Running head: RACIAL PROFILING 1

Racial Profiling in Criminal Justice

Institution

Date
Racial Profiling 2

Table of Contents
CHAPTER I ................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER II ............................................................................................................... 7
Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 7
Historical Perspectives on Racial Profiling .............................................................. 8
Racial Profiling and White Privilege ...................................................................... 10
Police Discretion and Justice ................................................................................ 11
Control Mechanisms ............................................................................................. 13
Factors affecting the view of racial discrimination in the criminal justice............... 15
Racial differences.............................................................................................. 15
Lack of understanding of how racism affects criminal justice ............................ 15
Race perception ................................................................................................ 16
Theories................................................................................................................ 16
Ethics theory in the dispensation of justice ....................................................... 16
Social Learning and Rational Choice Theory .................................................... 18
Critical Race Theory.......................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER III ............................................................................................................ 20
Discussion ................................................................................................................ 20
Findings.................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER IV ............................................................................................................ 22
Conclusions.............................................................................................................. 22
Recommendations ................................................................................................... 22
References ............................................................................................................... 24
Racial Profiling 3

CHAPTER I

Introduction

Racial profiling is a term that is used to define an instance where there arises

categorization of a person based on the background and ethnicity with the sole intent

of institutionally discriminating him or her. The United States has been marred by

tarnishing claims and a history of a society that delights itself in treatment of people

based on race. The main reason that has been attached to these cases of racial

profiling is the eventuality that the individuals from these minority groups are more

prone to committing crimes and offences than those from other groups. According to

statistics drawn from the traffic stops conducted by the traffic police, 13% were

whites while a huge 73.2% were blacks. This report does not, however, claim that

most blacks were more prone to committing a traffic offense or a criminal act. The

same results and racial profiling was also echoed in different states after the studies

were conducted including in Maryland. These statistics arose inquiries into what may

be the cause and what can be done to avert the same. Legislators made policies

which then required police departments to collect data and ultimately use the same

to determine racial profiling using these publicly available resources. Those who

were mandated to act on the directive sought to analyze the likelihood events on

police searches based on race and if searches were really conducted. The results

informed on great disparities with Illinois bearing the largest proportions of blacks to

whites being searched.

Racial profiling is a field in criminal justice that has caused a stir and a string

of troubling national problems in the United States. Racial discrimination both at the

societal levels and law enforcement has targeted individuals mostly from the

immigrant communities and towns associated with them. Although there have been
Racial Profiling 4

claims that the US is at the stage where it doesn't racially profile individuals, the

occurrences of racial discrimination are still experienced almost daily in the US

(ACLU, 2018). Criminal activities have been largely related to African Americans and

thereby creating a pattern where they are segregated against in the quest for justice.

Law enforcers especially traffic police have been identified as the major individuals

committing acts of racial profiling among the statistics pooled on traffic stops

conducted in the US.

It is a fact that discrimination based on race and ethnicity fails to fulfil the

morally accepted standards that should define a society. Racial discrimination and

ethnic discrimination violates the morally accepted basis of equality and should not,

in any manner whatsoever, be a reason for racial profiling. A race is a term that

seeks an explanation as to where a person belongs and at length a form of

categorizing people in terms of the background (Banks, 2017). Racism can,

therefore, be understood as a notion developed by the society in attributing certain

qualities or perceived facts to a certain categorization of people. In essence, there

are three main aspects towards which a person can be racially abused or

discriminated; personal prejudice, culture, ideas, and institutions. These elements

lead to institutional policies and practices that eventually lead to racial discrimination.

The justice system harbors institutional racism instanced clearly by the racial

disparities in incarceration rates. The whole of the justice system is a process that is

full of racial inequalities evidenced at each level of the dispensation of justice and

law enforcement. A research published in Racism and the Criminal Justice System

points out to a fact that Blacks and Latinos are likely to be at the receiving end of

institutional racism seven times more than the white men when they are

incarcerated. The report gives a clear view by using an instance in which African
Racial Profiling 5

Americans are likely to be pulled over when driving creating a phenomenon largely

referred to as ‘driving while black’.

A major reason that still afflicts the justice system and criminal justice is the

fact that law enforcement procedures ascribe to instances of profiling based on race

when it comes to describing an individual who has committed a crime. This research

paper seeks to establish different areas of criminal justice and its relations when it

comes to racial profiling. Various studies have been conducted around the field of

racial discrimination and it is the complexity that has been attached to determining

exactly what entails racial profiling and what fuels its existence. Most scholars have

developed series of research focused on this area and while some have portrayed

the truth about profiling, some have failed to. The difficulty in accessing this situation

often arise due to the manner in which data is collected and responses taken. For

instance, a researcher taking a public opinion among individuals from a minority

group will likely obtain results that are biased and favourable to the minority

community. Various topics that will be handled throughout the research paper

include but not limited to:

1. The use of police discretion in law enforcement

2. Racial discrimination towards the blacks

3. White privilege in the justice system

4. Institutional racial discrimination

The policing structures inform on a country that mistreats the African

Americans and discriminates against them in the manner in which the same

structures handles the affairs related to these minority communities. The paper

continues to analyze the impacts of racial profiling in access to justice and the
Racial Profiling 6

contribution towards unintended violence conducted by African Americans. The

theoretical framework in this paper sketches the influence in which this factor has in

the society and is aided by various theories explaining the major phenomenon in

society. The results and the findings from this paper have been reached by the use

of various literature, case studies and reports by researchers.

Racial Profiling 7

CHAPTER II

Literature Review

Racial segregation and profiling are only talked about mutedly and society are

getting accustomed to the idea that it is the norm. Historically, African Americans

once faced slavery under the whites and an extended instance of discrimination puts

into practice a new era of slavery in terms to access to fair treatment and access to

justice. Although civil rights and liberties have been put up, equality still lacks as the

nation is still divided along the ethnic lines and religious divide.

A study by John Lamberth on police stops in New Jersey creates this

impression and describes the situation from a statistical perspective (Lamberth,

1998). Law enforcement officers have been reported to humiliate and conduct

interrogations and unwarranted searches all geared towards the African Americans

without a view of them conducting any crime. According to the US constitution, it has

been labeled as illegal t racially segregate or profile n individual as this is a misuse of

the core principles that build up the constitution. This unwarranted acts by the

criminal and law enforcement organs cause the people and the society to lose hope

on them and thereby causing a breakdown in the criminal and justice execution.

The controversy that has then surrounded the matter on racial profiling has

affected the lives of individuals nationwide. Some of the areas in which racial

profiling has been applied include traffic stops, transport systems, border crossing

and access to community services. These events and associated profiling have been

documented as a way to prevent forecasted terrorist attacks, immigration, and drug

trafficking. Some of this acts including terrorism and immigration has informed on the
Racial Profiling 8

development of immigration policies in the US that has been based on major

historical events including the September 911 attacks.

Historical Perspectives on Racial Profiling

Historical perspectives based on the entrance of immigrants into the United

States from other countries has elicited a lot of debate and has therefore led to the

development of policies and reforms to curb further entry. Most policies that have

since been developed have been on the basis of national security and economic

aspects of the nation. Individuals who have been charged with the mandate of

ensuring this are tasked with using value-based judgments to create a probable

course without altering or negatively impacting on the nation’s wellbeing (Seller,

1983). The issues surrounding immigration have been indicated as a complex matter

and the debate traced back to the earlier development of the thirteen colonies and

over time-varying with the changes faced in the country.

Aside from the many policies and reforms that have been identified and

developed, questions have been raised in the manner in which there has been an

increase in murders of African Americans. From contemporary society, reports

indicate that more victims of brutality and murders are five times more among the

blacks when compared with the whites. The extent of the issue has caused a

resounding uproar among the people in the society as individuals protest the idea of

racial discrimination.

A large part of the 20th century has proven instances in which the mode of

crime and punishment has symbolized events of racial division in the US. The

ancient forms before the advent of the penal systems included severe measures to

punish a crime which included lynching and public executions. The introduction of
Racial Profiling 9

penal systems and structures to punish and monitor crime provided a chance for

case hearings with the jurors and prosecutions of crime committed. During these

times where the justice system was evolving around the twentieth century, most

African Americans were faced with the difficulty of their cases only handled by white

judges and jurors. The courtrooms hooded less and in most instances enforcers who

were black and thereby providing a reason for bias when it came to penalizing one

on a crime committed.

In the 20th century, Africans Americans who only represented less than 15%

of the US population had a high proportion of slightly above 30% of those who had

been incarcerated of their crimes in the penal setups. The laws that were geared

towards sentencing convicted criminals were discriminatory as they sought to apply

the harshest penalty to the African Americans on crimes committed towards the

whites. Fair trial and execution of justice, in this case, did not favor the blacks as the

same situation involving the crimes committed towards the blacks did not

encompass the same harsh sentencing. Law enforcers especially the police were

also at the helm of victimization and discrimination as they were instrumental in

executing acts of violence pointing towards the blacks in instances where they were

required to restrain protests and mobs.

The participation of the police in riots based on race has developed an idea

where the society has turned to violence and a hostile perception towards the less

privileged in the society in this case, the minority communities. The justice system

has however tried to overturn these events and bring in an overhaul in the justice

system to protect the rights of the minority. The US Supreme Court developed laws

and policies that ensure that those brought to book and under the hearing of a jury
Racial Profiling 10

have not been denied bail or handed harsh sentencing as experienced in the 20 th

century.

Racial Profiling and White Privilege

The fight for fair and credible justice is given a first-hand priority in these

protests by the African Americans as they often fall victims of the negative

consequences of the police brutality. On the other side, white people have continued

to reap from the benefits of the color and being born from a white background. The

whites have reaped from the advantages of a state that has majorly been referred to

by DuBois, American sociologist, like white privilege. The fact that they arise or born

into this background gives them an upper hand over the African Americans and can

easily be favored by a criminal justice system. Racial profiling and white privilege are

both sociological concepts that have informed on the way of life that impact the

society in a much negative way. The manner in which importance is attached to the

background and skin color of an individual bore with it circumstances that grants

advantages to the whites than the blacks.

The United States is full of experiences which led to the racial segregation of

the Blacks. Noting that being white is a race, it is less talked of and only associated

racially in faded criteria. The moment one is able to mention anything about race,

Black is often associated with it. Whiteness essentially has been taken as a way of

life and this proves in at length the privileges benefited from for being white. Crime

situation and criminal justice are less associated with whiteness and whenever a

white criminal is judged, punishment is less harsh. A case study on the same is on

the judgment of a student found sexually assaulting a lady and prosecution

suggesting that he be given a full six-year sentence. The judge overrules this

decision and handed down a six-month county jail term on the basis that the six-year
Racial Profiling 11

sentence was severe. The kind of sympathy the judge had on the student details the

privilege which the whites possess in most areas of their life and especially in

criminal justice.

Police Discretion and Justice

Discretion is a term that is used in the sense that the police possess some

powers in the dispensation of their mandate. This is in terms of planning and

controlling some aspects of the population. This helps ensures that the police

provide the best services to the citizens and therefore has become an essential tool

in service delivery. Discretion in this manner is not restricted by a law as it depends

solely with the judgment provided by the one using the tool thereby opening it up to

the often misuse of this key tool by law enforcers. In modern days, discretion is a

critical tool in developing a well-functioning policing endeavor but often its scope and

limits are well not defined thus causing ambiguity (Bronitt & Stenning, 2011).

The question of humanity and the concept of fair justice systems have been

flawed by the way and events in which those who have sworn to protect the people

are at the helm of the killings and murder aimed towards the people. Law

enforcement, therefore, falls into the spot of making bias decisions and acts when it

operates in a way where they develop a notion preconception that those from the

black community are prone to crime. As addressed earlier, the kind of hearing and

sentences handed in a sentence far much differs than the one handed down to the

whites evidenced by the consideration given to the white college student convicted of

sexual abuse.

The dominant theme when it comes to police shootings is preferably bias at

play and speculations that people of color are criminals. This then creates two
Racial Profiling 12

categories of individuals; the privileged and the less fortunate where the categories

represent the whites and the blacks respectively. In a working justice system. Those

who have been suspected of committing a crime are required to be brought to book

then given a chance in front of a judge and a fair and impartial jury. This has

however not taken place as required since most of the blacks have fallen victims of

shootings on the spot. The extent of perception that this creates among the racially

discriminated is far-reaching and creates a mindset of guilt where the individuals feel

threatened. The decision to take a life, convict or sentence an individual should in all

sense be unbiased and not based on the race and color.

There is a dire need of a criminal justice system that places great importance

towards the application of best law practices in law enforcement for equality and fair

treatment. This ensures professionalism and consideration of the court systems that

are entitled to serving humanity and protecting the society. The events surrounding

the twenty-first century has continued to show disparities experienced in the justice

system concerning issues raised on ethnic and race.

African Americans and Latinos have often fallen prey as minority

communities, to the adverse effects of racial discrimination. The protection given to

these groups is underrated while they become the large targeted groups when it

comes to crimes that have been committed. These communities are under-policed

and are often suspected as the would-be perpetrators of crimes in the society. A

research study conducted in Canada presents a scenario where black people were

harshly treated in comparison to white people in an event of law being broken. The

African Americans are more likely to be taken into custody once suspected of a

crime as they await charges labeled against them and eventually sentencing.
Racial Profiling 13

The lack of trust and confidence that the Latinos and the African Americans

can do something good in the society weighs down on the perception of these

communities. They then create ten decides in which they enter into troubles with the

law enforcers in various instances hence unjustified racial profiling and

discrimination. The lack of mistrust between these two groups, the racially

profiledconmmunities, and the police, develops a lack of confidence in the justice

system as the discriminated will lose faith in the effectiveness of the justice system

and law enforcement.

Before the 1950's, discretion was viewed and practiced virtually non-

extensively. This is because of the perception that the act was illegal and warranted

no justice and fairness. The cases prosecuted by prosecutors in those times failed to

reach the justice threshold as they only relied on the citations made by police officers

hence causing a rise of inflexible sentences. Police officers were only just allowed to

operate by the defines of the law that the legal system provided and in no

circumstances were they supposed to develop criteria of control even though it was

helpful to the community or the mass. Coupled with a corrupt legal system and

individuals, it never presented discretion a chance of being used or accessed by

police officers (Sherman, 1984).

Control Mechanisms

The use of discretion over the times have informed a great need for the tool

and has developed to be an inevitable practice in law enforcement. To ensure the

correct, legal and proper use of discretion in the police force, it requires certain

measures that are characterized by efforts to keep it in check while ensuring

monitoring of its usage. As addressed earlier in this paper, discretion involves

personal judgment and opinions in the dispensation of the act (Kelling, 1999). These
Racial Profiling 14

checks and balances, acknowledging that discretion is helpful, requires both internal

and external controls and legal instruments to prevent its abuse. These measures

also help protect the citizens and their right to service and freedom. They should not

deter law enforcement practice though.

Internal control mechanisms involve all those practices which are within the

police force. The police administration can effectively develop guidelines in which the

law enforcers can use discretion. They can also create policies that can help

regulate and establish misconducts in the use of the tool. These policies are

essential in providing direction and ultimately make the use of discretion seamlessly

an advantage. The police officers also need to be trained and furnished with enough

information through education in regards to the venture. The functioning of these

internal controls can be handled in terms of departments for easy monitoring and

legislation.

The external controls are those that are compounded by the legislation and

the community in which the law enforcers provide service. Monitoring can be done

by way of creation of community guidelines and even updating on existing laws that

are essential in monitoring the situation involving discretion and the use of it. The

community plays a vital role in law enforcement and thereby it is of great importance

to involve the community in policy guidelines. This will in a sense provide the

community with an upper hand in keeping a check of how the tool is used and

imposed on them.

The misuse of power and discretion that is left at the dispense of the police

officers is an essential part and a stepping stone in ensuring that justice has been

served to all individuals in the community in which the police officers have authority
Racial Profiling 15

over. The essence of policies that are then developed will go a long way in guiding

the application of discretion in various events in the society and the community at

large. The treatment of people in a country or community is important and a guiding

principle rests with proper governing laws and practices to avert major events that

may ruin the trust in law enforcement and justice department.

Factors affecting the view of racial discrimination in the criminal justice

Racial differences

The definition of race in a societal context surpasses the manner in which it

can effectively be termed biological. The race has been acknowledged reservedly as

a psychological perception that hinders the way the society thinks and fixes its

systems. The creation of social categories and ranks affects the view of racial and

ethnic relations. All these relations involves the white and the blacks, the whites and

the Latinos and the blacks and Latinos.

Lack of understanding of how racism affects criminal justice

The fact that the society has not been put in a situation where it is able to

determine and genuinely talk about racial and ethnic differences in the society

affects entirely the honest and open view of race and racism in a societal context.

Many instances that have been mentioned as to cause instances of prejudice,

misunderstanding and racist behaviors desires a platform where these ideas can

effectively be related with and understood in the field of criminal justice and social

law structures. An informed understanding in the cases of race in criminal justice is

essential in making decisions based on the social phenomenon that has been met

on the minority groups. This is presented in the case studies involving galvanization

of the media and the beating up of Rodney King by the police. These instances detail

a manner which is termed as routine racism.

Racial Profiling 16

Race perception

The society has been confined to understand the basic aspects of racism and

discrimination. Individuals belonging to the minority communities are not in a position

to fight for the rights that they are entitled to in a justice system and cannot reliably

agree to a white person fighting for them. The misplaced ideology involving the

people of color fighting for themselves leads to nothing less than more racial

segregation and discrimination.

Theories

Ethics theory in the dispensation of justice

Ethics theory is a set of rules that establishes a firm founding on the moral

basis of a society. It is therefore of importance to keep a profile of what is right, what

is viewed as right and ultimately what is not right. Individual behaviors and

perspectives are also key in developing an insight and building a proving system. It

is then paramount to connect these two ideologies and develop a common ground of

judgment.

Ethics and theory play an important role in the dispensation and enforcement

of the law. Utilitarianism is a normative ethical system that keeps a check on how the

consequences of decisions made on the grounds of ethics. It presents a reasoning

that if an act is done on grounds that may not be deemed as good but the outcome

becomes good, then the act is termed as good. Utilitarianism is based on the basis

of morality that affects the community and involves an individual who is a law

enforcer where he depicts his situation as correct and gauges his situation as

morally founded. The ideology that is identified with utilitarianism is focused on the

person informed on his actions benefitting them or harming them together with the

community (Evans & MacMillan, 2002).

Racial Profiling 17

Individual behavior is a determinant factor in establishing the theory involved

in ethics development as it informs on the personal view of what is right and what is

wrong in a given situation. Morality is a means to some other end; it is in no way an

end in itself. The problem that arises with utilitarianism is that the community may be

put in a position that will term the actions that arise from utilitarianism action as

appropriate and in which case it may not morally be so.

Deontological ideologies are based on an individual perspective and do not

consider what comes after and what builds as consequences but solely relies on the

personal duty to judge an event and act on the requisite action. Deontology gives

into full view a better and an informed way of addressing a situation and outcome

and categorizing it on its ability to be a moral point of focus. The officer decides not

to arrest the driver but gives the person a ride home. After the officer leaves, that

same individual gets into another car and drives away and get into a crash.

Regardless of the crash, the officer believes he did the right thing.

When you look at values and ethics, they both play a part in an individual

person. In people, ethics is not the same for each because ethics are based on

different things, such as religious beliefs, personal beliefs, and other views. In recent

years there has been an extreme push for officers to be ethical but the problem with

this, there is no standard definition of ethics. When people look at what ethics are,

they look at what society believes is right or wrong. As seen over the years, when

one officer does something wrong or criminal, it affects all police officers and effects

the relationship between society and law enforcement, which in the end effects the

community helping in dealing with crime (Aquinas, 2006).

Racial Profiling 18

The disparate treatment of blacks over white men has far many negative

consequences than the positive ones as could be seen through the cases involving

Michael Brown, Walter Scott and others. In tandem with this, it is important to note

that inspections continue to unearth unequal treatment of Blacks in the criminal

justice system. As much as there has been an improvement in policing strategies

and managerial policies to curb the same, there still are tendencies in which the

blacks are being racially profiled (Phillips & Bowling, 2007). Far fetching

consequences which may include strikes and protests are surely going to be

experienced as these kinds of profiling continue to take the center stage. It is

therefore important to continue providing more strict legislative measures so as to

address and avert what could else be the worst disaster.

Social Learning and Rational Choice Theory

Social learning theory is one of the theories that try to explain why individuals

become racist and discriminate against other individuals. This theory is also

important as it develops from other theories explaining the great phenomenon in

society. These include classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Social

learning theory is effective in the manner that it is able to analyze the mediating

processes that occur between stimuli and responses and also the behavior as a

consequence of learning the way of life from the environment through observation.

As one grows up, he or she observes what happens in the immediate environment

and tries to emulate it and fit into it so as not to be left out. Children in this manner

fall prey to developing behaviors from the kind of environment in which they are

brought up (Bandura, 1978).

Social Learning Theory follows an irrational view of developing ideas and

behaviors in a societal context. In contrast, Rational Choice Theory follows a more

Racial Profiling 19

aggressive position in instilling character in an individual. Individuals in this

approach, make decisions and choices in accordance with their preference on a

certain matter in society. It explains the social phenomenon of conforming to a

certain idea and behavior so as to remain at a point of advantage or gain. In this

theory, individuals are characterized by rational decision making to optimize their

pleasure derived from a task at hand (Akers, 1990).

The whites are able to capitalize on the privilege they have in the society at

the dispensation of justice for all. The historical chain reactions and the idea that

they have an upper hand in the matters pertaining race and criminal justice leads

them to view the minority community as a lesser people and thereby connect them

with criminal behaviors and activities.

Critical Race Theory

The theoretical framework that supports the idea behind critical race theory is

based on racial profiling evidenced in all works of life in the US. Racial profiling is not

just concerned in the way people treat each other but rather present in the daily life

of the law system, psychologicalpesrectives, and ethnic referrals. The ingrained

culture in the US has at large led to the growth of the discriminatory culture feeding

the people and even justice systems with the tradition of categorizing people based

on race.

The theory concentrates on the major analysis of the experiences in the

country with a bid to the understanding the importance of race, attachment of race to

social justice and addressing societal beliefs. The theory is likely able to depict the

society much more than other theories as it incorporates the core principles of

society with criminal justice and law enforcement (Delgado & Stefancic, 2007).
Racial Profiling 20

CHAPTER III

Discussion

The purpose of the study was to investigate the challenges that African

Americans face under the judicial systems and the discrimination that they face in

the society and the country. Law enforcement officers have subjected individuals in

the minority communities into untold suffering from the policing systems that they

apply. The rate of incarceration and sentencing that has been handed over to the

African Americans is evidently harsh and leaves no chance for an improvement

despite the development of policies and the laws.

The society depicted by the US is one that has made the African Americans

and the minority communities feel like they are the criminals in various cases. The

encounters between the police and the African Americans exposes a truth where the

police already possess a preconceived mind suspecting the blacks of committing a

crime even before they conduct investigations. The unwarranted searches and the

traffic stops which statistically points to a proportion of more blacks than whites

falling prey continue to give strength to the facts addressed therein.

Findings

The fact that the African Americans have been racially profiled induces fear

and a feeling that they are not protected by the people who swore to protect them.

The extrajudicial killings by the police are an avenue that will most likely develop a

negative mindset among the minority communities. Some of the case studies

analyzed also prove a point that the police and law enforcers conduct their

responsibilities with favoritism and brutality towards the black community.

Racial Profiling 21

The justice system, especially the court systems, have been seen as the

major platforms aiding racial profiling. The sentences that they hand down to the

convicted criminals differ in intensity between people of color and the whites even if

both parties have been convicted of the same crime. These instances have created

a mistrust in the court system and the justice system which has been largely blamed

for being discriminative. The lack of mistrust and confidence forms the large part of

this research paper and informs of the findings together with the main theme of the

research paper.
Racial Profiling 22

CHAPTER IV

Conclusions

The research paper informs on the major changes that need to be conducted

in the justice system and law enforcement. A functioning justice system that is free

from segregation and discrimination is essentially preceded with best practices in law

enforcement. The study graphs a pattern where policing strategies are viewed as

negatively impacting on the minority communities. It is evident that most African

Americans are victims of harassment and unfair treatment.

In some instances, it may not be possible to challenge the justice systems

that have been developed to guide the society and ensure that social injustices have

been subdued. It is, however, important to note that the various instances that drive

the establishment of policies are the involvement of the public in the making of

decisions and laws so as to create a sense of satisfaction and cooperation.

Recommendations

This study, therefore, recommends that the policing strategies and policies

need to develop to guide the use of police discretion and how they operate

especially in instances where they relate to the general public. The media can be

monumental in highlighting instances where the police are harsh brutal or

discriminatory towards a group and thereby giving a chance for a closer look and

possible ways to avert future incidences another way is fairness and impartiality in

the justice system where the judges and the jurors conduct hearings that are not

based on the race or background of a convict. This will help raise the confidence in

which the people and the racially profiled individuals have towards the justice

system.
Racial Profiling 23

The study can, however, be expanded to accommodate other minority

communities since this entailed most instances only on African Americans. The

findings and the results only apply to a generalized situation of racial profiling among

African Americans. Most literature that has been reviewed and authored may also be

biased and therefore may not clearly point out to a flaw in society. The fact that the

whites also fall prey of racial profiling and abuse has not been factored in the study

and thus the results may not depict the whole systematic pattern of the country.
Racial Profiling 24

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Banks, C. (2017). Criminal Justice Ethics. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

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Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2007). Critical Race Theory and Criminal Justice.

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