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xL xR yH
Horizontal distance = xR – xL
Vertical distance = yH – yL
yL
y P2(x2,y2)
d x2 x1 2 y2 y1 2
P1(x1,y1)
Slope of a Line:
y P2(x2,y2)
y 2 y1
m tan m
x 2 x1
y2 – y1
The slope, m is positive if the line is inclined upwards to the right but is
negative if the line is inclined downwards to the right. For horizontal lines,
m = 0 and for vertical lines, it is undefined,
i.e m = .
P1(x1,y1) x2 – x1
x
1
For parallel lines, m1 = m2 ; for perpendicular lines, m1 .
m2
Midpoint of a Line Segment:
y P2(x2,y2) Let x, y be the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment P P .
1 2
x1 x 2 y1 y 2
M (x, y) x y
2 2
P1(x1,y1)
x
L1
x
where m1 – slope of initial side, i.e. line L1
m2 – slope of terminal side, i.e. line L2
Let P(x,y) be a point located on the line joining P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) such that
P1P is a given fraction k of P1P2, i.e.
y P2(x2,y2)
P1P = k P1P2
Note that k is positive if the directed line segments P1P and P1P2 are similarly
P1(x1,y1) directed and negative if P1P and P1P2 are oppositely directed.
Point-Slope Form: y – y1 = m (x – x1) where (x1, y1) are the coordinates of a given point
y 2 y1
Two-Point Form: y – y1 = (x – x1) where (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) are given points
x 2 x1
Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + b y
x y
Intercept Form: 1 b
a b
where a – x-intercept of the line p
Normal Form: x cos y sin p a x
where p – distance of the line from the origin
To reduce the equation Ax + By + C = 0 into the normal form, divide through by A2 B 2 (using the sign in front
of B), then transpose the constant term to the right, i.e.
Ax By C
p
A B 2 2
A B 2 2
A2 B 2
Note that p can be positive or negative. If p is positive, it means that the line
Ax + By + C = 0 is above (or to the right of) the origin while if p is negative, it means that the line is below (or to the left
of) the origin.
Ax+By+C2=0
C 2 C1
d d
A2 B 2
x
Ax+By+C1=0
Distance from a Point to a Line:
y
Ax1 By1 C d
d
A B 2 2
P1(x1,y1)
Area of a Triangle:
x1 y1 1
1
A x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
P1(x1,y1) P2(x2,y2) Note that for the computed area to be positive,
the vertices should be numbered in the
x counterclockwise order
The area formula is sometimes written in the more convenient form shown below.
1 x1 x2 x3 x1
A
1
x1 y2 x2 y3 x3 y1 x1 y3 x3 y 2 x2 y1
2 y1 y2 y3 y1 2
1 x1 x2 x3 . . . . xn x1
A
2 y1 y2 y3 . . . . yn y1
Examples:
1. Find the area of the pentagon having vertices at (3. 0), (2, 3), (–1, 2), (–2, –1) and
(0, –2).
Solution:
y
Numbering the vertices in the counterclockwise
P3(-1,2) order, the area is
P2(2,3)
1 3 2 1 2 0 3
A
2 0 3 2 1 2 0
P4(-2,-1)
P1(3,0) x
=
1
9 4 1 4 0 (6 0 4 3 0)
2
P5(0,-2)
= 31 square units
2
2. What is the equation of a line that passes through (4, 0) and is parallel to the line
x – y – 2 = 0?
Solution:
The equation of the required line is x – y + k = 0. To find k, substitute the coordinates of the given point. Hence, 4 – 0 + k = 0.
Hence, k = –4.
x– y–4 =0
3. Find the equation of the line through (3, 1) that is perpendicular to the line x + 5y + 5 = 0.
Solution:
The equation of the required line can be obtained by interchanging the coefficients of x and y from the given equation and
changing the sign of one of them, i.e.
5x – y + k = 0 5(3) – 1 + k = 0 k = –14
5x – y –14 = 0
THE CONIC SECTIONS
A conic section is the locus of a point that moves such that its distance from a fixed point (called focus) is in constant ratio to its distance
from a fixed straight line (called directrix). This constant ratio is called eccentricity. The circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola compose
the conic sections (or simply conics) since each of them can be formed by a plane which is made to intersect a cone.
The Circle:
A circle is the locus of a point in a plane that moves so that it is always equidistant from a fixed point (called the center). The fixed
distance is called the radius.
A circle is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the base of the cone.
Equations of a Circle:
or x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
The Parabola:
A parabola is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that its distance from a fixed point (called the focus) equals its distance from
a fixed line (called the directrix). It is formed when the cutting plane is parallel to one of the elements of the cone. Since the parabola is a
symmetrical curve, the line of symmetry is called the axis of the parabola.
Equations of a Parabola:
General equations:
If the right side of the equation is positive, the parabola opens upward;
if the right side of the equation is negative, the parabola opens downward.
If the right side of the equation is positive, the parabola opens rightward;
if the right side of the equation is negative, the parabola opens leftward.
Latus rectum, LR = 4a
Directrix
2a
PF
a
V
a
F Axis
x
e
PD
2a
D
P For a parabola, e = 1.
The Ellipse:
An ellipse is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that the sum of its distances from two fixed points (called the foci) is a constant
and is equal to the length of the major axis (2a). It can also be defined as the locus of a point that moves such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point (or focus) to its distance from a fixed line (or directrix) is a constant and is less than one.
The ellipse is the conic section formed if the cutting plane is making an angle (other than 90 o) with the axis of the cone.
Equations of an Ellipse:
Standard Forms:
( x h) 2 y k
2
1 a
a2 b2
x
Center at (h, k), Major axis vertical
y
Major axis
( x h) 2 y k
2
1
b2 a2
x
where a – semimajor axis Major axis = 2a
b – semiminor axis Minor axis = 2b Note that a > b.
y Directrix
2
Latus rectum, LR = 2b /a
V2 F2 C F1 V1
a a x
D2
P c
PF2 c
e <1
PD2 a
The Hyperbola:
The hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that the difference of its distances from two fixed points (called foci) is a
positive constant and is equal to the length of the transverse axis (2a). It can also be defined to be the locus of a point that moves such that
the ratio of its distance from a fixed point (or focus) to its distance from a fixed line (or directrix) is a constant and is greater than one.
The hyperbola is the conic section formed if the cutting plane is parallel (but not coincident) to the axis of the cone.
Standard Forms:
Transverse axis – the line segment joining the two vertices Transverse
axis
of the hyperbola which has a total length of 2a. y
Center at (h, k), Transverse axis - horizontal:
x h2 y k 2 1
a2 b2 x
Transverse
y k x h
2 2 axis
2
1
a b2
O x
where a – semitransverse axis Transverse axis = 2a
PF2 c > 1
e
PD2 a
Directrix
d
Latus rectum,
LR = 2b2/a
b
F2 V2 V1 F1
a C a x
b
P D2
c
Asymptote
Degenerate conic (point circle, one line, two intersecting lines) – the conic formed if the cutting plane passes through the vertex of the
cone.
Examples:
1. Find the value of k for which the equation x2 + y2 + 4x – 2y – k = 0 represents a point circle.
a. 5 b. 6 c. –6 d. –5
This is also the general equation of a conic section: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
When B ≠ 0, the principal axes of the conic are inclined by an angle θ expressed as
B
tan 2
AC
In other words, the principal axes are not parallel to the coordinate axes. The curve can be obtained from the equation given by
determining the value of the discriminant
B2 – 4AC.
2
If B – 4AC < 0, the conic is an ellipse (e < 1).
If B2 – 4AC = 0, the conic is a parabola (e = 1).
If B2 – 4AC > 0, the conic is a hyperbola (e > 1).
Examples:
1. Using the discriminant, identify the curve represented by the equation
3x2 + 6xy + 3y2 – 4x + 7y = 12
Solution: For the given equation, A = 3, B = 6 and C = 3.
In this system, the location of a point in a plane is expressed by the ordered pair (r, θ) where
r (called the radius vector) is the distance of the point from the origin (or the pole) and θ (called the polar angle) is the angle that the
radius vector makes with the Ox axis (also called the polar axis).
Sign Convention:
(r, θ)
• θ is positive (+) when measured counterclockwise
An equation in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates can be transformed into one in polar coordinates and vice-versa. The
following equations can be obtained from the diagram shown.
y (r, θ)
(x, y) Conversion from rectangular to polar:
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
r y
θ
x x
Conversion from polar to rectangular:
y
r x2 y2 tan
x
x y
cos sin
x y
2 2
x y2
2
Examples:
1. What is the polar equation of a vertical line 5 units to the right of the origin?
Solution:
x=5 x=5
Hence, in polar form, the equation is
r cos θ = 5
x
y x 2 y 2 4ay
r = 4a sin θ x 2 y 2 4a
x y
2 2