level and
focuses solely on basic, instinctual drives and desires.
According to Freud, two biological instincts make up
the id:
i. a. Eros, or the instinct to survive that drives us to engage
in life-sustaining activities.
ii. b. Thanatos, or the death instinct that drives destructive,
aggressive, and violent behavior.
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b. Ego: Acts as both a conduit for and a check on the id,
working to meet the id’s needs in a socially appropriate way.
It is the most tied to reality and begins developing in
infancy.
c. Superego: Portion of the mind in which morality and
higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and
morally acceptable ways.

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2. Socio-Psychological Theory
 Asserts that individual and society are interlinked.
 This means, an individual strives to meet the needs of the
society and the society helps him to attain his goals.
 Through this interaction, the personality of an individual is
determined.

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 The Socio-Psychological theory is the contribution of Adler,
Horney, Forman and Sullivan.
 This theory is also called as Neo-Freudian Theory because it
differs from the Freud’s psychoanalytic theory in the following
respects:
 According to this theory, the social variables and not the
biological instincts, are the important determinants in shaping
the individual’s personality.
 Here, the motivation is conscious, i.e. an individual knows
what are his needs and wants and what kind of behavior is
required to meet these needs.
 Thus, the theorists believe that socio-psychological factors, i.e.
the combination of both the social (family, society, wealth,
religion) and the psychological factors (feelings, thoughts,
beliefs) play an important role in shaping the personality of an
individual. 27
3. Trait Theory
 Asserts that an individual is composed of a set of definite
predisposition attributes called as traits.
 These traits are distinguishable and often long lasting quality or a
characteristic of a person that makes him different from the
others.
 Allport’s Trait Theory: According to him, the personality of an
individual can be studied through a distinction between the
common traits and the personal dispositions.
 The common traits are used to compare the people on the
grounds of six values, such as religious, social, economic,
political, aesthetic and theoretical.
 Besides the common traits, there are personal dispositions
which are unique and are classified as follows:
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a. Cardinal Traits: The cardinal traits are powerful, and few
people possess personality dominated by a single trait.
[Mother Teressa’s altruism - selfless concern for the well-being of
others.]
b. Central Traits: These traits are the general characteristics
possessed by many individuals in the varying degrees.
Such as loyalty, friendliness, agreeableness, kindness, etc.
c. Secondary Trait: The secondary traits show why at
times, a person behaves differently than his usual
behavior. Such as a jolly person may get miserable when
people try to tease him.

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 Cattell’s Trait Theory: Raymond Cattell. According to him, the
sample of a large number of variables should be studied to have
a proper understanding of the individual personality.
 He collected the life data (everyday life behaviors of individuals),
experimental data (standardizing experiments by measuring
actions), questionnaire data (responses gathered from the
introspection of an individual’s behavior) and done the factor
analysis to identify the traits that are related to one another.
 By using the factor analysis method, he identified 16 key
personality factors:
a. Abstractedness – Imaginative Vs Practical
b. Warmth – Outgoing Vs Reserved
c. Vigilance – Suspicious Vs Trusting
d. Tension – Impatient Vs Relaxed
e. Apprehension – Worried Vs Confident
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 f. Emotional Stability – Calm Vs anxious
g. Liveliness – Spontaneous Vs Restrained
h. Dominance – Forceful Vs Submissive
i. Social Boldness – Uninhibited Vs Shy
j. Perfectionism – Controlled Vs Undisciplined
k. Privateness – Discreet Vs Open
l. Sensitivity – Tender Vs Tough
m. Self Reliance – Self sufficient Vs Dependent
n. Rule-Consciousness – Conforming Vs Non-Conforming
o. Reasoning – Abstract Vs Concrete
p. Openness to Change – Flexible Vs Stubborn
 The trait theory is based on the assumption that the traits are
common to many individuals and they vary in absolute amounts.
 Also, the traits remain consistent over a period of time, and
 Traits can be measured through the behavioral indicators. 31
4. Self Theory : Carl Rogers
 Emphasizes on the set of perceptions an individual has for
himself and the perceptions of the relationships he has with
others and the other aspects of life.

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 a. Self-Image: What an individual thinks about himself.
b. Ideal-Self: Way an individual would like to be.
c. Looking-Glass-Self: Individual’s perception of how
others are perceiving his qualities or feeling about him.
d. Real-Self: What others show you with respect to your
self-image.
 Thus, according to Carl Rogers, the self theory is
composed of several perceptions of “I” or “me” and the
perception of relationships of “I” and “me” to others.

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Learning

 Alteration of behavior as a result of individual experience.

 Measurable and relatively permanent change in behavior
through experience, instruction, or study.
 When an organism can perceive and change its behavior, it is
said to learn.
 Learning itself cannot be measured, but its results can be.
 In the words of Harvard Business School psychologist Chris
Argyris, learning is "detection and correction of error"
where an error means "any mismatch between our
intentions and what actually happens.―

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Components of Learning

1. Learning is Universal.
2. Learning is through Experience.
3. Learning is Continuous.
4. Learning results in Change in Behavior.
5. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change.
6. Learning is not directly observable.
7. Reinforcement

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Learning Process
1. Drive
 Learning frequently occurs in the presence of drive – any
strong stimulus that impels action.
 Drives are basically of two types - primary (or
physiological); and secondary (or psychological).
 These two categories of drives often interact with each
other.
 Individuals operate under many drives at the same time.
 To predict a behavior, it is necessary to establish which
drives are stimulating the most.

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2. Cue Stimuli
 Cue stimuli are those factors that exist in the environment
as perceived by the individual.
 The idea is to discover the conditions under which
stimulus will increase the probability of eliciting a specific
response.
 There may be two types of stimuli with respect to their
results in terms of response concerned: generalization
and discrimination.

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a. Generalization
 Occurs when a response is elicited by a similar but
new stimulus.
 If two stimuli are exactly alike, they will have the same
probability of evoking a specified response.
b. Discrimination
 A procedure in which an organization learns to emit a
response to a stimulus but avoids making the same
response to a similar but somewhat different stimulus.
 Discrimination has wide applications in OB.
 For example, a supervisor can discriminate between
two equally high producing workers, one with low
quality and other with high quality. 38
3. Responses
 The stimulus results in responses.
 Responses may be in the physical form or may be in
terms of attitudes, familiarity, perception or other
complex phenomena.
 In the above example, the supervisor discriminates
between the worker producing low quality products and
the worker producing high quality products, and
positively responds only to the quality conscious worker.

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4. Reinforcement
 Reinforcement is a fundamental condition of learning.
 Without reinforcement, no measurable modification of
behavior takes place.
 Reinforcement may be defined as the environmental
event’s affecting the probability of occurrence of
responses with which they are associated.
5. Retention
 The stability of learned behavior over time is defined as
retention and its contrary is known as forgetting.
 Some of the learning is retained over a period of time
while others may be forgotten. 40
Types of Learners

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 Learning Styles

1. Visual (spatial): Pictures, images, and spatial understanding.

2. Aural (auditory-musical): Sound and music.
3. Verbal (linguistic): Words, both in speech and writing.
4. Physical (kinesthetic): Body, hands and sense of touch.
5. Logical (mathematical): Logic, reasoning and systems.
6. Social (interpersonal): Learn in groups or with other people.
7. Solitary (intrapersonal): Work alone and use self-study.

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Learning Theories

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1. Behaviorism
 Behaviorism stems from the work of B.F. Skinner and the
concept of operant conditioning.
 Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists
independently and outside of people.
 They view the learner as a blank slate who must be provided
the experience.
 Behaviorists believe that learning actually occurs when new
behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired through
associations between stimuli and responses.

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 The learning process is based on objectively observable
changes in behavior.
 Behavior theorists define learning simply as the acquisition
of a new behavior or change in behavior.
 The theory is that learning begins when a cue or stimulus
from the environment is presented and the learner reacts to
the stimulus with some type of response.
 Consequences that reinforce the desired behavior are
arranged to follow the desired behavior.
 The change in behavior of the learner signifies that learning
has occurred.
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 Examples and applications of behaviorist learning theory:
a. Drill work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Bonus points
d. Participation points
e. Verbal Reinforcement (saying ―good job‖)
f. Establishing Rules
 Unfortunately, Behaviorism instruction does not prepare the
learner for problem solving or creative thinking.
 Learners do what they are told and do not take the initiative
to change or improve things.
 The learner is only prepared for recall of basic facts,
automatic responses or performing tasks.
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2. Cognitive Information Processing (Cognitivism)
 Based on the thought process behind the behavior.
 The changes in behavior are observed, but only as an
indictor to what is going on in the learner’s head.
 The learner’s mind is like a mirror from which new
knowledge and skills will be reflected.
 Used when the learner plays an active role in seeking ways to
understand and process information that he or she receives
and relate it to what is already known and stored within
memory.
 Cognitive learning theorists believe learning occurs through
internal processing of information. 50
 The cognitive approach to learning theory pays more
attention to what goes on inside the learner’s head and
focuses on mental processes rather than observable behavior.
 Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as
to what is happening inside the learner’s mind.
 Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by
attaining new insights or changing old ones.
 Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in
memory, and not just a change in behavior.

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 Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:
a. Classifying information
b. Linking Concepts (new content with known)
c. Real world examples
d. Discussions
e. Problem solving
f. Analogies
g. Imagery / providing pictures
h. Mnemonics

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3. Constructivism
 Learning is based on how the individual interprets and
creates the meaning of his or her experiences.
 Knowledge is constructed by the learner and since everyone
has a different set of experiences and perceptions, learning
is unique and different for each person.
 Learning is simply the process of adjusting our mental
models to accommodate our new experiences.
 This theory is used to focus on preparing people to solve
problem.

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 Therefore, to be successful, the learner needs a significant
base of knowledge upon which to interpret and create ideas.
 Additionally, with Constructivism, outcomes are not always
predictable because learners are constructing their own
knowledge.
 Thus Constructivism does not work when the results always
need to be consistent.

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 Examples and applications constructivism:
a. Case studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem based learning
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative learning / group work
f. Discovery learning
g. Simulations

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Organizational Behavior Modification
[OB Mod.]
 Behavior modification is the process which involves making
specific behavior occur more or less often by systematically
managing its cues and consequences.
 It is simply we can say application of reinforcement
concepts to individuals in the work settings for the proper
functioning of the organizational goals by decreasing
unwanted behavior and help employees to show suitable
workplace behavior.

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OB Mod. Steps
1. Identification of Critical Behavior
2. Measurement Of Behavior
3. Identifying Behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention strategy
5. Evaluate performance

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1. Identification of Critical Behavior:
 In this step managers need to identify which behaviors are
highly desirable in organization and which are undesirable in
organization.
 The managers need to specify which behavior is wanted or
need to be changed for the sake of the organization.
 Absenteeism, tardiness, complaints, criticism, etcetera are
the behaviors that should be modified and if such behaviors
are modified then good results can be obtained.

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2. Measurement Of Behavior:
 In this step managers need to collect and analyze the
performance data before, during and after the OB Mod.
program from records.
 The baseline data is collected ( i.e. the data collected before
the beginning of change process) and on the basis of this,
the success and failure of the OB Mod. program is
evaluated.
 The measurement of behavior will also help the managers in
determining the success in changing the employees’
behavior.

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3. Identifying Behavioral consequences:
 This step consists of a detail examination of present
behaviors being shown by employees to determine what
circumstances lead to a particular type of behavior, what are
the consequences of such behavior etc.
 Contingent consequences of behavior should be identified
because these consequences have impact on subsequent
behavior.
 Behavior Modification recognizes that behavior is
influenced by two environmental contingencies i.e.
Antecedent and Consequences.
 If any employee in an organization work hard then does
he/she get reward or not, or just gets tired. 60
4. Develop and apply intervention strategy:
 In this step managers need to design intervention strategies
to strengthen desirable critical behaviours and weaken
undesirable critical behaviours through positive or negative
reinforcement, extinction or punishment.
 Using a particular strategy depends upon the type of
situation faced.
 After developing and implementing a particular strategy, the
frequency of resulting behavior is measured.
 If a behavior change has occurred in the right direction, the
manager will select a reinforcement schedule that will
maintain the desired behavior.
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5. Evaluate performance:
 The main focus of this step is identifying the success or
failure of OB Mod. program.
 In this step manager evaluate whether the intervention
strategies are working properly or not.
 Further, the evaluation will also show whether there is
improvement in the performance or not.
 If there is a positive change, it suggests that the
interventions are successful.

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Misbehavior

 Can be anything that an employee does at work that the

employee is not supposed to do.
 Unacceptable behavior in organization
 Behavior exhibited by an individual or group that is
purposeful and can be harmful to a person, the work or the
organization.
 Workplace Misbehavior Any intentional employee behavior that
is potentially damaging to the organization or to individuals within the
organization.

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Reasons for Misbehavior
1. To benefit the individual
2. To benefit the organization
3. To damage and hurt a particular individual, organizations
asset or social unit

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Types of Misbehavior
1. Rumor and Gossip
2. Sabotage
3. Theft
4. Bullying
5. Incivility
6. Fraud

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Management Intervention
1. Willing to deal with the issue in a straight forward
manner
2. Insist corporate policies
3. Insist corporate practices to maintain ethical behavior

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 Emotions
 Affect is a generic term that covers a broad range of feelings
people experience, including both emotions and moods.
 Emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or
something.
 Moods are less intense feelings than emotions and often (though
not always) arise without a specific event acting as a stimulus.
 Emotions are reactions to a person (seeing a friend at work may
make you feel glad) or an event (dealing with a rude client may
make you feel frustrated).
 You show your emotions when you’re ―happy about something,
angry at someone, afraid of something.‖
 Moods, in contrast, aren’t usually directed at a person or an
event.
 But emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the
event or object that started the feeling. 67
68
The Structure of Mood

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Emotional Labor

 Emotional Labor – A situation in which an employee

expresses organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transactions at work.
 Emotional Dissonance – Inconsistencies between the
emotions people feel and the emotions they project.
 Displayed Emotions – Emotions that are organizationally
required and considered appropriate in a given job.
 Felt Emotions – An individual’s actual emotions.
 Affective Events Theory (AET) – A model that suggests
that workplace events cause emotional reactions on the part
of employees, which then influence workplace attitudes and
behaviors.
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Tests of affective events theory suggest the following:
1. An emotional episode is actually a series of emotional
experiences, caused by a single event and containing
elements of both emotions and mood cycles.
2. Current emotions influence job satisfaction at any given
time, along with the history of emotions surrounding the
event.
3. Because moods and emotions fluctuate over time, their
effect on performance also fluctuates.
4. Emotion-driven behaviors are typically short in duration
and of high variability.
5. Because emotions, even positive ones, tend to be
incompatible with behaviors required to do a job, they
typically have a negative influence on job performance.
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Emotional Intelligence (EI)

 The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and

information.
 Emotional Intelligence (EI) is defined as the ability to
identify, assess, and control one’s own emotions, the
emotions of others, and that of groups.

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1. Goleman’s Model of EI – Daniel Goleman (1998)
a. Self-awareness
 Know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and
goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings
to guide decisions.
b. Self-regulation
 Manage or redirect one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and
adapt to changing circumstances.
c. Social skill
 Manage other’s emotions to move people in the desired direction.

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d. Empathy
 Recognize, understand, and consider other people’s feelings
especially when making decisions
e. Motivation
 Motivate oneself to achieve for the sake of achievement.

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2. Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) Model of EI
 Professors Peter Salovey and John D. (Jack) Mayer, 1990
 Mayer and Salovey have a 16 step developmental model of
emotional intelligence from childhood to adulthood. It
comprises four branches:
 The ability to perceive emotions in oneself and
others accurately.
 The ability to use emotions to facilitate thinking.
 The ability to understand emotions, emotional language,
and the signals conveyed by emotions.
 The ability to manage emotions so as to attain specific
goals.
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There are then sub-groups of emotional intelligence skills in
each of the branches.
1. Perception, Appraisal and Expression of Emotion
 Ability to identify emotion in one's physical states, feelings
and thoughts.
 Ability to identify emotions in other people, designs,
artwork, etc., through language, sound appearance and
behavior.
 Ability to express emotions accurately, and to express needs
related to those feelings.
 Ability to discriminate between accurate and inaccurate, or
honest versus dishonest expressions of feeling. 78
2. Emotional Facilitation of Thinking
 Emotions prioritize thinking by directing attention to
important information.
 Emotions are sufficiently vivid and available that they can be
generated as aids to judgment and memory concerning
feelings.
 Emotional mood swings change the individual's perspective
from optimistic to pessimistic, encouraging consideration of
multiple points of view.
 Emotional states differentially encourage specific problems
approaches such as when happiness facilitates inductive
reasoning and creativity.
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3. Understanding and Analyzing Emotions; Employing
Emotional Knowledge
 Ability to label emotions and recognize relations among the
words and the emotions themselves, such as the relation between
liking and loving.
 Ability to interpret the meanings that emotions convey regarding
relationships, such as that sadness often accompanies a loss.
 Ability to understand complex feelings: simultaneous feelings of
love and hate, or blends such as awe as a combination of fear
and surprise.
 Ability to recognize likely transitions among emotions, such as
the transition from anger to satisfaction, or from anger to shame.
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4. Reflective Regulation of Emotions to Promote Emotional
and Intellectual Growth
 Ability to stay open to feelings, both those that are pleasant and
those that are unpleasant.
 Ability to reflectively engage or detach from an emotion
depending upon its judged informativeness or utility.
 Ability to reflectively monitor emotions in relation to oneself
and others, such as recognizing how clear, typical, influential or
reasonable they are.
 Ability to manage emotion in oneself and others by moderating
negative emotions and enhancing pleasant ones, without
repressing or exaggerating information they may convey.
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Attitudes

 Attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness organized through

experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s
response to all objects and situations with which it is related.
- G.W. Allport
 Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol
of that object in a certain way.
- Katz and Scotland

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Characteristics:
 Attitude affect behavior of an individual by putting him ready to
respond favorably or unfavorably to things in his environment.
 Attitudes are acquired thru learning over the period of time.
 Attitudes are invisible as they constitute a psychological
phenomenon which cannot be observed directly.
 Attitudes are pervasive and every individual has some kind of
attitude towards the objects in his environment.

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Components of Attitude:
 Informational / Cognitive Component The opinion or belief
segment of an attitude.
 Emotional / Affective Component The emotional or feeling segment
of an attitude.
 Behavioral Component An intention to behave in a certain way toward
someone or something.
 Out of the 3 components only behavioral component can be seen.
 One cannot see another persons feelings (Emotional Component) or
belief (Informational Component), these two can only be inferred.

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85
Factors in Attitude Formation
1. Group Factors:
a. Family
The primary group which plays two important roles;
i. Family as a whole has certain attitude and values which are shared by
all persons.
ii. Family mediates the influence of large social system on the individual
attitude, values and personality.
b. Reference Groups
Any interacting aggregation of people that influence individual attitudes
or behavior

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 c. Social Classes
 Has important influence on attitude
 Transfer culture to groups
 Define expectations of society for groups and for families
 People of same social class have similar attitude.

2. Personality Factors
 Positive relationship between different personality factors and attitudes
 Determinants of personality and attitudes are similar

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
 Leon Festinger, 1950s.
 The theory seeks to explain linkage between attitudes and behavior.
 We have often observed workers saying that working conditions
in an organization are poor.
 Does it mean that if the working conditions were improved the
workers will achieve higher productivity?
 It is a difficult question to answer, because there is in-consistency
between working conditions and its impact on changing of
attitude of workers in relation to productivity.

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 Festinger explains cognitive dissonance refers to any inconsistency or
incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more
attitudes, and attitude and behavior.
 He further argues that
(a) Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and individual
attempts to reduce dissonance or discomfort.
(b) Individual tries to reduce dissonance to achieve stable state of
behavior.

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Reduction of dissonance
Reduction of dissonance depends upon following factors.
(a) Importance of the issue, element or situation.
(b) Degree of influence individual believes he has on issue, element or
situation.
(c) Reward that may be associated to the dissonance.
Organizational implications
 (a) The theory can help predict individual attitude and behavioral change.
 (b) Greater the dissonance the greater would be the pressures to
reduce the same.

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Measurement of Attitudes:
1. Direct Methods:
a. Opinion Surveys ask respondents to express in writing their
beliefs, attitudes, feelings, or intentions toward a referent by
responding to a written list of questions presented in an individual
or group situation, or by mail.
 Structured Opinion Survey
 Unstructured Opinion Survey

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b. Interviews require direct verbal interaction between the
researcher and the respondent. The interview may take place
by phone or may be conducted by trained field assistants in
face-to-face encounters.
 Structured interview
 Unstructured interview
c. Sociometric techniques are designed to uncover how a person
behaves or intends to behave toward a referent when given a
choice of behaviors. It is important that the types of choices
offered are typical choices for the situation and that respondents
believe that their choices may have consequences for the
referent or for themselves.

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d. Ranking methods require the respondent to arrange a small
set of terms or statements (typically 20 or fewer) into an
ordered sequence according to some specified criterion so
that only one item is assigned to each of the ordinal
positions.
e. Paired-Comparison Scales requires the researcher to
provide respondents with all possible pairs of the referents that
the researcher wishes to scale. The respondents are asked to
select the referent in each pair that they would rate higher in terms
of a criterion presented by the researcher. Typically all
possible pairs are presented twice, the second time in reverse
order, to determine the consistency of the respondents'
selections.
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f. Semantic Differential Scales (Osgood, Suci, &
Tannenbaum, 1957), a single referent is presented on the top
of a page and is followed by a set of from 7 to 20 scales
anchored at each end by bipolar adjectives connected by a line
marked in intervals. Respondents are asked to mark the point
that represents their rating of the concept on each scale.
g. Summated Rating Scales (Likert, 1932), items are selected
from the universe of items characterizing the referent, and
the respondents are asked to indicate the extent of their
agreement with each item by selecting one response from a
small set of responses.

94
 h. Social Distance Scales (Bogardus, 1933), the scale consists
of seven equal–appearing intervals that the respondent is
asked to consider with reference to one or more attitude
referents.
2. Indirect Methods
a. Physiological Methods (Cacioppo, Petty, Losch, & Kim,
1986; Cialdini, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1981; Mueller, 1970)
purport to measure attitudes by measuring reactions over which
the respondent has little or no conscious or voluntary control.
Among the indices used in attitude measurement are those
regulated by the autonomic nervous system, such as heart
rate, finger-pulse volume, blood pressure, voice pattern et
cetera.
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b. Nonobtrusive Behavioral Observations include those in
which the respondent unknowingly or voluntarily engages in a
specific behavior in a natural setting and those in which the
respondent agrees to participate in a role playing exercise
where he or she is to simulate a real-life situation (Webb et
al., 1966).
c. Projective Techniques involve the presentation of
unstructured or ambiguous stimuli or tasks that will elicit responses or
feelings of which the respondent may be unaware (Rabin,
1981). Projective techniques can be classified by the type of
task or stimuli presented or, alternatively, by the type of
response that is elicited (Lindzey, 1959).

96
i. Associations require the subject to respond with the first thing
that comes to mind at the presentation of a stimulus (e.g., the
Rorschach test).
ii. Constructions focus on the output produced by the subject, such
as a story or a picture (e.g., the TAT).
iii. Completions require the respondent to finish a sentence, story, or
picture as he or she wishes (Loevinger, Wessler, & Redmore,
1970).
iv. Choices or orderings require the subject to choose from among
several alternative colors, designs, or objects (e.g., dolls) those that
appear most relevant, correct, attractive, or otherwise personally
gratifying (Pushkin, 1967; Walker, 1973).

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 v. Expressions, similar to constructions, require the subject to form
a product out of raw material, although the emphasis is on the
manner in which the respondent does this and not on the product
formed (e. g., role-play or psychodrama techniques).
d. Disguised Procedures include those in which the
respondent is:
(a) unclear about the real purpose of the investigation,
(b) led to believe that no control can be exerted over his or
her responses, or
(c) duped into believing that the purpose of the investigation
is other than what it actually is.

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Values

 Values Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of

existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of
conduct or end-state of existence.
 Value System A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values
in terms of their intensity
Characteristics
 Part of culture
 Learned responses
 Inculcated
 Social phenomenon
 Gratifying responses
 Adaptive process.

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Types of Values

1. Rokeach Value Survey: Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach Value

Survey (RVS). It consists of two sets of values, each containing 18
individual value items.
 Terminal Values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals a person
would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.
 Some examples of Terminal Values in the Rokeach Value Survey
are: Prosperity and economic success, Freedom, Health and well-being, World
peace, Social recognition, and Meaning in life.
 Instrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of
achieving one’s terminal values.
 The types of Instrumental Values illustrated in RVS are Self-
improvement, Autonomy and self-reliance, Personal discipline, kindness,
Ambition, and Goal-orientation.
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2. Allport et al’s Value Classification:
- Gordon Willard Allport, Philip Ewart Vernon & ‎Gardner Lindzey
a. The Theoretical person is primarily concerned with the discovery of
truth, to which they seek in a cognitive way.
b. The Economic individual places highest value on what is the most
useful.
c. The Aesthetic person places high value of form and harmony.
d. The Social type seeks out the love of people.
e. The Political person's dominant drive is power.
f. The Religious individual places highest value on unity.

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3. Grave’s Value Classification - Dr. Clare W. Graves
Level Description
1. Reactive React only to basic physiological needs.
2. Triabilistic Oriented towards safety.
3. Egocentric Believe in rugged individuals, desire individual responsibilities.
4. Conformistic Have low tolerance for ambiguity.
5. Manipulative Achieve goals by manipulating others.
6. Sociocentric Desire to be liked and to go along with others.
7. Existential Have high tolerance for ambiguity.

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4. England’s Value Classification – George W. England
 Pragmatic – take pragmatic view of the situation which is stereotyped; opt
for concepts and actions which appear to them as important and successful
irrespective of good or bad.
 Moralist – are guided by the ethical consideration of right or wrong, just or
unjust and honest or dishonest.

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Factors in value formation:
1. Value – Forming Institutions
 Family, School, State, Religion
2. Organizational Values
 Work place values
3. Peers and Colleagues
 Coworkers beliefs, attitudes and values with whom an employee is associated
4. Work and Career
 Create special values that give unity, cohesion and meaning to persons and
groups
5. Professional Codes
 Company Creeds, Operational Values, Code of Conduct
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Factors influencing Perception

1. External Factors 2. Internal Factors

a. Size a. Self Concept
b. Intensity b. Beliefs
c. Repetition c. Expectations
d. Novelty and Familiarity d. Inner Needs
e. Contrast e. Response Disposition
f. Motion f. Response Salience
g. Perceptual Defense

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Factors influencing Interpersonal
Perception
1. Factors in Perceiver: 2. Factors in Person Perceived:
a. Personality a. Status
b. Mental Set b. Visibility of Traits
i. Attribution 3. Situational Factors
ii. First Impression
iii. Halo Effect
iv. Stereotyping

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Motivation

 The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,

direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
 The three key elements in our definition are intensity,
direction, and persistence.
 Intensity describes how hard a person tries.
 However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job-
performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a
direction that benefits the organization.
 Finally, motivation has a persistence dimension. This measures
how long a person can maintain effort.

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Early Theories of Motivation
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory – Abraham H Maslow
 Hierarchy of five needs —physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization — in which, as each need is
substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
a. Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and
other bodily needs.
b. Safety. Security and protection from physical and
emotional harm.
c. Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship.

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d. Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement, and external factors such as status,
recognition, and attention.
e. Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are
capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our
potential, and self-fulfillment.
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 Lower-order Needs – Needs that are satisfied externally,
such as physiological and safety needs.
 Higher-order Needs – Needs that are satisfied internally,
such as social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

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2. Two-Factor Theory – Frederick Herzberg
 A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and
associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also called
motivation – hygiene theory.
 Criticisms include the following:
a. 1. Herzberg’s methodology is limited because it relies on
self-reports.
b. 2. The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is
questionable.
c. 3. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
d. 4. Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction
and productivity, but he looked only at satisfaction.
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Contrasting View of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

112
113
Comparison of Maslow’s and Herzberg’s Theory

114
3. Theory X and Theory Y – Douglas McGregor
 Proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically
negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive,
labeled Theory Y.
 Theory X – The assumption that employees dislike work,
are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to
perform.
 Theory Y – The assumption that employees like work, are
creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.

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116
4. McClelland’s Theory of Needs – David C. McClelland
 A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are
three important needs that help explain motivation.
a. Need For Achievement (nAch) – The drive to excel,
to achieve in relationship to a set of standards, and to
strive to succeed.
b. Need For Power (nPow) – The need to make others
behave in a way in which they would not have behaved
otherwise.
c. Need For Affiliation (nAff) – The desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships.
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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
1. Goal-Setting Theory
 Goal-setting theory says that specific goals increase
performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in
higher performance than do easy goals.
 What does goal-setting theory tell us?
 First, working toward a goal is a major source of job
motivation.
 Next, will employees try harder if they have the opportunity
to participate in the setting of goals?
 Finally, we know that people will do better if they get
feedback on how well they’re progressing toward their goals
because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what
they have done and what they want to do. 118
 Three other contingencies besides feedback influence the
goal-performance relationship: goal commitment, adequate
self-efficacy, and national culture.
 First, goal-setting theory assumes that an individual is
committed to the goal.
 Next, self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or
she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-
efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to
succeed in a task.
 Finally, the value of goal-setting theory depends on the
national culture.

119
120
2. Reinforcement Theory
 Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
 Those consequences that immediately follow a behavior and
increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated are
called reinforcers.
 Reinforcement theory focuses solely on what happens to a
person when he or she does something.
 Using reinforcement theory, managers can influence employees’
behavior by using positive reinforcers for actions that help the
organization achieve its goals.
 And managers should ignore, not punish, undesirable behavior.
 Although reinforcement is an important influence on work
behavior, it isn’t the only explanation for differences in employee
motivation.
121
3. Equity Theory
 Equity theory, developed by J. Stacey Adams, proposes that
employees compare what they get from a job (outcomes) in
relation to what they put into it (inputs), and then they
compare their inputs–outcomes ratio with the inputs–
outcomes ratios of relevant others
 If an employee perceives her ratio to be equitable in
comparison to those of relevant others, there’s no problem.
 However, if the ratio is inequitable, she views herself as
underrewarded or overrewarded.
 When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something
about it.
 The result might be lower or higher productivity, improved
or reduced quality of output, increased absenteeism, or
voluntary resignation. 122
 The referent—the other persons, systems, or selves
individuals compare themselves against in order to assess
equity—is an important variable in equity theory.
 Distributive Justice - Perceived fairness of the amount and
allocation of rewards among individuals
 Procedural Justice - Perceived fairness of the process used
to determine the distribution of rewards

123
4. Expectancy Theory
 The theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way
based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to
the individual
 It includes three variables or relationships;
 A. Expectancy or effort – performance linkage is the
probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance.
 B. Instrumentality or performance – reward linkage is the
degree to which the individual believes that performing at a
particular level is instrumental in attaining the desired
outcome. 124
 C. Valence or attractiveness of reward is the importance
that the individual places on the potential outcome or
reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence considers
both the goals and needs of the individual.

125
Integrating Contemporary
Theories of Motivation

126
Importance of Motivation

1. Motivation is important to an individual as:

a. Motivation will help him achieve his personal goals.
b. If an individual is motivated, he will have job
satisfaction.
c. Motivation will help in self-development of individual.
d. An individual would always gain by working with a
dynamic team.

127
2. Motivation is important to a business as:
a. The more motivated the employees are, the more
empowered the team is.
b. The more is the team work and individual employee
contribution, more profitable and successful is the
business.
c. During period of amendments, there will be more
adaptability and creativity.
d. Motivation will lead to an optimistic and challenging
attitude at work place.

128
Motivation Types

Motivation

Intrinsic Extrinsic

129
 Extrinsic

Financial Non – Financial

Individual Collective Individual Collective

1.Profit
1.Productivity Sharing 1.Status 1.Social
Linked 2.Co- 2.Promotion importance of
2.Performance Partnership 3. Responsibility Work
Based 3.ESOP 2.Team Spirit
4.Interesting Job
4.Retirement 3.Informal
Benefits 5.Recognition Work Groups
6.Job Security 4.Participation

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Impact of Motivation on Work Behavior
 Optimum use of resources
 Full use of employee potential
 Increased efficiency of employees
 Employee commitment
 Increased employee morale
 Employee will be loyal and sincere
 Reduces absenteeism
 Reduces turnover
 Increased job satisfaction
 Increased productivity
 Increased employee participation
131