Compelling Appearance in Court - Administration of Bail in Philade PDF

1954]
COMPELLING APPEARANCE IN COURT:

ADMINISTRATION OF BAIL IN PHILADELPHIA
Editor's Note-This study was financed by the Institute of
Legal Research of the University of PennsylvaniaLaw School and
was completed by editors of the Law Review under the direction
of Caleb Foote.t
The right to bail before trial in non-capital cases is guaranteed by con-
stitutional and statutory law.' "This traditional right to freedom before
conviction," the Supreme Court has said, "permits the unhampered prepara-
tion of a defense, and serves to prevent the infliction of punishment prior
to conviction. Unless this right to bail before trial is preserved, the pre-
sumption of innocence, secured only after centuries of struggle, would
lose its meaning." 2 But the right to bail is not an unqualified right to
freedom, for the accused may be required to post such security as will
reasonably ensure his appearance in court for trial. Certainty of appear-
ance could be guaranteed only by incarcerating all prisoners, whereas not
inflicting punishment until guilt is determined would require the abolition
of all pre-trial imprisonment. Reconciliation of this conflict is attempted
by "properly striking a balance between the need for a tie to the jurisdiction
and the right to freedom from unnecessary restraint." 3
This study is an examination of how this adjustment is made in the
administration of bail in Philadelphia in non-capital cases before conviction.
It includes a survey of the methods employed to set bail, determination of
the proportion of defendants who do not obtain bail, the comparative treat-
ment of bail and jail defendants and the relative efficacy of different kinds
of bail as deterrents against non-appearance at trial.
t Instructor at Law, University of Pennsylvania Law School. The cooperation
of the many persons who assisted in this study is acknowledged with gratitude.
1. U.S. CONST. AMEND. VIII ("Excessive bail shall not be required"); FE. R.
Cam . P. 46 (Before conviction "[a] person arrested for an offense not punishable
by death shall be admitted to bail"). See opinion of Mr. Justice Butler as Circuit
Justice for the Seventh Circuit in United States v. Motlow, 10 F2d 657, 659 (7th Cir.
1926): "The Eighth Amendment provides that 'excessive bail shall not be required.'
This implies, and therefore safeguards, the right to give bail at least before trial. The
purpose is to prevent the practical denial of bail by fixing the amount so unreasonably
high that it cannot be given. The provision would be futile if magistrates were left
free to deny bail." See Comment, 51 MIx. L. REv. 389 (1953). While the Eighth
Amendment is not a limitation upon the states, Collins v. Johnston, 237 U.S. 502
(1915), state constitutional and statutory guarantees to bail are parallel, e.g., PA.
CoN sT. Art. I, § 14 ("All prisoners shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, unless for
capital offenses where the proof is evident or presumption great"), PA. STAT. ANN.
tit. 19, § 51 (Purdon Supp. 1953). This study does not include problems arising
where granting bail is discretionary, as on appeal after conviction, FED. R. CRlm. P.
46(a), or pending trial for capital offenses.
2. Stack v. Boyle. 342 U.S. 1, 4 (1951).
3. United States ex rel. Rubinstein v. Mulcahy, 155 F.2d 1002, 1004 (2d Cir.
1946).
(1031)
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 102
UNDER 500 500-750 750-1000 OVER 1000

FIGURE 1. PROPORTION OF STATE DEFENDANTS IN MAGISTRATES' COURTS
WHO Dm NOT RAISE BAIL ACCORDING TO AMOUNT OF BAIL
I. THE AVAILABILITY OF BAIL

Mr. Justice Jackson has said that: "The practice of admission to bail,
as it has evolved in Anglo-American law, is not a device for keeping per-
sons in jail upon mere accusation until it is found convenient to give them
a trial. On the contrary, the spirit of the procedure is to enable them to
stay out of jail until a trial has found them guilty." 4 If a bail system is to
have this effect, it must go as far in facilitating access to bail as is con-
sistent with reasonable assurance that the defendant will present himself at
his trial. To make bail readily available, the following standards must be
met:
(1) the amount of bail which is required must not be excessive, i.e.,
it must be no higher than is necessary to compel appearance; 5 and
(2) the procedure must provide for bail to be set promptly after arrest,
allow opportunity for the accused to contact potential bondsmen, protect
the defendant against exorbitant charges and corrupt practices, and afford
an expeditious method of posting the bond.
(a) Determination of Amount of Bail
The most important of the above requirements is the proscription
against excessive bail. The inverse relationship between the amount set
and the likelihood that a defendant can post the required security was
apparent in both the state and federal cases which were observed (see
figures 1 and 2). In the samples which were studied, 737 of state offenders
4. Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1, 7-8 (1951) (concurring opinion).
5. U.S. CONST. AMEND. VIII; PA. CONST. Art. 1, § 13; Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S.
1 (1951) ; United States v. Motlow, 10 F.2d 657 (7th Cir. 1926).
19541 COMPELLING APPEARANCE IN COURT
90 87,
80
70
60
50%
50
40-
30.- _
20 -
0
0
$,500 #1000 1500-4000 $5000 a OVER
FIGURE 2. PROPORTION OF FEDrAjL DEFENDANTS WHO Dm NOT RAISE

BAIL ACCORDING TO AMOUNT OF BAIL
for whom magistrates set bail obtained pre-trial release, but in the federal
cases, where the range of "normal" bail is higher by $500 or more, this
figure was reduced to 537.6 Fifteen per cent of the state sample did not
raise bail even when the amount was very low. When the bail was set
higher than $500, the proportion of offenders who could not put up bond
began to rise, and above $1000 the proportion was so great that pre-trial
release became the exception. At the $1500 level the likelihood that the
defendant would remain in prison until his trial occurred was four and
one-half times as great as at the $400 level. In most cases, therefore, the
amount of bail will determine whether or not an offender will regain his
freedom after arrest. One purpose for imposing a higher amount which
would be consistent with the theory of bail would be that the increase in
the defendant's financial stake reduces the likelihood of non-appearance at
his trial. In practice, however, higher bail usually means that appearance
in court is being obtained by holding the defendant behind bars.
In cases involving the constitutional prohibitions against excessive
bail, both federal and state courts have clearly articulated that the purpose
to be achieved in determining the amount of bail is limited to the objective
of insuring appearance for trial. 7 It follows that release may not be ir-
6. See notes 27, 29, 68 infra.

7. Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1 (1951); Ex parte Milburn, 9 Pet. 704, 710 (U.S.
1835); McNair's Petition, 324 Pa. 48, 187 Atl. 498 (1936).
1034 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 102
peded by setting high bail for other purposes, such as punishment or the
prevention of possible future criminal activity.8 If the amount is higher
than that reasonably required to fulfill its legitimate purpose, it is constitu-
tionally excessive. 9 This limitation recognizes that the defendant is as yet
merely an accused. The preliminary hearing at which bail is usually set
determines only whether or not there is a prima facie case sufficient to hold
the defendant for trial. Since frequently the defendant is not represented
and no evidence in his behalf is produced, there is no justification for the
imposition of punishment or for a finding of probable future criminality. 10
The guiding factors for determining the amount of bail are summa-
rized in Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 46(c) : 1
"If the defendant is admitted to bail, the amount thereof shall be such
as in the judgment of the commissioner or court or judge or justice
will insure the presence of the defendant, having regard to the nature
and circumstances of the offense charged, the weight of the evidence
against him, the financial ability of the defendant to give bail and the
character of the defendant."
Courts have also considered the character of the surety, 2 whether the de-
fendant was a fugitive from justice when apprehended,' 3 a record of pre-
vious bail jumping 14 and, in one case, the difficulty of escape from the juris-
diction (Hawaii).15
Except for the nature of the offense charged, these factors vary so
greatly in each case that they cannot be reduced to a rule of general ap-
plicability; but the administrative problems created by the large volume of
8. See United States v. Foster, 79 F. Supp. 422, 423 (S.D.N.Y. 1948).
9. Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1 (1951); Bennett v. United States, 36 F.2d 475
(5th Cir. 1929). See Commonwealth v. Kardosh, 9 Pa. D. & C. 812 (Northampton
County 1927).
10. In Williamson v. United States, 184 F.2d 280, 281-3 (2d Cir. 1950), Mr. Jus-
tice Jackson, as Circuit Justice for the Second Circuit, allowed bail to convicted
Communists pending an appeal over the contention that the defendants would continue
"a course of conduct and activity dangerous to the public welfare, safety and national
security of the United States." He said: "Imprisonment to protect society from
predicted but unconsummated offenses is so unprecedented in this country and so
fraught with danger of excesses and injustice that I am loath to resort to it, even as a
discretionary judicial technique to supplement conviction of such offenses as those
of which defendants stand convicted." This reasoning applies even more forcefully
to the administration of bail before conviction.
11. These standards have come down from the time of Bracton, see 1 STEPHEN,
A HISTORY OF THE CRIMINAL LAW OF ENGLAND 234 (1883), and were codified in
the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, 31 CAR. II, c. 2. The same standards have been
applied in Pennsylvania in the only cases discussing the subject. Commonwealth v.
Kardosh, 9 Pa. D. & C. 812 (Northampton County 1927); Commonwealth v.
Williams, 6 Pa. D. & C. 162 (Lackawanna County 1924).
12. Ewing v. United States, 240 Fed. 241 (6th Cir. 1917).
13. It re Grimes, 99 Cal. App. 10, 277 Pac. 1052 (1929) (fact that defendant in
flight when apprehended warrants high bail).
14. In re Lamar, 294 Fed. 688 (D.N.J. 1924) ; Lee's Case, 15 Fed. Cas. 136, No. 8,
180 (E.D. Pa. 1865).
15. International Longshoreman's Union v. Ackerman, 82 F. Supp. 65 (D. Hawaii
1948), rev'd on other grounds, 187 F.2d 860 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 342 U.S. 859
(1951).
1954] COMPELLING APPEARANCE IN COURT
cases in which bail must be set necessitates the creation of a standard which
can be easily and rapidly applied. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
nature of the offense is in fact the basic standard which guides the decision
as to the amount to be set. On the appellate level, cases dealing with ex-
cessive bail have involved amounts "greater than usually fixed" for similar
offenses. 16 Only then do the courts examine the other variable factors to
determine whether the higher amount is warranted by a proportionately
higher risk.17 The rationale of this reliance on the nature of the offense
charged as the standard to guide bail determination is that as the severity
of the crime and possible punishment increases, the defendant, having more
to fear, becomes more likely to jump bail. Even if this is well founded,' 8
there is no indication of how the range of bail "usually fixed" for a given
offense has been established, and within Philadelphia there is a striking
difference between the bail usually set in state courts and that usually set
in federal courts for comparable offenses. 19 Judge Clark has noted that
this determination on the basis of the nature of the offense "seems to apply
an abstract generality as the norm of decision, without consideration of the
particular facts and circumstances disclosed" in the individual case. 20
The "financial ability of the defendant to give bail" 21 is an obviously
relevant guiding standard if the bail system is to effect the release of as
many defendants as possible pending trial. If an accused appears to be a
good risk, the amount of his bail should be proportioned to his ability to
pay; otherwise, high bail is being used to incarcerate dependable persons.
While some courts have emphasized the importance of this factor,22 in-
ability to raise bail does not in itself render the amount of bail excessive.P
The decision as to how much if any consideration should be given to the
defendant's financial ability is purely discretionary with the court or magis-
16. See, e.g., Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1 (1951) (up to $100,000 on charges of
violating Smith Act); Spector v. United States, 193 F.2d 1002 (9th Cir. 1952)
($50,000 on Smith Act); People ex rel. Sammon v. Snow, 340 Ill. 464, 173 N.E. 8
(1930) ($50,000 on charge of vagrancy) ; United States ex rel. Rubinstein v. Mul-
cahy, 155 F.2d 1002 (2d Cir. 1946) ($500,000 for Selective Service).
'17. See note 16 supra. "If bail in an amount greater than that usually fixed for
serious charges of crimes is required in the case of any of the petitioners, that is a
matter to which evidence should be directed in a hearing so that the constitutional
rights of each petitioner may be preserved." Stack v. Boyle, 342 U.S. 1, 6 (1951).
18. See text at notes 25-6 infra.
19. See text at note 43 infra.
20. United States ex rel. Rubinstein v. Mulcahy, 155 F.2d 1002, 1005 (2d Cir.
1946).
21. FED. R. Cam!. P. 46(c).
22. Bennett v. United States, 36 F.2d 475, 477 (5th Cir. 1929): "The amount of
the bail bond in a criminal case is largely determined by the ability of the defendant
to give it, and what would be a reasonable bond in a given case can usually best be
determined by the trial judge, because of his familiarity with the facts and the financial
ability of the defendant to give security." See Commonwealth v. Kardosh, 9 Pa.
D. & C. 812 (Northampton County 1927).
23. United States v. Rumrich, 180 F.2d 575, 576 (6th Cir. 1950) ("a person ar-
rested upon a criminal charge, who cannot give bail has no recourse but to move for
trial") ; Ex parte Malley, 50 Nev. 248, 256 Pac. 512 (1927).
trate setting bail, provided the amount set is not disproportionate to the
general average of bail set for that offense.
In federal cases arising in Philadelphia, a number of defendants who
could not post bond were released on their own recognizance when the
Commissioner believed that they would appear for trial. Except in cases
of assault and battery by automobile, this almost never occurred in the
'state courts and no information was elicited during bail-setting as to the
defendant's financial condition. The elimination of the financial factor
resulted in bail being set in amounts which, as Reginald Heber Smith once
remarked about legal costs, "are too low to deter the rich, but high enough
24
to prohibit the poor."
Other factors which are supposed to be considered, such as the par-
ticular circumstances of an offense and the weight of the evidence against
the defendant, have the same kind of relevance to the risk of non-appearance
as the seriousness of the offense. While this will influence the incentive
to flee, its importance is questionable under modern conditions when the
more serious the charge, the more likely it is that flight will be followed
by a determined and usually successful attempt at apprehension. In Phila-
delphia it was found that most bail jumping was for minor crimes and that
there was none for the most serious offenses 2 5 This emphasizes the fact
that the relationship of such standards to the actual risk of non-appearance
is unknown. No psychological studies were found which cast any light on
the problem of how a court-or magistrate can distinguish the reliable from
the unreliable defendant, and no tests have been made to determine whether
the standards enunciated by judicial or legislative declaration are in fact
reliable indicators. An honest attempt to individualize bail determination
must be plagued by the treacherous uncertainty inherent in predicting
future human behavior.26
Appellate decisions in bail cases are rare. If a defendant is financially
unable to raise bail, he probably cannot afford an appeal which might not
be decided within the normal period of pre-trial detention. Because the
first determination of the amount of bail is in the great majority of cases
also the final determination, it is important to observe how the courts' and
magistrates' almost unreviewed discretion is actually exercised.
(b) Setting Bail in Philadelphia

The Philadelphia practices observed in this study involved bail de-
terminations made in three different ways. For most state offenses bail
24. SMITH, JUSTICE AND THE POOR 23 (1919).
25. See text following note 124 infra.
26. Compare the problem of trying to predict recidivism as part of the effort to
individualize treatment of criminals. For a review of studies made in this field see
Monachesi, American Studies in the Prediction of Recidivisn, 41 J. CRIM. L. &
CRIMINOLOGY 268 (1951). There have been no comparable attempts to develop
"prediction tables" related to the risk of non-appearance. See, however, a detailed
study of 170 untried defendants made by BEELEY, THE BAn. SYSTEm ix CHICAGO
59-153 (1927). See note 155 infra.
was set during the preliminary hearing before a magistrate. 27 For certain
serious state crimes, of which burglary, robbery, rape, and narcotics
offenses are the most important, bail was set by a judge of a common pleas
court.28 In federal cases, the determination was made by a United States
Commissioner.29
Measured by the number of defendants, the proceedings in the magis-
trates' courts are by far the most important. The hearings are held each
morning at 9 at divisional police courts in dingy station houses throughout
the city. Defendants, arrested during the preceding 24 hours, number be-
tween two and twenty depending upon the section of the city. They are
accompanied by lawyers in only 15% of the cases 30 The magistrate must
also dispose of summary offenses, including the overnight drunks. The
presiding magistrate is an elected official who is usually not a lawyer 31
and the assistant district attorney is often the only lawyer present. Police
officers and prosecuting witnesses, who are waiting to testify, mingle with
spectators in the frequently crowded room. The location, conditions and
lack of defense counsel produce an atmosphere which is ill-suited to careful
judicial determination.
The primary purpose of the preliminary hearing is to determine
whether or not there is a prima facie case sufficient to hold the defendant;
and determination of the amount of bail receives, at the most, secondary
consideration. After the police evidence has been presented, the defendant
is warned, in a sometimes hasty and almost unintelligible manner, of his
right not to testify, and then he is given a chance to present a defense. In
27. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, § 51 (Purdon Supp. 1953) provides that with certain
exceptions, see note 28 infra,opower to set bail is given to "any judge, justice, mayor,
recorder or alderman." In all cases observed in this study where bail was set at the
preliminary hearing, the proceedings were before a magistrate, and the material was
obtained in two ways. (1) A sample of 48 hearings between June 25 and August 11,
1953, in which bail was set in 124 cases, were observed. (2) The transcripts of 861
cases in which bail was set were examined. This sample consisted of cases in the
pre-indictment file of the District Attorney's office between June 26 and August 11,
1953.
28. PA. SAT. ANN. tit. 19, § 51 (Purdon Supp. 1953) provides that bail in these
cases can be set by the supreme or common pleas courts or judges thereof or a mayor
or recorder of a city. All cases studied involved bail set before a common pleas judge,
the sample consisting of all 109 felony bail cases passing through the District Attor-
ney's office from March 1 to June 30, 1953. See Rule 51C, Rules of Courts of Oyer
and Terminer and General Jail Delivery and Quarter Sessions of the Peace of Phila-
delphia County, 123 LEGAL I ELLiGENCER 671 (Philadelphia, Dec. 21, 1950), for the
procedure followed, quoted at note 40 infra.
29. Fan. R. CUm. P. 46(c). Bail in federal cases can also be set by judges or
justices. A sample of 208 federal bail-settings was studied by taking the first 25
cases out of each of the last eight docket books of the United States Commissioner, the
cases covering the period from July 5, 1950 to July 2, 1953. Each of these cases was
then traced in the records of the clerk of the District Court for the Eastern District
of Pennsylvania to determine the outcome of the case and to see if the defendant ob-
tained release on bail.
30. Out of 857 hearings, defense lawyers appeared in 130.
31. PA. SAT. ANN. tit. 42, § 1048 (Purdon 1930). The only qualifications for
the position are that the magistrate must be at least 35 years old, be a natural born
citizen or naturalized for at least ten years, and be a qualified voter of Philadelphia
and have been a resident thereof for at least five years. A few of the magistrates are
lawyers.
addition to this evidence, the magistrate has before him the information in
the docket: name, address, age, occupation (sometimes omitted) and
charge. In some cases he will also have the criminal record, and, in the
15% of the cases in which defense counsel are present, the magistrate may
be given some further information about the defendant relevant to bail
determination.
During the hearings, magistrates frequently interject questions and,
in about one-third of the cases, various factors which are thought to be
relevant to bail will be discussed, such as criminal record, employment,
family status, cooperation with the police, value of property taken, or
amount of damage done. After all the testimony has been concluded, the
magistrate either dismisses the defendant, sets bail for court, or, in cases
in which bail can be set only by a judge, holds the suspect "without bail for
court." The decisions- as to holding the defendant and the amount of bail
are given together, and there was little indication that any independent
thought had been given to the amount of bail.
Because custom or intuition appears to be the basis of bail determina-
tions, it is difficult to ascertain what standards are being applied. How-
ever, the fact that evidence of the crime is the only information which the
magistrate possesses in two-thirds of the cases 3 2 indicates that the nature
of the crime and circumstances behind the particular charge are the
primary factors in bail decisions.
Although theoretically the only purpose to be served in determining
the amount of bail is to assure the defendant's presence at his trial, it was
evident from observation of magistrates' court hearings that this was not
the only objective. Chief Magistrate Clothier stated that bail is used to
"break" crime waves, and in many cases the setting of high bail by the
magistrates was motivated by a desire to keep the defendant incarcerated
until the time of trial. Sometimes, however, a magistrate would exercise
restraint and adhere to the theory of bail. When an assistant district
attorney asked for $1500 bail in one case, the magistrate responded: "Bail
is set to insure appearance. We don't punish people by setting high bail." 3 4
But this example is the exception and normal magisterial practice indicated
that bail was often used for punishment purposes. The following reports
sustain this conclusion and also show that it is frequently assumed in the
hearings, solely on the basis of prosecution testimony, that the defendant
is guilty.
In setting bail for an employee accused of larceny by sneak, one magis-
trate said: "I'll make it $1500-that will hold anybody." One could in-
terpret this as an attempt to create an obligation to appear for trial, but
the disproportionate amount and the lack of concern for the individual
indicate an intent to keep the defendant in jail.
32. In the 124 observed cases, questions relative to bail were not asked in 87.
33. Interview, June, 1953.
34. This and all succeeding quotations from magistrates were either obtained from
the transcripts of the proceedings or were taken down at hearings by the observer
for this study.
One case inspired the magistrate to exclaim: "Anybody that hits their
mother with a blackjack, there is sure something wrong, lady." When the
assistant district attorney objected to the bail of $1000 by saying that $500
would be sufficient, the magistrate replied: "I disagree with you, Mr.
District Attorney. I feel that the man should be punished and I don't feel
that $500 bail is sufficient." When the defendant's attorney protested the
use of bail as punishment, the magistrate denied such an intention and
reduced the bail to $800.
In setting $600 bail for a numbers offense, the magistrate said: "If
you didn't bite the policeman I wouldn't be so hard. I would be lenient
with you."
In a case involving an auto offense, the magistrate exclaimed: "All
right, I don't like hit and run drivers"; and $800 bail was set.
An assault and battery case, in which the victim was hospitalized,
prompted bail of $1,500 and the explanation: "He is a Puerto Rican.
What a bum."
A defendant charged with injuring his father's eye was told: "Anyone
who hits his father ought to be electrocuted." $1500 bail was set for
further hearing.
Another case involved a Negro woman who intervened after a police-
man had told a Negro boy to stop grabbing the packages of customers
coming out of a supermarket. A heated argument developed into a
fracas, and eight police cars responded to a riot call. The magistrate lec-
tured the defendant on minding her own business and said: "I'm going
to make an example of you." $1500 bail was set.
Another indication of the use of bail for punishment was the practice
of ostensibly setting bail for each offense with which the defendant was
charged. When a defendant's attorney in one case asked for reduction of
bail from $10,000, the magistrate said: "Today we have tvo cases involving
two things. I set $5000 on each case, or $10,000 for court."
For a charge of forgery and false pretenses, bail was set as follows:
"On the M- A- case, $1000; on the M- G-- case, $500; on the other
G- case, $500; the C- case, $500; the S- case, $500; the J- G- case,
$500; the H- M- case, $500." The total for this one defendant was
$4000.
A defendant charged with gambling and assault and battery on an
officer was held on $800 for each offense, or a total of $1600.
Another purpose in setting bail, especially for narcotics cases, was an
endeavor to keep the defendant from continuing his practices by incarcerat-
ing him in jail. In setting bail for a narcotics and assault and battery
offense, one magistrate said: "I'm tired of seeing you in front of me; I'll
hold you in $2500 bail for court. Maybe that will keep you in for a while."
In another case, involving assault and battery on a woman, a police captain
recommended: "I would like to ask for a high bail on this fellow. He
should be kept off the street and we should protect these women. I would
ask for $10,000 bail." Although the magistrate set $5000, this figure is
still many times above the standard for assault and battery and sufficiently
high to make it very probable that the defendant could not raise bail.
On the other hand, there was a tendency to use low bail when the
magistrate felt that the crime was not a serious one, or when he felt that
there were mitigating circumstances, or when he was not convinced of the
defendant's guilt. In one case, a police officer was charged with driving
a police car while intoxicated and bail was first set at $300. When in-
formed that the defendant had four children and would be severely handi-
capped if forced to raise $300, the magistrate reduced it to $100. 35
Two men were charged with slugging an officer in a case which grew
out of the arrest of sidewalk gamblers who had almost been snatched from
the hands of the police by a disorderly mob of sympathizers. The defense
was that the officer had hit the defendants' mother -first. The magistrate,
noting that it was Mother's Day, released the defendants in the custody
of their mother for a further hearing.36
In a case of public indecency, the magistrate said: "This woman is
positive. Therefore, I'll have to hold him for court, but I'll make bail
very low," i.e., $300 for court.
One magistrate reduced bail twice during a hearing (from $800 to
$600 to $500) when the defendant kept protesting his innocence.
In a case of assault with threat to kill, when the assistant district
attorney suggested $2000 or $1500, the magistrate replied: "I think there
are extenuating circumstances," and he set $1000 bail.
In a numbers case, a magistrate said: "We'll be easy on Murphy,"
and he set $300 for court.
The failure to release defendants on their own recognizance in any
cases except assault and battery by automobile indicates that magistrates
may not be aware of their clear power to release a defendant without
security.37 In one gambling case, in which the defendant's attorney asked
that the defendant be released in the attorney's custody, the magistrate said:
"This District Attorney is gunning for me. They're arresting magistrates
for things like that."
A few cases were observed in which a defendant should not have been
held at all, but the magistrate nevertheless set bail, either to make the
defendants "serve some time" for acts for which they could not be con-
victed or, by finding a prima facie case, to protect the arresting officers
against possible false arrest suits. In one case two defendants were alleged
to have done nothing more than ask the prosecuting witness for change
for $500. The magistrate, apparently recognizing a potential confidence
scheme, held each in $600 bail. The defendants could not raise the money
and thus each spent a month in jail. In an assault and battery case, the
35. Philadelphia Inquirer, May 10, 1954, p. 1, col. 4.

36. Id., p. 1, col. 1.
37. McNair's Petition, 342 Pa. 48, 187 AtI. 498 (1936).
magistrate held the defendant in $300 bail because "I want to protect the
officer so they cannot do anything to you [the officer] ."
On other occasions, gamblers were brought in by detectives with no
evidence. The detectives had been ordered to arrest "known gamblers"
whenever possible to get them to leave the district.88 The magistrates
dismissed the charges in these cases and issued stern lectures to the police
on citizens' rights.
Except for narcotics offenses, the amount of bail set by the magistrates
was usually under $1000. The usual figures were $300, $400, $500, $600
or $800, with gambling offenses averaging $500 and narcotics $1250. One
of the greatest ranges occurred in assault and battery, in which the amount
varied from $300 to $5000. Of 100 assault and battery cases in the District
Attorney's pre-indictment file between June 26 and July 13, 1953, the
distribution of bail was: $300-13; $400-7; $500-29; $600-16; $700-
1; $800-11; $1000-13; $1500-3; $2000-2; $2500-2; $5000-3.
For 81 untaxed liquor cases in a sample taken from the same source
the range was smaller, 21 being under $500, 39 at $500, 20 between $600
and $1000, and one at $1500.
The amount of bail for each crime depended, furthermore, on the
particular magistrate before whom the defendant appeared, for each magis-
trate develops his own intuitive pattern. In a sample of 226 hearings for
gambling offenses the average bail for all cases was $503, but the averages
for some individual magistrates ranged from $382 to $610:
Magistrate $300 $400 $500 $600 $800 $1000 Average
A 0 4 15 14 5 1 $600
B 1 1 10 0 0 0 $475
C 8 2 11 0 0 0 $413
D 6 3 7 10 10 0 $610
E 4 12 1 0 0 0 $382
All magistrates 44 39 81 30 28 4 $503 9
Thus Magistrate D imposed an amount more than $500 in 59% of
his cases, while Magistrate E never imposed more than $500 and was
below that figure in 94% of his cases.
The more serious state offenses are not bailable by a magistrate and
bail can be set only if the defendant through his attorney requests such
action by the Quarter Sessions Court.40 In such instances, a copy of the
38. See, e.g., Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, October 19, 1953, p. 1, col. 4; Phila-
delphia Inquirer, October 20, 1953, p. 1, col. 2.
39. This total includes the individual magistrates shown in the table.
40. See note 28 ,supra. Rule 51C, Philadelphia Quarter Sessions Court, see note
28 stpra, provides: "Informal oral applications for fixing bail without issuing a writ
of habeas corpus or requiring the appearance of the Commonwealth's witnesses may
be made in Quarter Sessions Courtroom No. 2, at 10 a.m. on any day following com-
mitment, provided 24 hours' notice of intention to do so has been given to the district
attorney and to the Bureau of Police. On such application only the police report need
be considered in determining whether bail shall be allowed, and neither the defendant
nor the prosecuting witnesses need personally appear. Only one such informal ap-
plication may be made."
commitment sheet is brought to the District Attorney, who adds a resum6

of the facts and a recommendation as to bail. The courts followed this
recommendation in 95% of the cases, so that the District Attorney was
actually the one who made the bail determination. An office list of
recommended bail for each offense is utilized by the assistant district
attorney in making the recommendation. Selections from this list follow:
"Consider always: Has he a family; a job; a house he owns; a
record? And is there publicity of the sort to make him run? Also,
what is the value of property or money taken?
"Sodomy: $750 normal where defendant's partner adult. Upward
where (a) partner a minor; (b) violence.
"Burglary: (a) Of building-1500 normal. Upward where
felony intended to be committed inside was other than larceny; up-
ward where weapon carried. (b) Of auto-$500 normal.
"Robbery: (a) Strong Arm-$1500 normal. (b) Knife or Gun
-$2500 normal.
"Rape: (a) Other than what would have been Common Law-
$500 normal; upward where girl 13 or younger. (b) Common Law-
$2500, upward where injury other than the rape itself is caused.
"Arson: $1000 normal.
"Bad Checks: $2000 normal; these fellows wander."
In 37% of the cases, the individual recommendation was lower in

multiples of $500 than the listed figure for the crime, and in 19% of the
cases it was higher.41 The factors which caused such variations are not
clear, but apparently they include lack of evidence or a large family on the
one hand, and a bad criminal record or particularly heinous act on the
other.4
In federal cases, the procedure for bail determination before the United
States Commissioner was far more dignified than were the comparable
state proceedings. The low volume of cases, the fact that the proceedings
take place in the Federal Court House, the lack of trials for summary
offenses, the absence of noise and confusion, and the high calibre of the
personnel all contributed to this difference. The assistant United States
attorney handling a particular case is expected to recommend bail; but
there is no list comparable to the recommended bail list of the District
Attorney's office, and apparently little thought is given to the problem of
amount of bail in the United States Attorney's office. The Commissioner
considered primarily the severity of the crime but in most cases it appeared
that he also took other relevant factors into account.
41. Based on a sample of 122 felony bail cases passing through the District At-
torney's office from March 1, 1953 to June 30, 1953.
42. Rape in particular rarely received as much as its listed $2500 bail. Fifteen
out of seventeen cases were lower, one was $2500 and one $5000.
Of 208 bail settings at the Commissioner's hearings, 121, or 58%,

resulted in the release of the defendant before trial. Fifty of those released
were allowed to sign their own recognizances. Nearly half of these 50
defendants were charged with failure to report for induction under Selective
Service, and all but one of their cases were dismissed when they reported
for induction. Excluding these special Selective Service cases, the number
obtaining release was 527.4 The average amount set for those raising
bail (excluding the recognizances) was $1200; for those remaining in jail
the average bail was $2800. Highest bail was for narcotics offenses,
averaging $3600 for 51 cases, or nearly three times the average state bail
for the same offense. This discrepancy suggests the arbitrary determina-
tion of the standard against which individual bail is measured. The dif-
ferent and sometimes interstate nature of federal crimes hardly warrants
establishing a standard which is several times higher than that set for state
offenses.
Bail determinations made in federal cases, by magistrates, and in
Quarter Sessions Court all display, the great emphasis placed upon the
nature of the offense in fixing the amount of bail. Particularly in state
cases, there was seldom any explicit examination of the factors which are
relevant to the likelihood that the individual defendant is a good or a poor
risk. Frequently the imposition of high bail was unrelated to this risk.
Rule 51C of the Quarter Sessions Court, governing bail fixing in that
court, explicitly provides that "on such application only the police report
need be considered in determining whether bail shall be allowed, and
neither the defendant nor the prosecuting witnesses need personally ap-
pear." 44 This removes any possibility of making the kind of determination
which appellate courts have held to be required.4 5
Custom has established a standard related to the nature of the crime
charged, a standard which is sufficiently flexible to permit in any crime an
amount sufficient to have the practical effect of holding most defendants
in prison. The individual is subordinated to the class into which he is
placed according to the type of crime with which he is charged, although
what relationship to the risk of non-appearance this may have is unknown.
(c) Time Necessary to Obtain Bail

The effectiveness of the right to bail is partly dependent upon the
speed with which it can be exercised. Two questions are involved: (1) the
extent of police detention before the preliminary hearing and (2),the delay
in setting bail in cases in which the magistrate is not authorized to perform
that function.
The first question does not raise a serious problem in Philadelphia at
the present time. The District Attorney's office, with the cooperation of
43. Compare proportion of defendants released in state cases. See note 68 infra.
44. See notes 28, 40 supra.
45. See notes 2, 11 supra.
the police, is currently enforcing a rule providing that persons arrested

before 8 a. m. are brought before the next regular sitting of the magistrates'
court at 9 a.m. so that no detention can exceed 25 hours.46 During the
period of detention prior to the preliminary hearing, persons arrested for
47
some lesser offenses may obtain release overnight on a copy of the charge.
The officer in charge of the police station in which a defendant is held
must, upon request, issue a copy of the charge against the defendant. 48 If
the defendant's representative can find a magistrate and persuade him to
sign the copy, the prisoner is released until the preliminary hearing.
In the sample which was studied, 348 defendants, or approximately
one out of five, obtained release in this manner, and only four failed to
appear at the hearing the next day. It was impossible to observe what
standards the magistrates applied in their administration of release on the
copy of the charge, because their decisions are made at all hours wherever
a magistrate can be found.
A much more serious procedural problem is created by the division
of responsibility for setting bail, prohibiting the magistrate from setting
bail for persons accused of arson, rape, mayhem, sodomy, buggery, robbery
or burglary. 49 Persons charged with these offenses, after being held at
the preliminary hearing, must procure someone else (usually an attorney)
to notify the District Attorney that bail is requested; he must then have
the District Attorney's recommendation placed on the commitment sheet
and have a common pleas judge sign the order for bail. 0
The practical effects of this procedure were twofold. First, for those
who obtained bail it took an average of five days from the time of the pre-
liminary hearing until bail could be posted. 1 This period is almost five
times as long as the average time required when bail was set in magis-
trates' court. 2 Second, the procedure frequently operated to deny bail,
notwithstanding the constitutional mandate that all offenders charged with
46. ANNUM. REPORT 1952, DISTRCT ATTORNEY'S OFFICE OF PHILADELPHIA 10

(1953) (hereinafter cited as DisT. AT'y REP.). Note, however, the possibility of
further detention in a case in which a magistrate continues a preliminary hearing for
a defendant for whom the magistrate cannot set bail. This increases the delay dis-
cussed in text at note 49 et seq. infra.
47. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 42, § 1113 (Purdon Supp. 1953).
48. Ibid.
49. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, §51 (Purdon Supp. 1953).
50. This was the procedure normally followed when this study was made, rather
than the more formalized method prescribed by Quarter Sessions Court Rule 51C,
quoted at note 40 supra.
51. Based on 75 cases for which data could be obtained from the same sample
described in note 28 supra.
52. Out of 368 persons who obtained bail after it had been set by a magistrate in
preliminary hearing, based on a sample of all cases entering the District Attorney's
pre-indictment file between July 15 and August 11, 1953, the time required for release
on bail was:
297 defendants were released the same day as the preliminary hearing;
24 were released the day following the preliminary hearing;
47 defendants were released later than the day after the preliminary hearing,
the average time for these 47 cases being 7 days after the preliminary hearing.
non-capital offenses "shall be bailable." 5 In common parlance among

police and magistrates the crimes for which the latter cannot set bail are
described as "non-bailable," and there is ironic truth in this label. When
a magistrate holds such an offender at preliminary hearing, he will state,
"without bail for court," and a substantial number of defendants do not
understand that they may still be able to obtain bail by going through the
procedure outlined above. Among the prisoners interviewed during this
study who were being held in jail awaiting trial, 46 were defendants being
"held without bail." Thirty-two of these, or 70%, stated that they had not
learned of the possibility that they could obtain bail until they had been in
prison for some time. A number did not learn of their rights until they
talked with us or with a representative of the Philadelphia Voluntary De-
fender Association, or until they found out by prison rumor after a week
or two in jail.
Sometimes the officials foster this fiction. In one case in which a sea-
man was held "without bail for court" the following exchange took place:
Defendant: "What do you mean, hold me without bail"?
Magistrate: "That means that you will be kept in jail for two or three
weeks until this case can be decided by a higher court."
Defendant: "You mean I got to stay here all that time"?
Magistrate: "Are you kicking? Why, lots of guys jump ship just so
they can stay here."
One of the prisoners stated that his mother asked a detective how much
bail was required, and was told only that the defendant was being held
without bail.
Even those who are aware of their right to apply to the court for bail
must surmount the obstacles and delay inherent in the requirement of a
second hearing. It is virtually essential for a defendant to obtain an
attorney before he can proceed to have bail set, and this involves both delay
and expense. The District Attorney's office has recently announced a
policy which will increase the delay in robbery cases. According to this
report: 14
"It was understood that [Chief Inspector] DuBois, acting for
Police Commissioner Thomas J. Gibbons, suggested that the district
attorney's office make bail for armed holdup so high that the defendant
would be forced to remain in jail until trial.
"The bail in such cases, fixed by the court after a magistrate's
hearing, now averages $2500. It was reported that even at this
figure not one in ten armed holdup suspects is able to raise bail.
"While the district attorney's office rejected the suggestion of
higher bail in such cases, it agreed to ask the court to follow stricter
procedure in fixing the bail.
53. See note 1 supra.
54. Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, Jan. 21, 1954, p. 3, col. 1. This procedure fol-
lows that outlined in Rule 51C rather than the more informal method normally em-
ployed. See text at note 50 supra.
in the future the defendant will have to give 24 hour formal

notice in writing to the district attorney's office and the police of his
intention to ask for bail. Then an assistant district attorney and de-
tectives will appear before the court when bail is asked."
The division of responsibility, which makes possible such infringe-

ments of the right to prompt bail, is an anachronism which has no practical
utility. When the court sets bail in the "non-bailable" offenses it almost
invariably follows the recommendation of the District Attorney. The latter
is also represented at preliminary hearings, and there is no reason why
bail in all cases should not be set at that time, provided that the District
Attorney has the right to petition a court immediately for higher bail if he
feels that the amount set is too low., 5 In the absence of legislative change
to this end, the spirit of the constitutional guarantee would demand that
each defendant be fully informed at the preliminary hearing of his right
to bail, and that in all cases bail be set promptly by the court without
requiring that the defendant, handicapped by his incarceration in prison,
first obtain a lawyer and make a-formal request.
(d) Effecting Release on Bail

A defendant, for whom bail has been set in an amount which he is
financially able to afford, faces problemrs arising out of his relationship
with bondsmen or the inadequacy of facilities for posting bail. A recent
Pennsylvania statute regulating professional bondsmen limits the amount
which they can charge to not more than 10% on the first $100 and 5%
on each additional $100.5 In the event of an overcharge, the Act provides
for treble damages 57 and for a fine and imprisonment. 58 The Act also
seeks to prevent gouging by making it a misdemeanor for any person to
accept "any fee or compensation for obtaining a bondsman" 59 or for "any
55. Senate Bill No. 472, Session of 1953, Pennsylvania legislature, which failed
to pass, would have provided that for offenses for which the magistrate is not now
able to set bail, see PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, § 51 (Purdon Supp. 1953), the magistiate
shall set bail. "If the district attorney at the hearing before the mayor magistrate
alderman or justice of the peace objects to the amount of bail fixed or the surety or
sureties required if any the accused shall not be discharged but shall be brought before
a law judge of a common pleas court within forty-eight (48) hours for the purpose
of the fixing of bail by that court."
56. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, §90.9 (Purdon Supp. 1953).
57. Ibid.
58. Id. § 90.10(b) (fine of $500 to $1000 and/or imprisonment not exceeding six
months). For a similar provision, see ILL. ANN. STAT. c. 38, § 627(n) (Smith-Hurd
Cum. Supp. 1953). See also MONTGOMERY, REPORT OF THE: CLERK OF THE RECORDER'S
COURT, CITY OF DETROIT 16, 35 (1952), reporting maximum rates in effect in Wash-
ington and Baltimore (5%) and Boston (59o on secured bail and 10% on unsecured).
The average fees in Detroit are reported to be the same as in Boston, but there is no
legal control over the fee. "We have approximately fourteen licensed bail bondsmen
and the competition between them is keen. This competition serves as a control over
the amount of fees charged." Letter dated November 17, 1953 from E. Burke Mont-
gomery, Clerk of the Recorder's Court, Detroit, on file in Biddle Law Library, Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania Law School.
59. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, §90.10(c) (Purdon Supp. 1953).
law enforcement officer, employe of a penal institution," or court official to

have a pecuniary interest in or derive any profit from the bonding business.6°
Such limitations have not proved to be very successful in preventing
overcharging in other jurisdictions. 61 In Philadelphia in 1952 an investiga-
tion by the District Attorney's office "revealed that defendants involved in
morals charges and in charges of driving motor vehicles while intoxicated
were particularly susceptible to being shaken down by bondsmen," and two
62
arrests resulted.
A related problem in other jurisdictions, about which we have no
Philadelphia information, involves collusion between lawyers and bonds-
men. In Chicago, "aside from the question of ethics in having bondsmen
solicit cases for lawyers and the 'pressuring' of the accused into accepting
the attorney of the bondsmen's choice, there is unquestionably in such
instances a splitting of fees between the attorney and the bondsmen so that
in most instances the accused does not get the best representation for his
money." 6 In New York the Kings County Grand Jury found that bonds-
men were recommending lawyers, splitting fees and, in some cases, refusing
6
to furnish bail unless those lawyers were chosen. 3
The final procedural provision, which is necessary to facilitate the
release of defendants able to post bail, is the existence of convenient facili-
ties for this purpose. In Philadelphia, bail may be posted before any
magistrate, and the office of the bail clerk of Quarter Sessions Court is
open during normal business hours. The Magistrate's Court Act requires
that a magistrate be available 24 hours a day at the Central Police Station,
but at the time of this study this provision was ignored.O Compliance
with the law in this respect would be of substantial benefit both in facilitat-
ing the posting of bail and in obtaining the necessary signature for release
on a copy of the charge. It also would do away with the necessity of search-
ing for a magistrate and perhaps waking him up in the middle of the night
to take bail.
60. Id. § 90.10(e).

61. "Probably the two most prevalent evils still existing [regarding bail] and for
which there appear to be no satisfactory solution despite close supervision and the
records which the bondsmen are required to keep by law or established rule are: (1)
Fees charged in excess of the statutory limit and (2) solicitation of cases on behalf
of attorneys by bondsmen." Letter dated March 2, 1953 from V. IV. Peterson, Oper-
ating Director, Chicago Crime Commission, on file in Biddle Law Library. See also
MONTGOMERY, REPORT, op. cit. supra note 58 at 16, 22, for a report that the maximum
fee rule is probably not observed in Baltimore and Washington.
62. DisT. ATn'y REP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 14.
63. Letter from V. W. Peterson, supra note 61.
64. New York Times, March 9, 1948, p. 26, col. 3. For other instances of col-
lusion see MONTGOMERY, REPORT, op. cit. supra note 58 at 4, 16.
65. "There shall be established a magistrates' court in the city hall of the city
of Philadelphia which shall be open during the entire twenty-four hours of each day,
with a magistrate continually present thereat or immediately available ... " PA.
STAT. ANN. tit. 19, § 1110 (Purdon Supp. 1953).
II. THE JAILED DEFENDANT

One evil of a system which employs the financial deterrent of a bond
as its method of compelling appearance in court is its effect upon those who
are unable to post the bond. The right to bail is founded upon the belief
that it will not only help keep the innocent from being punished while
awaiting vindication but that it will also enable the defendant to work with
his counsel, search out evidence and witnesses in preparation of a defense,
and maintain employment so that he can support his dependents and em-
ploy the 'counsel of his choice. To determine the extent to which the
Philadelphia bail system effectuates this policy, investigations were made
to determine (1) what proportion of defendants do not raise bail and are
detained from arrest until trial; (2) what proportion of such jail de-
fendants are found innocent and what proportion of those who are found
guilty are not sentenced to imprisonment; (3) the duration of such pre-
trial detention; (4) the possible prejudices to the jail defendants compared
with bail defendants in trial and sentencing; and (5) the extent of the
handicap of having to prepare a defense from a prison cell. 66
(a) Proportion of Defendants Detained

Three out of four defendants charged with serious crimes for which
bail must be set in court 87 were held in jail between arrest and trial. Of
those charged with less serious crimes for whom bail was set by a magis-
trate, about one in four (27%) did not obtain release. These figures are
based on samples totaling 752 defendants who were being held for trial
during the summer of 1953.08 This shows that the practical effect of
Philadelphia methods for determining the amount of bail is to deny bail
to the great majority of those charged with more serious offenses and to a
substantial proportion of those charged with lesser crimes. It explains
the chronic overcrowding in the untried department of the County Prison,
66. These facts were obtained for state cases only, and no comparable studies
were made of federal cases. As federal prisoners awaiting trial are held in the same
prison as state untried prisoners, conclusions drawn about the effects of imprisonment
upon preparation of a defense are equally applicable to them. See ANNUAL REPORT
1952, PHILADELPHIA COUNTY PasoN BOARD OF IxsPEcTbRs 31 (1953) (hereinafter
cited as PRIsoN REP.).
67. Arson, rape, mayhem, sodomy, buggery, robbery or burglary. PA. STAT.
ANN. tit. 19, § 51 (Purdon Supp. 1953).
68. The sample for defendants whose bail was set by magistrates' court consisted
of all cases in the District Attorney's pre-indictment file between July 15 and August
11, 1953; out of a total of 501 defendants, 368 obtained bail and 133 did not. Statistics
for defendants held for the more serious crimes, see note 67 supra, were more difficult
to obtain, and were compiled in the following way. The dockets at Moyamen-
sing Prison (the county prison) show that 251 defendants were committed pending
trial for these offenses during May and June, 1953. The number of defendants for
whom bail was set by Quarter Sessions Court and who raised bail during the same
months is estimated at 62. This total was compiled by checking all cases in which the
District Attorney recommended bail under the informal procedure described at note
50 supra against bail records in the offices of the Clerk of the Court of Common
Pleas and the Bail Clerk of Quarter Sessions Court. This search indicated that 46
defendants raised bail, and to this was added 16, an estimate for the defendants whose
bail was set under the procedure provided by Quarter Sessions Court Rule 51C, see
note 40 supra. This estimate was based on the opinion of Stanley Bashman, Chief
of the Bail Division, District Attorney's Office.
where in 1952 detainees spent a total of 131,683 days awaiting trial.69 That
such a large volume of defendants are jailed pending trial emphasizes the
importance of examining what disposition is made of their cases and the
effects of imprisonment upon those dispositions.
(b) Disposition of Jail Cases

Most Philadelphia cases are brought to court for disposition. The
practice of the District Attorney's office is to seek indictments in all cases
in which the accused are held at preliminary hearing, and the grand jury,
which acted on 17,168 cases in 1952, "is too overburdened to discriminate
in any great number of cases." 70 During 1952 only 735 bills were ignored
by the grand jury, which means that only about 4% of all cases were dis-
71
posed of by failure to indict.
A study of the disposition of 1000 jail cases showed that the defendants
fell into three major categories: 72
(1) Forty-seven per cent of all jail defendants were convicted and
sentenced to a term of imprisonment. As they received credit on their
sentences for time served while awaiting trial, they lost nothing in terms
of confinement by not posting bail.
(2) A second group (318 defendants) were convicted but did not
have to serve any time in prison after conviction. Of these, 228 were
either fined or given suspended sentences. Failure to raise bail penalized
these defendants, in comparison to comparable offenders who did raise
bail, in that they served jail terms7 3 only because of their poverty. The
remaining 90 of this group were sentenced to the period of time which
they had already served while awaiting trial, and they were released im-
69. See PRIsox REP., op. cit. supra note 66, at 31.
70. DIST. Arr'Y REP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 12.
71. Ibid.
72. This sample consists of 958 jail cases which were disposed of by Quarter
Sessions Court between August 15 and December 31, 1953, to which was added 42
cases to make allowance for the fact that four and a quarter per cent of all cases held
at preliminary hearings are disposed of because the grand jury ignores the bill. See
DiST. ATT'Y REP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 12. The sample includes all cases
for all offenses during the period studied, and is broken down as follows:
Not indicted 42 (est.)
Nolle Prosequi 30
Demurrer to evidence sustained 21
Acquitted 117
Suspended Sentence 193
Fine 35
Sentenced to time already served
awaiting trial 90
Sentenced to further imprisonment 472
Compare the dispositions of 2077 "finished cases" handled by the Voluntary Defender
in Quarter Sessions Court for the 12 months ending June 1, 1953. Of these, 29% were
not convicted, consisting of 397 acquittals and 205 otherwise not convicted, and 21%
were given suspended sentences or probation. The remaining 50% were sentenced to
imprisonment. See NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT, PHILADELPHIA VOLUNTARY DE-
FENDER Ass'N 1952-1953 at 10 (1953) (hereinafter VOL. DEFENDER REP.).
73. Some of those fined may subsequently serve a further term in prison in lieu
of fine and costs. A total of 137 prisoners in this 'category were received by the
County Prison in 1952. See PIRsoN REP., op. cit. supra note 66, Table 6 at 40.
mediately after conviction. It is impossible to determine whether these

defendants would have been sentenced to a comparable short term, if they
had been out on bail; but, since they were released immediately, the judg-
ment might merely be an acknowledgment that the defendants had already
served the time and that if they had been out on bail, they might have
received suspended sentences. This explanation seems especially valid in
light of the apparent discrimination between the treatment of jail and bail
cases, 74 and therefore for the purposes of this study sentences to time
already served are regarded as equivalent to suspended sentences.
(3) One out of five jail defendants was not convicted. Nearly two-
thirds of these were acquitted and the remainder were dismissed on nolle
prosequi, demurrer to the evidence, or failure to indict. These 210 de-
fendants were required to serve a jail term although they were innocent.
A sample of 181 defendants charged with burglary and serious violent
crimes 7 revealed no significant variation in these figures for the more
serious offenses. Of these defendants, most of whom have only one chance
in four of pre-trial release on bail, 24% were not convicted, 27o were not
sentenced to further imprisonment, and 49% were imprisoned.
(c) Duration of Pre-trialDetention
The interviewed prisoners, whose cases were followed to their ter-

mination, served an average of 33 days between preliminary hearing and
disposition. The distribution according to duration of detention is shown
in figure 3.76
The longest detentions for those who ultimately were not convicted
were 75 days for a defendant whose case was nol prossed, 60 days for a
man acquitted on a charge of carrying a concealed deadly weapon, and
56 days for a person acquitted of robbery. The shortest detention was 13
days for a defendant acquitted on a liquor charge.
The maximum period of pre-trial detention is limited in Pennsylvania
by the requirement that a defendant who is held in jail shall be discharged
from imprisonment if he "shall not be indicted and tried the second term,
session or court after his or her commitment . . ." 77 A limitation which
74. See text at note 84 infra.

75. Rape, robbery, arson and aggravated assault and battery. The sample con-
sisted of jail dispositions for the months of October and November, 1953.
76. The sample on which this is based consists of only 83 cases. Compare the
"crude average number of days" served in Moyamensing Prison by all prisoners
awaiting trial in 1952, which was 37 days. This average includes defendants who
spend a few days in prison and then are released on bail, so that the average detention
for defendants who never make bail would be longer. See PRISON REP., op. cit. supra
note 66, Table 4 at 38. This may indicate that our sample shows too short a period of
detention. See, however, an estimate that by 1953 "the average stay of those untried
has been reduced to three to five weeks." Id. at 90.
77. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, § 781 (Purdon 1930).
TIME SPENT IN JAIL AWAITING TRIAL
UNDER 20 20-29 30-39 40 a OVER
FIGURE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF DEFENDANTS ACCORDING TO NUiMBER OF

DAYS SPENT IN JAIL AWAITING TRIAL
in Philadelphia is of more practical importance is the policy inaugurated

at the request of the Voluntary Defender whereby any detainee who is not
indicted by the Grand Jury within 20 days will be brought into court so
that a judge may consider the advisability of releasing him to await trial
78
without formal entry of bail.
(d) Comparative Treatment

The disposition of 946 cases was studied to compare the treatment of
jail and bail cases. This sample consisted of all dispositions during Oc-
tober and November, 1953, for cases in which the defendants were charged
with rape, robbery, arson, burglary, assault and battery (simple and ag-
gravated), auto theft, other property crimes, sex offenses (except rape
79
and prostitution), and narcotics offenses.
This comparison showed that defendants who came to court from jail
received much less favorable treatment as to both the proportions of those
convicted and those receiving prison sentences. While the many factors
involved in determining the disposition of criminal cases require that these
statistics be regarded with caution, the contrast between the disposition of
jail and bail cases was so striking that it raises a strong inference that the
handicap of jail status is a major contributing cause for the difference.
78. See VOL. DFENDER REP., op. cit. supra note 72, at 3.
79. These offenses comprise the great bulk of jail defendants. Defendants charged
with other crimes were eliminated because the number of jail defendants was too
small to have any validity for comparison with bail cases.
Although there are marked variations among different types of crimes,

table 1 illustrates that a defendant who is out on bail is much more likely
not to be convicted than is a defendant who comes to court from jail.
Table I-PERCENTAGES OF INDICTED DEFENDANTS NOT CoNVIcTED
Defendants on Bail Defendants in Jail
not not not not

Crime convicted convicted convicted convicted convicted convicted
Violent crimes 50 101 67% 86 29 25%
Burglary 19 3 14% 52 14 21%
Assault and Battery 62 79 56% 27 7 21%
Auto theft 24 8 25% 33 12 27%
Property crimes 47 46 49% 75 6 7%
Sex crimes 44 16 27% 11 4 27%
Narcotics offenses 29 1 3% 56 5 8%
All above offenses 275 254 48% 340 77 18%
One of the primary reasons for this difference is the much higher propor-
tion of nol prosses in the bail cases. Only ten out of 417 jail case indict-
ments were nol prossed, or 2.4%, whereas there were 160 nol prosses in
bail cases, or 30.2% of all bail indictments. There are at least two ex-
planations for this markedly lower incidence of nol prosses in jail cases
which should be given considerable weight. First, the jail defendant is
probably unable to obtain the private settlement in lieu of prosecution
which Pennsylvania law provides for minor offenses 80 and is unable to
persuade the prosecuting witness or private prosecutor 8 ' to abandon the
case. Second, while jail cases came to trial in about a month after pre-
liminary hearing,82 the time required to bring a bail case to trial was nine
months.83 Some nol prosses, therefore, may simply mean that the failure
to provide a speedy trial has resulted in the loss of valuable evidence.
However, even when the nol prosse cases are eliminated, 25% of bail de-
fendants who went to trial were not convicted, while jail defendants were
not convicted in only 16.5% of the cases.
80. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, §491 (Purdon Supp. 1953). See discussion in text
at note 100 infra.
81. The common-law rule whereby a private person can initiate criminal prosecu-
tion exists in Pennsylvania. SADLER, CRImiNAL PROCEnuRE IN PENNSYLVANIA § 73
(1937).
83. "On the average [bail cases] have to wait nine months before they are tried.
Some, we try to speed up . . . Numbers cases are down to a four month wait and
narcotics to two." First Assistant District Attorney Michael von Moschzisker, quoted
in the Philadelphia Inquirer, Feb. 1954, p. 7, col. 4.
Table 2-PERCENTAGES OF CONVICTED OFFENDERS WHO RECEIVED PRISoN

SENTENCES
Defendants on bail Defendants in jail

Sentto Sentto
Crime Convicted Prison % Convicted Prison 17o
Violent crimes 50 12 24% 86 59 69%
Burglary 19 6 32% 52 30 58%
Assault and Battery 62 8 13% 27 14 52%
Auto theft 24 6 25% 33 15 45%o
Property crimes 47 19 40% 75 41 55%
Sex crimes 44 2 5% 11 5 45%
Narcotics offenses 29 8 28% 56 36 64%o
All above offenses 275 61 22% 340 200 59%
Table 2 shows a comparison of the proportion of convicted offenders,

who were on bail and were sentenced to imprisonment, with jail defendants
who received a sentence of imprisonment in addition to a sentence
imposed for time already served.84 Over two and one-half times as many
jail defendants got prison terms as is the case for defendants who were
out on bail.
A number of factors might contribute to this difference. If the jail
defendant had a job when he was arrested, he will have lost it and prob-
ably cannot get it back, whereas the defendant who is on bail can usually
make the argument that probation will enable him to continue working on
a job he then holds. The fact that most jail defendants are represented
by the Philadelphia Voluntary Defender may also be significant, for this
types the defendant as a man who is already a charity case and a burden
upon society,8 5 with the result that the court may be much more inclined
to impose a prison sentence. The large volume of cases handled by the
small staff of the Voluntary Defender, which limits the effort which can be
expended on an individual case, and the fact that the defendant has been
isolated in jail and cannot help himself, may also mean that the jail de-
fendant is much less likely to have character witnesses who will appear to
urge mitigation of penalty. Such circumstances help explain the inference
raised by these statistics that, unconsciously or not, jail status prejudices
the courts as to the treatment they prescribe.
The validity of using these statistics for the purpose of showing such
prejudice against jail defendants depends upon the strength of other factors
which could also account for differences in treatment. It is believed that
variances attributable to divergent judicial methods and philosophies were
84. See text following note 73 supra.
85. The Voluntary Defender will represent only those "who, by reason of their
poverty, are unable to pay counsel fees." VOL. DEFrNDER REP., op. cit. supra note 72,
at 1.
largely eliminated because the cases were decided by many different

judges. There are other variables, however, which cannot be resolved.
For example, if the magistrates are sufficiently sagacious to impose high
bail predominantly upon those who are in fact guilty and are lenient with
those who are in fact not guilty, then to that extent the higher proportion
among jail defendants of those adjudged guilty will not reflect any handicap
resulting from jail status. The fact that some magistrates penalize what
they regard as aggravated circumstances by setting higher bail may con-
centrate the aggravated cases in jail and thus partially explain the more
severe punishment of the guilty offenders in the jail group. One distinction
between the jail group and the bail group is the comparatively lower
economic status of the former. This factor would also explain in part the
different treatment of these two groups, if in fact indigent persons charged
with crime are more likely to be found guilty than all individuals so charged,
and if in fact the indigent guilty tend to commit offenses under more ag-
gravating circumstances than do guilty persons in general.
Despite these unmeasurable variables, however, the contrast in com-
parative dispositions was so striking that it is reasonable to conclude that
jail status had a good deal to do with it. Wigmore has noted that any
86
criminal defendant is under the handicap that he looks guilty, and this
applies most forcefully to the defendant who arrives in court in custody
from jail where he has had little opportunity to prepare himself so that he
can come to trial neat and clean. The following analysis of the conditions
under which a jail defendant must prepare for his day in court strongly
supports the inference of prejudice raised by these statistics on comparative
dispositions.
(e) The Effects of Detention
Assuming for the moment that pre-trial imprisonment of such a large

number of defendants is a necessity, it follows that such imprisonment
should impose as few restrictions as is practicably possible which will
interfere with a defendant's attempts to get bail and preparation of his
defense. This study uncovered serious problems created by the failure to
attempt such minimization of the sacrifice which results from imprisonment.
The period of police detention which occurs after arrest but before the
87
preliminary hearing is regulated by the Magistrates' Court Act. This
statute, which is applicable only to Philadelphia, requires that "all persons
arrested shall be given the opportunity to promptly communicate with, be
interviewed or examined by, such persons as they desire." 88 It is difficult
to determine how well this requirement is observed. Several of the inter-
viewed prisoners stated that they were not allowed to telephone anyone,
and one stated that police policy denied access to the phone for everyone
86. 9 WIGmoRE, EVIDENCE § 2511 (3rd ed. 1940).
87. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 42, §§ 1101 et seq. (Purdon Supp. 1953).
88. Id. § 1113.
who was arrested and confined in the station house with him. It is prob-
able that Negro or poorly-dressed defendants are frequent victims of such
violations. That even some well-dressed and apparently reliable defendants
lose their right to outside communication is indicated by a report from a
Quaker defendant who, with some companions, was arrested on July 22,
1953, on a charge of breach of the peace. The charge grew out of an anti-
war street meeting which was broken up by the police, and the case against
the defendants was eventually dismissed. The account of their detention
in the station house suggests how theoretical the accused defendant's pro-
tections may be in some cases:81
"At the time of booking we asked to make our one legal phone call.
The request was repeatedly put off and was never finally granted.
Hallman tried again in the morning, no luck."
These defendants were able to obtain counsel only because a friend

who had seen the arrest contacted an attorney for them; otherwise they
would have had to go on trial in the morning for their summary offense
without any chance to contact counsel. Even with an attorney they were
unable to effect their release that night:
"Although we had been arrested at 9:30 P. M., no copy of the charge
could be secured till 12:55 A. M. By then no magistrate would get
out of bed to sign it. So the prisoners had to stay in the lock-up
overnight."
After the preliminary hearing defendants who have not posted bail
are detained in the untried section of Moyamensing Prison (Philadelphia
County Prison). There is no statute applicable to these detainees com-
parable to the requirement of free communication for those in police cus-
tody,90 and conditions of imprisonment are substantially equivalent to those
of convicted prisoners. The prison's Board of Inspectors reports: 91
"Although the [untried prisoners] are segregated and allowed a
few special privileges, including additional visitors; the untried pris-
oner generally must be subjected to the same rules and regulations as
the convicted prisoner, as a security measure, due to the limited facili-
ties presently available."
At the time of this study these regulations stipulated that an untried

prisoner may write two letters per week, that the prison agent will make
calls for the prisoner at the rate of one per week and that members of
the immediate family may visit the prisoner for 15 minutes once per
89. See HAu.LzAx & WALxER, THE RMSNHOUSE SQUARE MEETING 3 (mimeo
1953), on file in Biddle Law Library.
91. PRIsoN REP., op. cit. supra note 66, at 33.
week. 92 The prisoner may write a letter one or two days after his arrival,
and thereafter, if he has no money for postage, the county will pay the
postage for one letter a month. These "privileges" may be lost if the
prisoner is "keyed in," i.e., confined to his cell as a disciplinary measure
for disobedience of prison regulations.
Such regulations aggravate the enforced isolation which is the in-
evitable concomitant of any imprisonment, and are as restrictive as those
which exist in many institutions for convicted offenders. The provisions
for two letters a week and the opportunity to have someone else make
one phone call in his behalf obviously imposed a prohibitive limitation
upon a defendant who wished to prepare a defense, and 28 of the 104
prisoners interviewed blamed the communication restrictions for their
failure to obtain bail.
If the prisoners' complaints are valid, telephone calls placed through
the prison agent sometimes proved to be ineffective as a means of com-
munication. One defendant, trying to contact his mother by phone, was
told by the agent that there was no answer, and the agent refused to call
again because he thought that the mother certainly knew after four days
that the defendant was in prison. Another defendant stated that he had
hoped to raise bail either from his brother, who could be reached at his
home only in the evening, or from his employer, who was located in the
suburbs. The prison agent refused to make either call, the first because
he worked only from 9 to 5, the second because he would not call out of
the city. At the time of the interview the defendant had written a letter
to his brother and was waiting for an answer. Other defendants com-
plained about the restrictions in the hours during which they could have
calls placed. One defendant who came in on Saturday had to wait until
the prison agent next came to work on Monday.
The prison agent regarded these complaints as unjustified, stated that
rules were relaxed in special cases, and said that he refused to make a
phone call only when he felt it would not do any good. 94 But regardless
of the truth of these conflicting allegations, it would seem self-evident that
the statutory requirement as to Philadelphia police station confinement,
that arrested persons "shall be given the opportunity to promptly com-
municate with . . . such persons as they desire," 15 should be extended
to cover the entire period of pre-trial confinement for all defendants through-
out the state. 96 Provisions for unlimited correspondence and reasonably
free access to telephones and visitors would create an administrative burden
which seems small when compared with the handicap placed on defendants
92. Letter dated August 26, 1953 from William J. Ruch, Assistant Superintendent,
Philadelphia County Prison, on file in Biddle Law Library. There has been an im-
provement in telephone facilities since this study was made. See text at note 97
infra.
93. Interview, June 1, 1954, with James J. O'Shea, Jr., prison agent.
94. Ibid.
95. See note 88 .supra.
96. See suggested remedy at text following note 177 infra.
who are denied those rights. Such a requirement should provide ex-
plicitly that a defendant be permitted to make telephone calls himself,
rather than being required to use an intermediary; many defendants com-
plained that the inability to talk directly with persons outside deprived
them of the opportunity to make persuasive pleas for help. Since the
field study at Moyamensing Prison was made, there has been a small
improvement in this direction. At the instigation of the Voluntary De-
fender, a telephone has been installed from which a defendant personally
can make one call immediately upon arrival at the prison; but no subse-
quent calls can be made and if the number called is answered, that counts
as the defendant's one call even if the person he desires to reach is not
9' 7
there.
For those defendants who must support families, the problems which
are created by pre-trial detention are aggravated. "The situations clamor-
ing most loudly for attention," the Voluntary Defender Association re-
ported in 1953, "involve citizens supporting families from modest earnings
who are imprisoned for several weeks to await trial on relatively minor
charges. Such imprisonment should be kept at a minimum in view of the
disruption to the community occasioned by loss of employment and the
necessity for families to subsist on charity and public assistance." 98 Of
course, for those who are subsequently convicted and sentenced to imprison-
ment, this disruption would eventually follow anyway, but in more than
half the cases this eventuality does not occur. To a somewhat lesser extent
the same consideration applies to defendants without dependents who are
employed at the time of their arrest. When defendants are detained, the
loss of employment may deprive them of the ability to pay for lawyers;
and in the cases in which release follows trial, they may have to resort
to public assistance while seeking a new job. For some defendants deten-
tion is comparable to imprisonment in lieu of payment of a fine, for a
number of those interviewed stated that they could pay for a bail bond if
they could only resume their jobs.
Perhaps the most important result of confinement which may influ-
ence the less favorable dispositions given to jail defendants is the inability
of these defendants when charged with minor crimes to do anything to
get their cases dropped. It seems possible that charges initiated by private
prosecutors may, when the defendant is out on bail, be settled or dropped
informally and that many nolle prosequis may therefore result. However,
it is impossible to draw definite conclusions until a careful study is made
of the policy underlying the use of nolle prosequi by the District Attorney.
This would involve a comparison of its use in cases originated by the
police as against those originated by private prosecutors. 99 A Pennsylvania
statute permits private settlements in minor cases and provides that the
97. Interview, note 93 supra.

98. VoL. DmENDm RE'., op. cit. supra note 72, at 4.
settlement may be a bar to further prosecution of the charge.1' ° The

statute applies to those who, "on complaint of another," are awaiting trial
for larceny or fraudulent conversion where the value of the property in-
volved is less than $200, or for assault and battery or other misdemeanor
"to the injury and damage of the party complaining." If the complainant
appears and acknowledges that he has received satisfaction for the damage
inflicted upon him, the court may "order a nolle prosequi to be entered
on the indictment." In many cases the same result may occur informally
by failure of the prosecution witnesses to appear for trial.
If such settlements are widespread the defendant held in jail is being
severely prejudiced by his inability to negotiate such settlements and to
exert whatever persuasion he can command to this end. Under current
regulations he can make one phone call upon admission and none there-
after, and even if the private party is willing to come to the prison the
defendant would not be allowed to see him. 10 ' When this is considered
in conjunction with a jailed defendant's inability to search out evidence
and persuade witnesses in his behalf to testify at the trial either to his
innocence or in mitigation of penalty, it suggests that the handicap of
being in jail may result in a number of convictions which would not occur
were the defendant given his liberty during the pre-trial period.
(f) The Conditions of Detention
The County Prison's Board of Inspectors has noted that "of those
detained, the majority must be assumed to be innocent and should be treated
accordingly. It is not fair to subject the untried prisoner . . . to the
same routine as that of the prisoner convicted and serving sentence." 102
It would be possible to lessen the degree of punishment attendant upon pre-
trial detention by providing relatively pleasant detention facilities in which
restrictions upon the inmates were limited to those imperatively demanded
by security requirements; one criminologist has suggested "secure indi-
vidual' rooms in buildings equipped much like a clean third-class hotel." 103
The defendants observed in this study, however, were treated almost
exactly like convicted prisoners.'0 4 The police station detention facilities
used prior to preliminary hearing are extremely unpleasant, 10 5 and at
100. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 19, §491 (Purdon Supp. 1953).
101. Visitors are limited to members of the defendant's immediate family. See
note 92 supra. For an explanation of why visitors other than members of the imme-
diate family are refused visiting privileges, see the report of the Superintendent of the
Philadelphia County Prison, PRisoN RFP., op. cit. supra note 66, at 15: "(a) Because
many inmates are ashamed of the disgrace and don't want it thrown up to them once
they get their freedom-'Remember when I saw you behind bars,' etc. It is a very
practical thought and might save some unpleasant and unhealthy argument. (b) We
have not the facilities to permit unlimited visitation."
102. Id. at 33.
103. TAFT, CRIMINOLOGY 384 (1942).
104. See text at note 91 supra.
105. The following description was published by defendants who spent the night
of July 22-23, 1953, in the 12th and Pine Sts. Police Station: "The cell in which
Moyamensing Prison the untried prisoner is subjected to an admission rou-

tine that the prison's superintendent calls "not much better than stock
yard methods," "O and is then confined in cells built for single occupancy
107
in 1835 which, due to overcrowding, must now often contain two persons.
Despite the "almost insurmountable barriers" due to the age of the build-
ings and the prison's inadequate facilities and handicaps because of its
construction, the institution is reported to be in "clean, well painted,
well kept condition." 10s
The hardships of such imprisonment are a relatively minor problem
compared with the handicaps upon untried defendants which are inevi-
table with any kind of confinement, but the fact that hundreds of Phila-
delphia defendants who upon trial are not convicted must serve a pre-trial
term of imprisonment under such conditions emphasizes the importance
of examining methods for securing attendance at trial without the neces-
sity of detention.
III. MINIMIZING THE. RIsK OF NON-APPEARANCE
In addition to its effects upon defendants, securing trial attendance by

incarceration is also undesirable because of the cost of such detention.
Under present conditions detention facilities in Philadelphia are severely
taxed, and the cost in 1952 of maintaining pre-trial detainees a total of
131,683 days was more than $300,000.19 To extend the method of assur-
ing trial attendance by imprisonment to all defendants would require
multiplication of present prison facilities and prohibitive expense." 0
Criminal administration assumes that most defendants will be free
before trial, and, therefore, it is desirable to examine the problems cre-
ated by pre-trial freedom and the methods employed to minimize the
resulting risk of non-appearance. An evaluation of the efficacy of these
methods is important not only to determine how well this policy of freedom
Hallman and Walker were lodged was about 6 X 8 feet, with a wooden bench running
the length of the cell, and a toilet. After several requests for cleaning equipment,
we were given a broom and swept out the cell. During our stay there, 21 bugs of
various species were dispatched to their doom, although some escaped to feast upon
their sleeping victims later in the night . . . Hallman by virtue of winning the toss
of a coin slept on the board. The two others in this cell slept on the cement floor,
the soft side of which did not seem to be in evidence. We had to buy our own breakfast
in the morning, plus tip extracted for the service." HALLMAN & WALKER, Op. Cit.
sispra note 89, at 3-4.
106. ". . . we are milling in and out of prison human beings, daily, in a manner
not much better than stock yard methods for cattle . . . Our admission of inmates
is revolting to the decency of an understanding person." PRIsoN REP., op. cit. supra
note 66, at 12.
107. ANNUAL REPORT 1950, PHILADELPXIA COUNTY PRIsoN BOARD OF INSPEcTORS
11 (1951).
108. Visiting Inspectors" Report in PRisON REP., op. cit. supra note 66, at 93.
109. Id. at 31.
110. Recognition of this fact resulted in 1952 in "a meeting at which the most
notorious professional bondsmen voted to go on strike" to protest vigorous enforce-
ment by the District Attorney of laws affecting bail. For an account of this threat
and the way in which it was met see DisT. ATr'Y REP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 15.
works, but also to see what deterrents are available which would make it
safe to reduce the proportion of jail cases and thus lessen the substantial
sacrifice of defendants' rights which has been found to exist in Philadelphia.
The use of a financial incentive through bail is the product of long
tradition, but under modem conditions the extent to which it deters non-
appearance will vary greatly depending upon the type of bail which is
posted. If the defendant has put up his own property or cash or that of a
friend or relative whom he does not wish to harm, the resulting restraint
upon the accused may be substantial. The amount of deterrence declines,
however, when the defendant purchases a bond from a bondsman or a surety
company,"' especially if there is no provision for cross-indemnification or
if such provision proves to be ineffective. In no case, however, can it
be said that the bail jumper "has in reality bought his freedom," 11 for to
do so would overlook the deterrent effect of not wanting to be a fugitive.
The bail defendant who weighs the advisability of jumping has much
more to consider than the often fictitious increased financial loss to which
he may be subjected. The likelihood that he will be caught and possibly
receive a more severe sentence if convicted may have a much greater impact
on a defendant's decision than forfeiture of the bond. Consideration should
be given, therefore, both to bail and to non-financial deterrents; for the
extent to which the latter can be strengthened presents a method for
mitigating the harsh prejudice against the indigent which is an inevitable
product of exclusive reliance on financial incentives to induce appearance.
(a) Bail Bonds

Bonds written in Philadelphia during 1950 were studied to determine
the apportionment of bail among private sources, professional bondsmen
and surety companies, the forfeiture rates for each of these kinds of bail,
and the extent to which forfeited bail is actually collected." 3
Of the 10,749 bonds with a total value of $7,043,700 written in 1950,
45% of the number of bonds or 46% of the total value came from private
sources. Surety companies issued only 16% by number or 20% by value,
and professional bondsmen issued 39% by number or 34% by value.
It is believed that this low proportion of surety company business has been
due to lax collection on forfeitures, and that the natural effect of the more
111. For the cost of bonds, see text at note 56 mipra.

112. ORaiELD, CRIMINAL PRocEDuRE FROm ARREST TO APPEAL 127 (1947). Note
that for certain minor traffic offenses a defendant may post a sum of money which,
in the event he does not appear for trial, is forfeited as a fine. This is not really a bail
situation, for later appearance is not required if the defendant elects to forfeit his
deposit as a fine.
113. Each bond posted before a magistrate during 1950 was listed on dockets
in the office of the clerk of Quarter Sessions Court. All bail posted before the bail
clerk of Quarter Sessions Court is recorded in that office. The total number of bonds
posted was compiled from these records and was broken down as to the source of bail.
It was necessary to go back to 1950 because of the time lag of up to a year before
trial in bail cases and the further time lapse before it is possible to evaluate collec-
tion practices and determine how many fugitives are subsequently apprehended.
vigorous collection methods inaugurated in the fall of 1952 will tend to

alter these ratios radically. In Detroit, where collection of forfeitures is
100%, surety companies write 95%o of the bail, 114 and a spot check of
Philadelphia bail in late 1952 indicated that movement in this direction is
already well advanced. 115
When the accused is scheduled to be tried, notice is issued to the surety
ordering him to bring the defendant to court. If the latter fails to appear,
the District Attorney sues out the bail and asks for the issuance of a
bench warrant; 116 the surety is then given five days to produce the de-
fendant before judgment will be brought against the surety. If the de-
fendant still does not appear, the surety may obtain a bail piece empower-
ing him to arrest the fugitive on sight.117 Sometime thereafter, when
sufficient jumps have accumulated, the District Attorney confesses judg-
ment in court against the respective sureties. 118
The number of forfeitures, therefore, represents all serious bail jump-
ing, and does not take into account the tactics of non-appearance which
are used to cause delay or rescheduling of the case before a different
judge. No default will appear on the record if an appearance is made
within five days, and no figures were obtained on the extent of such
"judge-jumping." These delaying devices serve to complicate court cal-
endars and considerably increase expense to the community, although these
problems are minor in comparison to those created by defendants who
escape entirely. Remedies for this situation would include the assignment
of the same judge to the re-trial, thus removing the incentive for the
practice, or, if this is not feasible, suspending the licenses of bondsmen
whose clients are persistent offenders.
While tactics like judge-jumping are technically violations of the bond,
determination of the effectiveness of the compulsion to appear was measured
in terms of breaches which result in forfeiture. Out of the 10,749 bonds
written in 1950 there were 264 forfeitures, and of the defendants involved,
162 were still at large in July, 1953.119 This forfeiture rate of two and
114. Letter dated May 14, 1953 from E. Burke Montgomery, Clerk of The
Recorder's Court, Detroit, Mich., on file in Biddle Law Library.
115. Of a total amount of $382,450 bail posted in the office of the bail clerk of
Quarter Sessions Court for the months of November and December, 1952, the propor-
tion posted by surety companies had risen to 60%, and that posted by professional
bondsmen had declined to 10% and by private sources to 30%.
116. Information as to practices of the District Attorney's office was received
from the Assistant District Attorney in charge of the Bail Division, Stanley
Bashman.
117. PA. STAT.ANN. tit. 19, § 53 (Purdon 1930).
118. See PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 53, § 6995 (Purdon 1930) for section delegating to
the Attorney General of the Commonwealth the duty of issuing process upon for-
feitures in Philadelphia County. This power was later delegated by the Attorney
General to the District Attorney.
119. This information was obtained from a docket kept by Assistant District
Attorney Stanley Bashman, which contained the names of all forfeitures, and the
status of the defendants was obtained from trial dockets in the same office. This in-
formation was broken down as to the source of bail and the crime of which the de-
fendant was accused.
one-half percent of all bonds written is comparable to Cleveland's rate 120

but much higher than that of Detroit, where in a five-year period there
were 131 forfeitures on a total of 21,260 bonds, a rate of six-tenths of
one percent.12 1 Pittsburgh officials regard the problem of bail jumping as
"negligible" 122 and other cities report that it has occurred "two or three
times" in twelve years (Minneapolis) 12 and once in eleven years
(Schenectady, N.Y.) .124 These estimates suggest a very low forfeiture rate.
Two things should be noted in connection with Philadelphia's for-
feiture rate. First, the statistics alone over-emphasize the problem. For-
feitures for serious crimes were rare. There were two bail jumpers among
those charged with forgery, five for sodomy, ten for narcotics offenders, and
none for burglary, robbery, rape, arson and voluntary manslaughter.1 25
Nearly half (119) of the forfeitures involved gambling, liquor or traffic
offenses, and the forfeiture rate drops to 1.35% when these are subtracted.
The other bail jumpers included 34 charged with larceny or other prop-
erty crimes, 46 charged with assault and battery, and 48 held for mis-
cellaneous offenses, such as prostitution, indecent exhibition, fortune-
telling and indecent exposure. Second, the ratio of forfeitures varied
sharply according to the type of bail written (see figure 4). Bail supplied
from commercial sources had a forfeiture rate more than twice that of
privately supplied bail.
One probable explanation for the relatively high Philadelphia for-
feiture rate was that only 20% of the bonds written in 1950 which were
later forfeited and never remitted were actually collected.' 26 Although en-
forcement was strengthened in 1952, collection rates were still less than
507.1'7 This is to be contrasted with Detroit, which had one-fourth as
many forfeitures under a bail system in which 100% collection is main-
120. Letter dated July 31, 1953, from Leonard F. Fuerst, Clerk of Courts,
Cuyahoga County, Cleveland, Ohio, on file in Biddle Law Library (from 1947 to
date of letter an average of 343 bonds posted annually and a total of 51 forfeitures for
same period).
122. Letter dated June 24, 1953, from James F. Malone, Jr., District Attorney,
Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Pa., on file in Biddle Law Library.
123. Letter dated May 17, 1954, from Michael J. Dillon, County Attorney,
Hennepin County, Minneapolis, Minn., on file in Biddle Law Library.
124. Letter dated May 12, 1954, from Emmet J. Lynch, District Attorney,
Schenectady County, N.Y., on file in Biddle Law Library.
125. One explanation for this is that far fewer defendants charged with these
serious crimes are admitted to bail, but at least some of these defendants are released.
See note 68 supra.
126. Out of 215 bonds which were not remitted, only 43, or 20% of the total
number, were collected. The value of the collected bonds was $22,200, or 17% of the
total of $127,500 which should have been collected.
127. "In 1952, one hundred ninety-seven judgments having a total value of
$120,000.00 were entered in cases where defendants had jumped bail. $20,732.00 was
collected on judgments. Arrangements were made with many bondsmen to pay off
in weekly or monthly installments judgments totaling $35,700.00. This collection plan
is being ever broadened and it is hoped that soon there will be a minimum of old
unpaid judgments on the books." DrST. ATT'y REP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 14-5.
FORFEITURES BY TYPE OF BAIL
35
31
30- 28
25
20
15. 13
10-
5-
SURETY PROFESSIONAL PRIVATE

COMPANY BONDSMEN SOURCES
FIGuRE 4. NUMBER Or FORFEITURES PER 1000 BONDS W RITTEN

ACCORDING TO SoURcE or BARK
tained.123 Methods which could be employed to ensure effective collection

need only be mentioned here. 29 The most important prerequisites are
(1) that the system for checking the value of property offered as col-
lateral be sufficient to avert "straw bail" or inadequate collateral; 130
(2) that as soon as bail is posted a lien be imposed upon the property
put up as collateral; 131 (3) that the licensing and regulation of bondsmen
require bondsmen to post an initial deposit before being permitted to
write any bail; 132 and (4) that in the event of forfeiture, the bondsman
33
immediately deposit with the court the amount of the forfeited bond. -
129. See, e.g., ORFI LD, op. cit. .supra note 112, at 119-34. See also COURT
RU.ES, THE RECORDER'S COURT FOR THE CITY OF DETROIT (Rev. ed. 1951) (herein-
after cited as DETROIT RULES), which offers a "model statute" of proved effectiveness
for maximizing collections.
130. See, e.g., DETROIT RULES, Op. cit. smpra note 129, at Rule 9, § 4: "... be-
fore accepting any recognizance" the clerk of court must "verify the following informa-
tion by means of the telautograph system: a) The Recorded Owner; b) All mortgages,
liens, judgments, bonds and recognizances and encumbrances of every kind which ap-
pear uncancelled of record; c) Any pending action in which the premises pledged are
specifically described; and d) The assessed valuation of the real property as shown
by the County Treasurer's Records."
131. For examples see ILL. ANN. STAT. C. 38, § 616 (Smith-Hurd 1935) (copy
of recognizances in felony cases sent to office of Recorder of Deeds in county where
property located, and lien commenced when this is filed); DETRoIT RULES, op. cit.
.rupra note 129, at Rule 9, § 10 (when real estate offered as security, recognizance
becomes lien on said real estate).
132. See, e.g., ILL. ANN. STAT. c. 38, § 627l. (Smith-Hurd Cum. Supp. 1953). See
also,
THE MUNICIPAL COURT OF CHICAGO, RULES IN RELATION To BAIL IN CRIMINAL
AND QUASI-CRIMINAL CASES, Rules 19, 20 (1952).
133. This is required in Detroit and was described as the court's "great weapon"
against bondsmen. See letter dated November 17, 1953, from E. Burke Montgomery,
Clerk, the Recorder's Court of the City of Detroit, Mich., on file in Biddle Law
Library.
NUMBER OF FORFEITURES NOT COLLECTED
90%
90
75 76*'Y
60
IS
01
SURETY PROFESSIONAL PRIVATE
COMPANY BONDSMEN SOURCES
FIGuRE 5. PERCENTAGE OF BONDS FORFEITED, AND NOT LATER
REMITTED, WHIcH WERE NOT COLLECTED
The relationship between the rate of collection on forfeitures and the

efficacy of bail in compelling appearance which is suggested by the Phila-
delphia-Detroit comparison is generally assumed to be significant, and,
therefore, most bail reform efforts have been directed at improvement of
collections.' 3 4 To the extent that the threat of a financial loss is the in-
centive which makes the defendant comply, this assumption is logical, for
if the threatened loss in fact does not occur the deterrent should lose
much of its force. When the Philadelphia figures on collection are broken
down by source of bail, however, the results are difficult to reconcile with
such a theory. Bail supplied from private sources was the least likely
to be collected (see figure 5), yet this was the form of bail which had
much the greatest deterrent effectiveness (see figure 4 supra). Further-
more, private bail is apparently unable to exist as a major supply source in
the face of strict collection. With stricter collection policies, it declined by
one-third in Philadelphia by the end of 1952, and in two other cities with
100%o collection it was doing only 5% of the business.
These facts suggest the need for careful examination of the ways in
which the bail bond system minimizes the risk of non-appearance. If an
increased forfeiture collection rate results in a net decrease in the propor-
tion of forfeitures, as it has done in Detroit, the improvement apparently
takes place despite the virtual elimination of the only type of bail in which
134. See, e.g., A STUDY OF THE BAIL BOND SYSTEM IN TH3E DIsTrcT OF COLUMBIA
42 (Washington Crim. Justice Ass'n 1937, mimeo); BEELEY, THan BAIL SYSTEM n¢
CHICAGO 167-9 (1927) ; and the reform which led to the present DETROIT RULES, op.
cit. supra note 129.
the defendant has a strong financial inducement not to become a fugitive.

Many factors probably contributed to the comparatively greater efficiency
of private bail in producing defendants for trial in Philadelphia. First,
the defendant for whom a private bond has been put up knows that if
he jumps bail the loss will fall upon the relative or friend who has assumed
the risk solely for the purpose of freeing the defendant. The relatively
low forfeiture rate for private bail in Philadelphia suggests that, even with
low collection, this moral compulsion operates as a powerful deterrent.
Second, the private bondsman is probably a friend or relative of the de-
fendant, and thus is in a favorable position to gauge his reliability and to
refuse to do business with him if he is a bad risk. Third, the private bonds-
man can police his risk to some extent because he is likely to see the de-
fendant frequently.
The commercial bondsman, whether operating on his own or as agent
for a surety company, is at a comparative disadvantage in all these re-
spects. The defendant is not financially obligated to him because, in the
absence of collectible cross-indemnification, the payment of the premium
ends the defendant's liability. The moral obligation is also lacking be-
cause the professional bondsman does not have the advantageous per-
sonal relationship which is the private bondsman's chief weapon. Finally,
the commercial bondsman is in an inferior position in selecting and policing
his risks. He may know little or nothing about the defendant when he is
asked to put up bond, and in addition there are strong pressures upon
him to accept even a known poor risk. His business usually comes either
from runners, who work on a commission basis and therefore have an
incentive to write as many bonds as possible, or from ward politicians, whom
the bondsman is unlikely to turn down because they are a frequent source
of business. That professional bondsmen do little to eliminate poor risks
is indicated by the fact that only one of the 104 jail defendants who
were interviewed stated that she had the money for a bail bond but was
unable to get anyone to write it. Once he has put up the bond, the pro-
fessional bondsman has little opportunity to police his risk, for the cost
of keeping track of the defendant would be prohibitive and, barring ex-
ceptional circumstances, not warranted by the low forfeiture rate. The
length of time which elapses before a bail defendant is brought to trial
accentuates this problem. One bondsman stated that, upon receiving notice
to bring to trial a defendant whom he had not seen since arrest some
twelve months previously: "My heart was in my mouth when I knocked
on the door of the address listed on the bond. It is impossible to keep
track of a defendant for that length of time."
Strict collection increases the bondsman's risk, but there is little flexi-
bility within the system described above by which the surety can protect
himself against this increased risk. The private surety is already likely
to reject bad risks, while the commercal bondsman is limited in his ability
to do much to improve his selection of risks. It may be that, under a bail
system with strict collection on forfeitures, the proportion of defendants

unable to raise bail would rise substantially because of increased dis-
crimination on the part of commercial bondsmen. Since no figures could
be obtained elsewhere on the proportion of defendants unable to raise bail,
it is impossible to know if one cost of the lower forfeiture rate of a city
like Detroit is an increase in the number of jail defendants. However,
in view of the pressure upon commercial bondsmen to do as much busi-
ness as possible and the difficulty of attaining a better selection of risks,
it seems unlikely that strict collection would have any marked effect in
increasing the number of defendants who can afford bail but who cannot
find a bondsman willing to accept them.
There remains only one other way in which strict collection can affect
the bondsman's incentive to produce the defendant and thus reduce the
forfeiture rate, i.e., the increased pressure it places upon him to try to find
fugitives. Liberal provisions for remission of forfeitures are designed to
make it attractive for bondsmen to recover their losses by finding the de-
3 5
fendant who has jumped bail and returning him for trial. With collection
rates as low as they were in Philadelphia for bonds written in 1950, the
incentive for bondsmen to spend time and money looking for runaway de-
fendants is not great, and this is doubtless one explanation for the relatively
high number of bail jumps for minor crimes in that year. If every for-
feiture were reduced to judgment and collection, however, the bondsman
would be forced to become a private detective.
This effect of strict collection reveals that the real deterrent force
against non-appearance in commercial bail is the threat of apprehension.
The private surety is at a great disadvantage compared to the commercial
bondsmen in the performance of this function. The friend or relative of
an absconded defendant is not able to make an extensive search for the
defendant, since it might mean giving up his job and because he normally
does not have any contacts which would guide him to the fugitive. It is
not surprising, therefore, that as strict collection puts a premium on appre-
hension, one of its effects is to drive private bail into an insignificant posi-
tion. It is difficult to determine exactly why the professional bondsman is
able to fare better as a detective than the private surety. However, the
professional bondsman does have police and underworld contacts which
are useful, and in more or less organized areas of crime, such as gambling,
it is quite possible that participants will give information to the professional
135. The court may "moderate or remit" forfeitures, PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 17, § 502
(Purdon 1930), and even after the judgment has been collected that part of the funds
collected which has been allocated to the county may be returned, PA. STAT. ANN.
tit. 8, §§ 177, 180, 181 (Purdon 1930). Compare ILL. STAT. ANN., c. 38, §625f
(Smith-Hurd 1935) (forfeiture and judgment may be vacated or modified upon show-
ing that within 15 months "the accused person has been apprehended or surrendered,
or has died, or has been convicted and imprisoned by some other state or by the
United States. . . ."). In Newark, N.J., "the bondsman has four years within which
to surrender the absconded defendant Upon doing so the forfeited money is returned
to him 100%, less any expense caused by the county for his apprehension." Letter
dated July 3, 1953, from Russell C. Gates, County Clerk, Essex County, Newark, N.J.,
on file in Biddle Law Library.
bondsman as to the whereabouts of those who have jumped bail in order

to protect their own opportunity to get bail. 30 Furthermore, giving the
bondsman a financial incentive to recapture fugitives would seem to invite
a situation in which the police, instead of making an arrest directly, "sell"
their knowledge of the defendant's location to the bondsman.
As it seems probable that under a bail bond situation the police do not
concentrate on apprehending bail fugitives but leave this task to bondsmen,
the result of strict collection will be to lower the forfeiture rate because
it induces increased activity by bondsmen directed toward apprehension.
In one city where the "very few civil actions pending for the collection of
bail" implies a low forfeiture rate, the clerk of the court stated that this
was 137
".. . due, perhaps, to the fact that personal bondsmen in our county
are a very aggresive group and relentlessly pursue the defendant who
skips bail on which they are surety and bring them back in very many
instances. We have had examples where they have gone out of the
country in order to effect the production of a person who has skipped
bail. This hard attitude on the part of some of these sureties has put
the fear of God into a lot of defendants who know what to expect in
the event that they skip bail; so we do not have any particular prob-
lem in this regard."
Commercial bail is essentially a transaction in which the bondsmen agree
to help the police track down fugitives at the expense of all defendants who
pay the premiums for bonds. This may save the state some money, al-
though the cost of administering a bail system probably offsets any economy
in police costs. It can also be argued that the threat of having both the
bondsman and the police searching for a fugitive would increase a defend-
ant's fear that he will be caught if he jumps bail. It is doubtful, however,
if such teamwork is an efficient method of apprehension. It may invite
police lethargy and corruption, and it is difficult to believe that the bonds-
man has sources of information which do not either stem from the police
or could be as readily obtained by them. The police alone have the com-
munication facilities, a nation-wide cooperating system and the scientific
methods which are keys to successful location of missing defendants. Even
if it could be demonstrated that the retention of private law enforcement
in this area is efficient, that efficiency must be balanced with the cost of a
bail system in terms of pre-trial imprisonment and sacrifice of defend-
ants' rights.
(b) Non-flnancial Sanctions Against Bail-Jumping
The effectiveness of ultimate apprehension as a deterrent to bail-
jumping will partially depend upon the sanction imposed upon the defend-
136. Information that this was done was supplied by a surety company executive
who would not permit the use of his name.
137. Letter dated June 24, 1953, from Sidney J. Gottneid, Clerk of the District
Court, Douglas County, Omaha, Neb., on file in Biddle Law Library.
ant for non-appearance. In most jurisdictions the existence of any non-

financial sanction will depend upon the conviction of the defendant for the
offense with which he was originally charged. In such a situation the
imposition of a more severe sentence upon a convicted defendant who has
jumped bail may often in fact occur, and it is probable that defendants are
aware that such increased sentences may be a penalty for bail-jumping.
Since there are no other effective non-financial sanctions, however, the
threat of an increased sentence may not operate as a deterrent where a
defendant, by becoming a fugitive, can materially lessen the chance of con-
viction because of the resulting delay in his trial.
To remedy this defect, a few jurisdictions punish bail-jumping di-
rectly. One federal court has done this by using its contempt power 13s to
punish a defendant's wilful disobedience of an order to appear. 13 9 How-
ever, the availability of this method is severely limited because it can be
applied only if the defendant had actual knowledge of the order to report,
and ordinarily the accused would have disappeared before an attempt was
made to serve notice upon him.
A more useful sanction was developed in Canada, where the statute
penalizing escape from prison or from lawful custody was extended to
punish a defendant on bail who, "without lawful excuse," fails to "present
himself at the proper time and place." 140 Thus the bail defendant is
treated as if he were in technical custody and bail-jumping is regarded
as an unlawful "escape." Statutes patterned on this Canadian model have
been adopted in Minnesota' 4 ' and New York,142 and the Department of
Justice recently proposed one for the federal system.'4 The New York
Act makes the defendant absolutely liable if he does not appear within 30
days after the forfeiture of his bail; the Canadian Act places the burden of
proof upon the defendant to show a "lawful excuse" for his failure; and the
Minnesota and proposed federal acts punish "wilful" violations.
The New York and Minnesota statutes have not been widely used.
In the latter state, the act was very rarely invoked in two of the most
populous counties because "bail jumping is not a serious problem." 144 A
138. 18 U.S.C. §401 (1946).
139. United States v. Hall, 198 F.2d 726 (2d Cir. 1952), cert. denied, 345 U.S.
905 (1953). Compare Collins v. Georgia, 32 Ga. App. 450, 123 S.E. 723 (1924) (held
error to declare defendant in contempt for refusing to appear in absence of specific
statutory authority).
140. REv. STATS. OF CANADA c. 36, § 189(c) (1927), amended by STATS. OF
CANADA 11 GEO. VI, c. 55, § 2 (1947).
141. M x. STATs. ANN. § 613.35 (1947).
142. N.Y. PENAL CODE § 1694-a. See People v. Davis, 5 N.Y.S.2d 411, 168 Misc.
511 (1938) ; People v. Pilkington, 103 N.Y.S.2d 66, 199 Misc. 667 (1951).
143. Dep't of Justice Press Release dated March 25, 1954.
144. "During the past 12 years, I don't believe bail jumping occurred more than
two or three times. The Statute has never been invoked in the work of this office.
Up to the present time, we have been fortunate enough to convict all bail jumpers
and their sentences have been to [state] penal institutions. We have felt that this
punishment has been sufficient." Letter dated May 17, 1954, from Michael J. Dillon,
County Attorney, Hennepin County, Minneapolis, Minn., on file in Biddle Law
Library. See also letter dated May 26, 1954, from Thomas J. Naylor, County Attor-
similar response was given by some New York prosecutors who were
questioned. 145 In New York County, however, eight or nine cases a month
are referred to the Grand Jury, 14 and in Kings County (Brooklyn), the
practice is "to indict in all cases where [the District Attorney] believes
the forfeiture is wilful." 147 Thirteen bail-jumping indictments during the
last six years are reported in Brooklyn and the District Attorney believes
that the statute is a valuable deterrent because "an experienced bondsman
will impress upon his principal the necessity of appearing whenever re-
quired to do so and will also make known to his principal the consequences
of his failure to do so." 148
Such a statute serves a useful purpose in cases in which there is no
other sufficient deterrent against a temptation to flee and avoid or delay
trial. It represents a step towards recognition of the fact that the threat
of apprehension is the major deterrent against non-appearance, and may
foreshadow the day when appearance for trial will be enforced by a criminal
sanction instead of by a bail bond system.
CONCLUSIONS
More than twenty years ago the Wickersham Commission pointed to
the need for research on bail "in the direction of the individualization of
bail determinations based on the history, character, standing, personality
0
and record of the accused." 149 The Supreme Court in Stack v. Boyle 15
held that such an individual determination was a constitutional require-
ment, and the concurring opinion of Justices Jackson and Frankfurter
stated that fixing "a uniform blanket bail chiefly by consideration of the
nature of the accusation [which] did not take into account the differences
ney, St. Louis County, Duluth, Minn., on file in Biddle Law Library (". . . we do
not have a serious problem in bail jumping in our county"; statute invoked twice in
25 years).
145. William Kerwick, Assistant District Attorney, Queens County, New York,
stated in an interview in June, 1953, that he could recall of its being invoked only once
in the past 20 years. See also letter from Emmet J. Lynch, supra note 124. The
statute has been invoked "on occasions" in Buffalo. Letter dated May 13, 1954 from
John F. Dwyer, District Attorney, Erie County, Buffalo, N.Y., on file in Biddle
Law Library.
146. Letter dated June 4, 1954, from Harold R. Shapiro, Assistant District Attor-
ney, County of New York, New York, N.Y., on file in Biddle Law Library. "Most
of the cases of bail-jumping presented to the Grand Juries of this County have re-
sulted in indictments or informations, as the case required, and in most instances
these, in turn, have resulted in guilty pleas or have been covered on disposition of the
main case." Ibid.
147. Letter dated May 17, 1954, from Edward S. Silver, District Attorney, Kings
County, Brooklyn, N.Y., on file in Biddle Law Library. Disposition of these cases
included four sentences of imprisonment, two suspended sentences, one sentence to
time served while awaiting trial, and three indictments still pending while the de-
fendants are serving their sentences on the principal charges.
148. Ibid. See also letter from Harold R. Shapiro, supra note 146 (the statute
"has had a salutary effect in deterring persons from violating the conditions upon
which they have been released on bail").
149. NATIONAL Co ,IssION ON LAW OBSERVANCE & ENFORCEMENT, REPORT ON
PROSECUTION 12 (1931).
150. 342 U.S. 1 (1951).
in circumstances between different defendants" would be "a clear violation

of Rule 46(c)." 151
The gulf which separates this goal of individualization from the Phila-
delphia practices which have been noted in this study is so wide as to
suggest that it cannot be bridged. The only kind of "individualization"
which was significant was the frequent magisterial practice of assuming
that the defendant was guilty and deciding whether or not the circumstances
of the offense were such that punishment in the form of high bail was war-
ranted. The nature of the offense was the rule of thumb against which
the amount of bail was determined, and factors based on "the history, char-
acter, standing, personality and record of the accused" were not developed
at all in most hearings. This is not surprising in view of the formidable
theoretical and administrative difficulties which stand in the way of indi-
vidualizing bail according to the risk presented by the particular defendant.
The lack of any adequate knowledge upon which to base a determination
as to a defendant's reliability appears to present insuperable difficulties in
the absence of the kind of research advocated by the Wickersham Com-
mission. - 2
Even the value of attempting such research is questionable, however,
because of administrative difficulties which prevent the kind of hearing that
would be required for individualization. The relief provided by bail must
be speedy if it is to be effective in preventing the punishment of the inno-
cent and the economic dislocation of employed defendants. Release should
come as soon after arrest as is practicable, and one of the major defects in
Philadelphia practice was that it took an average of five days for defendants
charged with serious offenses to obtain bail and be released from jail. De-
velopment of the kind of information necessary for genuine individualization
would require a practice somewhat comparable to the pre-sentence inves-
tigation made by probation departments following conviction. 1' Yet this
takes a week or more of preparation, and the cost of applying such a pro-
cedure at the level of the preliminary hearing would be very great. With-
out such pre-bail investigation, there is no practicable way of obtaining the
facts which are required. The preliminary hearing is not adequate to
achieve this purpose, for the police information is insufficient and one-sided.
A fair hearing for bail purposes would require full participation by an
adequately represented defendant. However, in the observed hearings only
15% of the defendants were represented by counsel and the defendant
takes a real risk if he participates at all. The primary purpose of the pre-
liminary hearing is to determine whether or not there is a prima facie
151. Id. at 7, 9.
152. See text at note 26 mtpra.
153. FED. R. Cgiua. P. 32(c) (2): "The report of the presentence investigation
shall contain any prior criminal record of the defendant and such information about
his characteristics, his financial condition and the circumstances affecting his be-
havior as may be helpful. .... "
case; the defendant is warned that anything he says may be used against
him, and it is usually to his advantage to say nothing. Yet in the 35%
of the cases in which the question of bail determination was given inde-
pendent consideration, the discussion was intermeshed with the hearing
on the prima facie case, for which purpose the defendant had been cau-
tioned against speaking. Nor are the magistrates who make the decision
qualified to exercise the broad discretionary power which individualization
must repose in them. The fact that most magistrates in Philadelphia are
not lawyers aggravates this problem. While this may not be a major
consideration, at least a lawyer-magistrate would be more likely to recog-
nize that the preliminary hearing determines merely whether or not a
prima facie case exists, that presentation of the police case does not estab-
lish the defendant's guilt, and that the use of bail for punishment is im-
proper.
It seems improbable, therefore, that there can be any substantial im-
provement in bail determination beyond the kind of practices which were
observed in this study. The volume of cases requires the use of a rule of
thumb; the fact that hearings are held before the lowest level of the
judiciary and that appeals are usually impracticable makes a considerable
amount of abuse inevitable; and the employment of a pre-bail investigation
to develop information about the defendant would involve prohibitive ex-
pense and the denial of bail to all defendants for the time necessary to make
the investigation.
In any event, improvement in the method of bail determination would
not resolve the central problem of the bail system unless bail for each
defendant was to be set for an amount not in excess of what that particular
defendant could afford. As long as the yardstick for determining what
constitutes excessive bail is the range within which bail is "usually set"
for comparable offenses,15 4 there will be defendants who are denied pre-
trial release. The only resolution of the clash between bail and defendants'
rights is to abandon the necessity of bail for defendants who are financially
unable to obtain it, and if society can afford to take this risk with indigents,
it can take it with all defendants.
The feasibility of such a step depends upon the extent to which it
might increase the number of fugitives. Since most bail is commercially
provided, the financial deterrent against bail jumping 'is usually fictitious.
If there were an appropriate criminal sanction against non-appearance which
was directly enforced by the police, it is extremely improbable that there
would be any increase in the number of fugitives from among those who
now post bail.
The unknown risk which the abandonment of bail would require society
to assume is the possibility that the type of defendants who are now jailed
are so much more unreliable as a group that their pre-trial freedom would
substantially increase the incidence of non-appearance. It is impossible
154. See note 16 smpra.

to determine how much weight should be given to this possibility; 155 the
untested assumption that there is a high correlation between financial in-
ability and the likelihood of non-appearance is the strongest argument for
the retention of bail.
This risk can be minimized in several ways. First, the enactment of a
law which penalizes failure to appear in court when ordered would invoke
a direct deterrent against trying to flee. Second, speeding up the trial of
bail cases would decrease both the opportunity for a defendant to commit
new crimes while awaiting trial and would operate as an indirect preventive
to reduce non-appearance. Defendants who have little tie to the city are
much more likely to wander off if their case will not be reached for nine
months than would be the case if trial followed preliminary hearing by
not more than a few weeks.
With such correctives the degree of risk created by releasing the jailed
defendants does not appear to be large. When this risk is weighed against
the substantial impairment of defendants' rights which is the concomitant
of the present system, an unwillingness to experiment in the direction of the
abolition of bail perpetuates the overemphasis on security at the expense
of individual rights which is an anomaly in our system of criminal justice.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations which follow fall into four categories: (1) a

statute which makes non-appearance a criminal offense and thus establishes
a deterrent against non-appearance as an alternative to or substitute for
bail; (2) recommendations designed to increase the number of defendants
released without security on their own promise to appear, and to improve
the procedure for obtaining pre-trial release; (3) lowering of the standard
amount of bail which is now set for many offenses; and (4) methods by
which defendants who are detained pending trial can be assured of the right
155. In this study, social histories were obtained from 104 prisoners who were
interviewed, but it was not feasible to verify the information from other sources. In
any event such information would have limited value unless it was compared with
an analysis of the social histories of bail defendants, whom it was not feasible to
interview.
The unverified social histories which were obtained in general agreed with
those of BEmE, op. cit. supra note 26, at 157-9, that: (1) "contrary to expecta-
tions, the unsentenced Jail prisoners are not transients, taken as a whole"; (2)
they are usually single or separated; (3) they are "for the most part vocationally
unskilled"; and (4) they are usually young, which in part accounts for their economic
incapacity and single status.
Compare Beeley's attempt to classify 170 pre-trial detainees, as a result
of which he decided that "at least 65" were "dependable" and could safely have
been allowed their freedom. Id. at 159. This classification was made by two field
workers and one pisychiatrist on the basis of information obtained from interviews
with the prisoners and a study of their social case histories. No comparative
study was made to measure bail defendants by the same standards to see if there
were significant differences between the two groups. An added difficulty with ac-
cording much weight to Beeley's classification is that his conclusions are unverified
because the central problem of bail determination, ie., how to determine reliability,
was assumed. Beeley decided what factors indicate dependability and then measured
the defendants against this untested assumption.
to communicate freely with persons outside the jail, thus reducing the handi-
cap which is caused by pre-trial confinement. No separate recommenda-
tions are made here for improving the efficacy of collection of forfeited bail,
suggested remedies having been previously discussed. 156
(1) Making Non-appearancea Criminal Offense
The ultimate abolition of the bail system is the only solution for the
prejudice to jail defendants which results from their low economic status.
A prerequisite for this development is a statute which sets up a direct sanc-
5 7
tion against non-appearance. The statute proposed in the margin
156. See text at notes 129-33 supra.
157. While this study was limited to an examination of problems concerning
defendants held pending trial, see note 1 supra, the following proposed statute is
drafted to include persons bailed or otherwise released after conviction, pending an
appeal or pending appearance as a witness.
The purview of the proposed statute follows:
Section 1. Whoever, having been charged with a criminal offense, or having
been held for appearance as a witness, and having been admitted to bail, or
served with a summons to appear for a preliminary hearing, or otherwise re-
leased pending appearance as a witness or for a preliminary hearing or for trial
or pending the outcome of an appeal, does not, without lawful excuse, present
himself at the proper time and place, is guilty of an offense, and, upon convic-
tion in a summary proceeding, shall be sentenced to a fine not exceeding one
hundred dollars ($100), or to imprisonment not exceeding thirty (30) days, or
both.
Section 2. Whoever violates Section 1 of this Act and, in addition,
does not surrender himself within thirty (30) days following the date of his
failure to appear, if bail was given or release obtained in connection
with a charge of felony or pending appeal or certiorari after conviction of any
offense, is guilty of a felony, and, upon conviction, shall be sentenced to pay a fine
not exceeding five thousand dollars ($5,000), or to imprisonment not exceeding
five (5) years, or both.
Section 3. Whoever violates Section 1 of this Act and, in addition, does
not surrender himself within thirty (30) days following the date of his failure
to appear, if bail was given or release obtained in connection with a charge of
committing a misdemeanor, or for appearance as a witness, is guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and, upon conviction, shall be sentenced to pay a fine not exceeding
one thousand dollars ($1,000), or to imprisonment not exceeding one (1) year,
or both.
Section 4. In all proceedings under this Act, proof that the defendant
did not present himself at the proper time and place is prima fade evidence
of a violation of this Act.
Section 5. A person admitted to bail or otherwise released pending ap-
pearance before any court shall furnish his address and shall give written notice
of any change of address to the District Attorney and the clerk of the court
before which he is to appear. Whoever furnishes a false address, or fails to give
written notice of any change of address to the District Attorney and the clerk
of the court before which he is to appear within 48 hours after he has changed
his address, is guilty of an offense, and, upon conviction in a summary proceed-
ing, shall be sentenced to a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars ($100), or to
imprisonment not exceeding thirty (30) days, or both.
Section 6. Before a person is admitted to bail or otherwise released pending
appearance as a witness or for preliminary hearing or for trial, he shall be
photographed and fingerprinted, and shall be given a written notice clearly ex-
plaining the requirements and penalties provided for by this Act. If such person
is released pending a preliminary hearing, he shall be served with a summons
which shall state clearly the time and place at which he is to appear. If such
person is released pending appearance as a witness or defendant before any
court, he shall be given at least five (5) days notice by registered mail of the
time and place at which he is required to appear.
provides a severe penalty for fugitives who do not appear within 30 days
of the time required; proscribes "judge-jumping" by providing a lesser
penalty for those who do not appear on the day required but do appear
within 30 days; protects the defendant when he has a lawful excuse for non-
appearance, but makes proof of non-appearance constitute prima facie evi-
dence of a violation; and protects both the state and the defendant by
requiring fingerprinting before release and by appropriate notice provisions.
(2) Reduction in the Use of Bail

A marked reduction in the incidence of pre-trial detention could be
achieved by legislation which would utilize a summons instead of arrest
in proper cases 158 and which would require that a defendant charged with
a minor offense be released without bail on his own promise to appear
unless it was shown that the individual circumstances of the case give rise
to a reasonable belief that the defendant will probably flee the jurisdiction.
A statute authorizing the use of the summons should (1) require its
use for defendants charged with minor offenses and (2) permit it to be
employed in any case in which the defendant is bailable as of right. 5" The
proposed statute penalizing non-appearance 10 includes those who fail to ap-
pear after being served with a summons and would obviate the necessity
for police station confinement pending a preliminary hearing in many
16 1
cases.
Even if the power to release a defendant on his own recognizance
without bail is recognized, as in Pennsylvania, 1 2 there should be specific
legislation to govern and encourage its use. Bail was required in almost
every state case studied and the Pennsylvania case authorizing release
158. E.g., MAss. ANN. LAWS c. 276, §§ 24-5 (1933): "Upon a complaint for
a crime punishable by fine only, or by imprisonment for not more than one year,
with or without a fine, a summons may be issued instead of a warrant for arrest, if,
in the judgment of the court or justice receiving the complaint, there is a reason to
believe that the defendant will appear upon a summons." Provision is made for
service "not less than twenty-four hours before the return hour."
159. The following form is recommended:
In all cases in which the offense which the defendant is alleged to have com-
mitted is an offense which can be tried summarily, or a misdemeanor, or larceny
or fraudulent conversion where the value of the property involved is less than
$200, prosecution shall be begun by summons instead of by warrant of arrest.
In no such case shall any warrant of arrest be issued except upon affidavit
showing reasonable cause to believe that the defendant will probably flee the
jurisdiction. In any other case which is bailable as of right, prosecution may be
initiated by summons instead of warrant of arrest, whenever there is no reason-
able cause to believe that the defendant will probably flee the jurisdiction.
Compare the similar but less extensive provisions of Senate Bill No. 459, Session
of 1953, Pennsylvania Legislature.
161. If it was necessary to photograph or fingerprint the defendant, he could
be taken into custody for this purpose and then served with a summons and re-
leased. The same procedure could be followed in the case of a defendant arrested on
sight.
162. McNair's Petition, 324 Pa. 48, 187 Atl. 498 (1936).
without bail added that this "is a practice not to be recommended or en-
couraged." 1 Specific legislative direction will be required to reverse this
trend. It is particularly important to require pre-trial release in cases in 64
which Pennsylvania authorizes private settlement in lieu of prosecution,
unless there are circumstances creating an exceptional risk of non-
appearance. Pre-trial detention deprives defendants of this remedy, and
existence of the provision for private settlement indicates a judgment~about
the minor nature of the offenses which makes pre-trial imprisonment par-
ticularly unjustifiable. The statute proposed in the margin 16 encourages
the use of release without bail in all cases in which there is no unusual
risk of non-appearance, and enables greater utilization of the provision for
private settlement.
Another recommendation which will reduce the incidence of pre-trial
detention is a requirement that a defendant who is in custody be given a
prompt preliminary hearing at which bail will be set in all cases. The
division of responsibility in Pennsylvania, under which magistrates cannot
set bail for serious offenses, resulted in Philadelphia in a substantial infringe-
ment of the constitutional right to bail. 6 6 Under this procedure, some
defendants were unaware of their right to bail, bail was never set for many
defendants, and those who did obtain release were detained five days or
longer after their preliminary hearing before release was effected. The
recommended statute 167 abolishes this division and requires that bail shall
be set in all cases when the defendant is first brought up for preliminary
hearing, preventing prolongation of the period of police detention by a con-
tinuance of a preliminary hearing in a case for which the magistrate cannot
now set bail.
163. Id. at 55, 187 AtI. at 501.

165. The proposed statutory provision follows:
A person charged with a misdemeanor, or with larceny or fraudulent con-
version where the value of the property involved is less than $200, and who at
his preliminary hearing is held for court, shall be released without bail on his
own promise to appear unless it is shown that there is reasonable cause to be-
lieve that the defendant will probably flee the jurisdiction. A person charged
with any other offense which is bailable as of right may be released without
bail on his own promise to appear whenever there is no reasonable cause to be-
lieve that the defendant will probably flee the jurisdiction. As used in this Act,
"reasonable cause to believe that the defendant will probably flee the jurisdiction"
shall be construed to effectuate the purpose of this Act to facilitate the release
of defendants pending trial.
166. See text at note 49 et seq. mspra.
167. Proposed statute to enable bail to be set in all cases at the preliminary
hearing:
Whenever a person is in custody pending his preliminary hearing, the pre-
liminary hearing shall be held not later than noon on the day following the
person's arrest. If the preliminary hearing has not been held by that time, the
defendant shall be released without bail and served. with a summons. In all
cases where the defendant is bailable as of right, bail shall be set or the defefid-
ant released without bail on his promise to appear when the defendant is first
brought up for preliminary hearing.
(3) Limitation on the Amount of Bail

One of the most important problems examined by this study is the
restriction on pre-trial release due to the high level of the standard amount
of bail which is customary for many offenses. The objective of bail is to
secure the release of as many defendants as possible, and this is sought to
be achieved by the constitutional outlawry of excessive bail. We have
seen, however, that the standard which is applied to determine the exces-
siveness of bail is whether or not the amount is within the range customarily
set for like offenses, 168 and that this range is an irrational product of
16 9
custom.
This study suggests the feasibility and desirability of a much more
specific yardstick against which to measure whether bail is excessive, i.e.,
that absent special circumstances showing a high risk, bail is excessive if it
is set in an amount higher than that which in practice most defendants can
raise. In this study it was found that in magistrates' court, if bail was
set at a figure below $500, 85% of defendants obtained release; if bail was
set at a higher figure, the number of defendants obtaining release decreased
until, for bail of over $1000, only 32% obtained release. 10° For the
offenses for which bail was set by Quarter Sessions Court, in an amount
averaging over $1000, only 25% of the defendants obtained pre-trial re-
lease. A bail of not over $1500 is within the standard range customarily
set for many offenses, yet such a bail is high enough to imprison most de-
fendants. The customary range itself is therefore excessive for the pur-
poses of securing the release of most defendants.
The fact that makes it extremely difficult to achieve a rational method
of controlling the amount of bail within the bail system is that variations
in amount have almost no relationship to the weight of the deterrent force
against bail jumping. As most bail is provided by unsecured commercial
bonds, "an excessive bail merely means the enrichment of the bonding com-
pany," 171 with the higher amount resulting in no added deterrent against
non-appearance. The only instance in which high bail would be justified
is in the case of a defendant who had financial resources which he would
risk losing were the bail to be forfeited. This would be true only if the
defendant put up his own property as bail or as security for a commercial
bond, which is a rare situation confined to defendants who are comparatively
responsible financially. The conclusion is inescapable, therefore, that the
real purpose of high bail is to incarcerate defendants, a result which the
constitutional limitation against excessive bail is designed to prevent but
for which purpose it is presently ineffective.
The recommended provision reflects a functional definition of exces-
sive bail by providing that no bail shall be set in an amount higher than
168. See text at note 16 supra.
169. See text preceding note 26 supra.
170. See figure 1 in text preceding note 4 supra and figure 2 in text preceding
note 6 supra.
171. Yankvich, Release on Bond by Trial and Appellate Courts, 7 F.R.D. 271,
275 (1947).
$500 except under special circumstances where the higher amount would
not prevent the release of the defendant and would result in an added
deterrent against bail jumping."72 The figure of $500 is chosen because
of the sharp rise in the number of defendants who cannot raise bail in an
amount above that figure. Such a provision is no help for the impecunious
defendant who cannot post even this much bail and to that extent dis-
criminates arbitrarily against the indigent. As has been indicated, there
is no solution for that problem short of the abolition of bail, and this recom-
mendation is at best a compromise with that goal.
Because this limitation will severely restrict the use of high bail for the
deliberate purpose of incarcerating defendants pending trial, mention will be
made of two ways in which objectives which typically prompt the use of
excessive bail can be remedied.
If it is feared that the defendants will commit further crimes if re-
leased on bail, the remedy is not preventive detention but a prompt trial. 73
Administrative brocedures could be evolved to achieve this end, and in
Philadelphia some progress has been made in this direction with narcotics
and numbers offenders. 174 One problem connected with speeding up trials
in cases in which there is an apparently high risk of further criminality is
the Pennsylvania requirement that all defendants be indicted by the grand
jury. The Philadelphia District Attorney has recommended a constitu-
tional amendment to eliminate the grand jury entirely,"75 but even without
this change it is possible to speed up the indictment process and bring
the defendant to trial in a very short time. A speedy trial is a much more
172. The recommended statute provides:
Whenever bail is required, the amount set shall not exceed $500 unless it is
shown, in addition to the fact that the circumstances of the case are such as to
create a high risk that the defendant will not appear, that
(a) there is reason to believe that the defendant is able to afford the
higher amount of bail; and
(b) there is reason to believe that the result of imposing higher bail will be
to make it more probable that the defendant will appear for his trial than would
be the case if the amount of bail was not in excess of $500.
In any case in which bail is set in excess of $500 in accordance with this
section, the record shall state with particularity the findings of fact upon which
the court or magistrate relied.
173. "From time to time, armed robbers or narcotics peddlers who have exer-
cised this Constitutional right [to bail], commit a second crime while awaiting trial
for the first crime. Great excitement then ensues and some people argue that the
defendants should never have been at liberty on bail. This in turn leads to criticism
of the Courts, which is unjust since they are sworn to uphold the Constitution and,
therefore, they must fix bail and may not fix unreasonable bail. The best way to
eliminate a bad bail situation is the prompt trial of bail cases. That can be ac-
complished in Philadelphia if there is a further increase in the number of court rooms
devoted to criminal trials. Such an increase would raise numerous questions of man
power but, by proper planning, all such problems can be solved." DIsT. Avr'y
REP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 14.
174. "Numbers cases are down to a four month wait and narcotics to two. We
try to speed up the numbers cases because they involve men and women who have
set out deliberately to break the law. The narcotics cases need quick handling be-
cause of the danger of having such people at large." First Assistant District At-
torney Michael von Moschzisker, quoted in The Philadelphia Inquirer, Feb. 15,
1954, p. 1, col. 1.
175. DisT. Ar'Y RP., op. cit. supra note 46, at 40.
satisfactory solution than the use of imprisonment to prevent crimes which

have not yet been committed. Such imprisonment is repugnant to our
theory of criminal justice and is particularly objectionable when, as was
often the case in Philadelphia, high bail was the method used to obtain
preventive detention. In such situations, the decision that the defendant
is a potential offender is merely a guess by the magistrate, court or Dis-
trict Attorney, without any hearing on the factors relevant to such a risk.
If the basis for fearing that a defendant will harm other people if
released pending trial is a belief that the defendant is mentally ill, or a
mental defective, drug addict, inebriate or epileptic, the proper remedy is
to obtain commitment under the provisions of statutes governing the men-
tally ill.i76
(4) Rights of Defendants Detained Pending Trial

As long as defendants are to be imprisoned pending trial, there should
be a statutory declaration of the rights to which they are entitled while so
confined. As such detention is solely for the purpose of assuring the de-
fendant's appearance at his trial and not for punishment, the element of
punishment which inevitably accompanies any deprivation of liberty should
be minimized so far as is possible. Ideally this would involve separate
detention facilities where the only restrictions would be those imperatively
required by considerations of custody. 177 However, such a remedy would
involve so great an expense that it is impracticable, and even ideal detention
facilities would still punish the untried defendant and severely prejudice
him in his efforts to prepare a defense. The recommendation which is
made is therefore limited to guarantees of free communication between the
untried defendant and the outside world. These provisions would involve
relatively minor expense to the state and are so obviously required to pre-
vent unnecessary aggravation of the prejudicial effects of pre-trial deten-
tion that this added expense is fully justified.
Legislation to this end should include the following guarantees:
(a) Any defendant who is detained pending preliminary hearing or
after being committed for trial shall be permitted to use the telephone with
reasonable frequency, to see any visitor or visitors who come to see him,
and to write and receive an unlimited number of letters.
(b) The statute should provide specifically that the defendant shall
be permitted to use the telephone a reasonable number of times immediately
upon being booked at a police station or upon being admitted to a jail or
prison; that he should be supplied with stationery and postage and per-
mitted to write at least three letters immediately upon admission; and
that, if he is without funds, he shall thereafter be provided with a reason-
able number of free telephone calls and postage for a reasonable number
of letters per week.
176. PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, §§ 1072, 1201, 2063(3) (Purdon 1954).
(c) Specific provision should be made so that a defendant can con-

tact a professional bondsman if he so desires. For this purpose, each
police station, jail or county prison should be required to keep and show
to each defendant an alphabetical list of the names, addresses and telephone
numbers of all licensed bondsmen in the county. 78
Employment of an effective sanction to force compliance with such a
statute raises a very difficult problem. Criminal and civil sanctions against
anyone who wilfully deprives a defendant of his rights under the statute
probably should be provided, although such remedies are notoriously in-
effective when, as in this situation, they must be applied against law
enforcement officers. 179 The civil cause of action would be more effective
if it provided for a waiver of sovereign immunity so that the city or county
involved would be jointly liable with the offending officer, and if the statute
provided for the recovery of damages of not less than $500. Probably such
a statute cannot be effectively enforced unless vigilant supervision is main-
tained by voluntary defender associations, bar associations and other groups
concerned with individual rights. It is nonetheless important, however,
as a standard in seeking improvement of the conditions under which un-
tried defendants are confined.
SUMMARY
Some of the foregoing recommendations represent basic reforms. The
use of the summons would eliminate many police detentions, while the
requirement of release without bail in most cases in which the defendant is
charged with a minor offense would materially reduce the pre-trial jail
population. Greater limitation on the maximum amount of bail which can
be set and improved procedures to speed up setting bail would make pre-
trial release more feasible for defendants charged with more serious offenses,
most of whom are now detained pending trial.
Such proposals, however, minimize rather than solves the problem of
pre-trial detention. Permitting a magistrate to require bail even for de-
fendants charged with minor offenses, where he finds a probability that the
defendant will flee, opens the door to probable abuse, while the use of bail
even in small amounts will force pre-trial imprisonment of those with very
limited financial ability. The premise upon which the bail system was
founded, that we should not imprison a person who was merely an accused,
can be realized only if a direct penal sanction is substituted for the bail
system as the deterrent relied upon to compel appearance in court. Re-
forms within the bail system are at best temporary expedients pending a
time when abolition of the wrongs inherent in pre-trial imprisonment is
more highly valued than the usually fictitious deterrent force provided by
modem commercial bail.
178. This practice is reported in A STUDY OF THE BAIL BOND SYSTEM IN THE
DISrmcr OF COLUMlA 14 (Washington Crim. Justice Ass'n 1937 mimeo).
179. See, e.g., the dissenting opinion of Mr. Justice Murphy in Wolf v. Colorado,
338 U.S. 25, 41 (1949), discussing the limitations of criminal and civil sanctions
against unlawful search and seizure.

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1954]

COMPELLING APPEARANCE IN COURT:

UNDER 500 500-750 750-1000 OVER 1000

I. THE AVAILABILITY OF BAIL

FIGURE 2. PROPORTION OF FEDrAjL DEFENDANTS WHO Dm NOT RAISE

6. See notes 27, 29, 68 infra.

(b) Setting Bail in Philadelphia

35. Philadelphia Inquirer, May 10, 1954, p. 1, col. 4.

commitment sheet is brought to the District Attorney, who adds a resum6

In 37% of the cases, the individual recommendation was lower in

Of 208 bail settings at the Commissioner's hearings, 121, or 58%,

(c) Time Necessary to Obtain Bail

the police, is currently enforcing a rule providing that persons arrested

46. ANNUM. REPORT 1952, DISTRCT ATTORNEY'S OFFICE OF PHILADELPHIA 10

non-capital offenses "shall be bailable." 5 In common parlance among

in the future the defendant will have to give 24 hour formal

The division of responsibility, which makes possible such infringe-

(d) Effecting Release on Bail

law enforcement officer, employe of a penal institution," or court official to

60. Id. § 90.10(e).

II. THE JAILED DEFENDANT

(a) Proportion of Defendants Detained

(b) Disposition of Jail Cases

mediately after conviction. It is impossible to determine whether these

(c) Duration of Pre-trialDetention

The interviewed prisoners, whose cases were followed to their ter-

74. See text at note 84 infra.

TIME SPENT IN JAIL AWAITING TRIAL

UNDER 20 20-29 30-39 40 a OVER

FIGURE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF DEFENDANTS ACCORDING TO NUiMBER OF

in Philadelphia is of more practical importance is the policy inaugurated

(d) Comparative Treatment

Although there are marked variations among different types of crimes,

Table I-PERCENTAGES OF INDICTED DEFENDANTS NOT CoNVIcTED

Defendants on Bail Defendants in Jail

not not not not

All above offenses 275 254 48% 340 77 18%

Table 2-PERCENTAGES OF CONVICTED OFFENDERS WHO RECEIVED PRISoN

Defendants on bail Defendants in jail

All above offenses 275 61 22% 340 200 59%

Table 2 shows a comparison of the proportion of convicted offenders,

largely eliminated because the cases were decided by many different

(e) The Effects of Detention

Assuming for the moment that pre-trial imprisonment of such a large

These defendants were able to obtain counsel only because a friend

At the time of this study these regulations stipulated that an untried

97. Interview, note 93 supra.

settlement may be a bar to further prosecution of the charge.1' ° The

(f) The Conditions of Detention

Moyamensing Prison the untried prisoner is subjected to an admission rou-

III. MINIMIZING THE. RIsK OF NON-APPEARANCE

In addition to its effects upon defendants, securing trial attendance by

(a) Bail Bonds

111. For the cost of bonds, see text at note 56 mipra.

vigorous collection methods inaugurated in the fall of 1952 will tend to

one-half percent of all bonds written is comparable to Cleveland's rate 120

FORFEITURES BY TYPE OF BAIL

SURETY PROFESSIONAL PRIVATE

FIGuRE 4. NUMBER Or FORFEITURES PER 1000 BONDS W RITTEN

tained.123 Methods which could be employed to ensure effective collection

NUMBER OF FORFEITURES NOT COLLECTED

The relationship between the rate of collection on forfeitures and the

the defendant has a strong financial inducement not to become a fugitive.