ADVANCES IN RAPID PROTOTYPING AND RAPID MANUFACTURING
Perry W. Carter
Brigham Young University
Abstract: This paper gives an overview of currently
available capabilities in the Rapid Prototyping
industry. Modern applications of rapid-prototyping
are discussed. Capabilities and limitations of the most
popular rapid-prototyping machines are presented.
Criteria for choosing a process are presented, then
specifications of popular machines are given in a table,
including estimated costs. The information presented
here will assist a potential user of these technologies in
choosing the best process and machine for their
application.
Key words: Rapid Prototyping, Rapid Manufacturing,
Stereolithography
I. INTRODUCTION
The world was first introduced to the modem concept of
rapid prototyping in 1985 when Charles Hull
commercialized his stereolithography process. His
process is based on the idea of building a three-
dimensional object from thinly-cut layers, something
which sculptors had done before. Charles Hull was the
first to automate the process for producing small parts
with complex shapes and close dimensional tolerances.
Hull's idea came to him while he was working as a
chemist on the development of a paint that would set
quickly when applied in sunlight. The realization that
application of focused light could cause certain liquids to
harden led him to quit his job as a chemist and work at
home developing a new process that could create three-
dimensional objects from thin layers of hardened liquid
polymer. His success led to the founding of a new
company, 3D Systems of Valencia, California, and the
beginning of a new industry; Rapid Prototyping.
Today there are over twenty companies worldwide that
produce machines for rapid prototyping with several
thousand?? machines installed. Most of the machines are
owned by service bureaus who will make a part from a
customer's computer file. Many of these service bureaus
'will perform a variety of secondary operations on the
customer's model ranging from simple sanding and
painting to producing tooling for casting or molding of
production parts. Other machines are located in
manufacturing companies where .they are used to build in-
house models. A few machine builders do not sell their
machines at all, but operate as service bureaus
themselves. As mentioned above, developments in new
materials and processes are enabling design teams to
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sometimes build rapid models with near-final part
functionality. This means first-article products can be
completed and evaluated without waiting for tooling.
Needed changes can then be made at much lower expense
in both time and money.
The five most common uses for models made by rapid
prototyping are:
1. Visualization
All of us learn more about an object if we can handle it
than if we just look at a picture. Communication of
concepts among members of product-development teams,
between design and marketing functions and between
sales departments and customers, is usually enhanced by a
physical model or example of what is being proposed.
Here time is often the critical issue. Getting
understanding among all parties involved in a decision
within days, or hours, may make the difference between
success and failure.
2. FormandFit
Even a crude three-dimensional model of an assembly
will reveal problems that could be difficult to detect by
looking at drawings. Rapid prototype models today can
be built with accuracy and complexity sufficient to allow
confident resolution of many assembly questions.
3. Product test
As mentioned above, developments in new materials and
processes are enabling design teams to sometimes build
rapid models with near-final part functionality. This
means first-article products can be completed and
evaluated without waiting for tooling. Needed changes
can then be made at much lower expense in both time and
money.
4. "Bridge" tooling
Many of the parts modeled by rapid prototyping are of
such geometry and function that casting or molding will
be the indicated production process. All of the rapid-
prototyping methods can lead to rapid tooling, either
indirectly through multi-step production of a cast resin
tool, or directly by building a negative of the part, usually
a female mold, from tooling resin, metal, or ceramic shell.
Most such tools will not exhibit the life of a machined
steel tool, but. can be economically used for medium-
volume production as a bridge tool until a more
permanent tool can be built.
5. End-use parts
The wide range of strength and elastic properties now
available in rapid-prototyping plastics, and the success of
metal and ceramic build materials, make it possible to
manufacture final parts for some low-volume
applications. The aerospace and medical industries have
particularly benefitted from this capability as production
quantities in these industries are typically low, even down
to a lot size of one for a space-station application or a
replacement bone or joint for an injured person.
These five uses will be referred to in the next section
where the principal processes and their capabilities and
limitations are discussed.
1. Stereolithography (SLA)
This is the name given by Charles Hull to his new process
for creating solid objects from liquid resin and a
computer-generated representation of the part.
Liquid photopolymer, which is a resin that hardens
immediately when exposed to light, is held in a vat fitted
with a platform that can be raised and lowered. Above
the vat of liquid is a laser beam that can be accurately
guided by movable mirrors. To begin the process the
platform is positioned a few thousandths of an inch below
the surface of the liquid. The laser beam is computer-
guided to trace out the shape of the bottom slice of the
object. The result is a layer of hardened resin having the
same shape as the computer-generated slice and the same
thickness as the layer of resin that was left above the
platform. The platform is then lowered until it is again
covered with a thin coating of liquid photopolymer, and
the tracing motion of the laser is repeated, this time
following the shape of the second-from-the-bottom slice.
As this second layer hardens it also fuses to the first layer.
When this shape is completed the part is two layers thick.
The platform is lowered again and the process is repeated
layer-by-layer until a finished object has been built.
After the top-most layer has been hardened the platform is
raised to remove the object fiom the liquid resin.
Uncured resin will drain off back into the vat and the
fiiished object can be removed from the platform.
Every layer but the first must be hardened over previously
hardened material. If an isolated spot were to be
hardened on the surface of the liquid and not attached to
the previous layer, it would float away and be lost. To
avoid this problem any unconnected spots occurring on a
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11. THE PRINCIPAL BUILD PROCESSES
All rapid prototyping machines build solid objects from
thin layers. They all require a computer representation of
the object to start with. The computer representation can
be generated from any modem CAD system that will
create a solid model. Software is provided with each
machine to electronically cut the object into slices only a
few thousandths of an inch thick. Each slice is then used
to guide the machine in producing a physical layer having
the same shape as the slice. The layers are built in an
additive fashion, one on top of another, until the three-
dimensional object is completed. There are several
different processes used to create the layers. Eight of the
common processes will be presented here.
slice must be connected by a temporary bridge, or support
structure, which is created by the machine's slicing
software. After the part is complete the support can be
broken or cut away.
Stereolithography models must be rinsed clean and post-
cured in a separate UV oven to develop the full strength
of the resin.
A. Advantages
Stereolithography .models have close tolerances (see
Table 1 for specifications of machines) and good surface
finish. Transparent models can be built, as can models
with some elasticity. Materials are available for use in all
five of the applications described above
B. Disadvantages
Both the machines and the materials are expensive, and
the materials have a shelf life of under one year. All
available materials are polymers. Metals or ceramics
cannot be used for direct model building. Support
structure must be removed from finished models. Rinsed
liquid resin is non-sewerable in most areas and must be
disposed of by other means. A post-curing apparatus
(oven) is required. Multi colored models cannot be built
directly.
2. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
This process produces layers from adhesive-backed paper
or other sheet materials. The first sheet is stuck to a
movable platform by rolling with a heated roller. A laser
beam is then used to cut precisely through the sheet of
material, and no deeper, to produce the profile of the first
slice as determined by the slicing software.
None of the material is removed at this point. It all
remains bonded to the platform. Areas of material that lie
inside or outside of the slice profile provide the support
function for isolated bits of the slice profile. That
supporting material will have to be removed from the
finished model, so the laser cuts it into small squares
which become cubes in the finished block. These cubes
can be broken away from the completed model.
After the first layer profile is cut, the platform is lowered
by an amount equal to the thickness of the material being
used, and the next layer of adhesive-backed material is
automatically laid over the first and bonded with the hot
roller. The second slice profile is loaded into the
computer and the corresponding layer is cut one thickness
deep by the laser beam. Both part profile and
crosshatching of support areas are cut.
This sequence of lowering the platform, putting down a
layer of material and cutting the next profile is continued
until all the slices are completed. When finished, the
resulting block of bonded material is lifted from the
platform and the support cubes are broken away, leaving a
model which can be finished in various ways depending
on what material was used for the layers.
A. Advantages
Although the basic LOM process is usually described
with paper as the building material, various plastics, fiber
glass composite, ceramics and even metals are
successfully used. Ceramic and metal sheets are made
from powders which allows a wide variety of
compositions.
LOM paper models can be larger than models produced
by most other processes, and paper is probably the least
expensive of all modeling materials.
Paper models can be used in bridge-tool applications.
B. Disadvantages
Removal of support material requires skill and patience to
avoid damage to models. Since the LOM model is totally
encased in support material, the ratio of total material
volume used to actual model volume can be anywhere
from 10:1 to 100:1. Most paper models require sanding
to smooth out stairsteps between layers, which sanding
affects final part tolerances. Paper models must be sealed
with paint or other coating to be dimensionally stable, and
are generally not suitable for product test or for end-use
parts. Ceramic or metal-powder models require careful
furnace sintering to achieve usable strengths.
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3. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
The Stratasys company developed the process called
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). In this process a
thermoplastic material, usually ABS , is fed into the
machine as a filament about one-sixteenth inch in
diameter. The filament is melded in a heating chamber
and then extruded in a fine bead about .010 inch diameter
through a moving nozzle. The extruded thermoplastic is
deposited on a platform that can.be lowered as the object
is built. As the nozzle travels over the path of one slice of
the object it deposits one layer of hot material which cools
and adheres to the layer below it. The platform
supporting the object then lowers an amount equivalent to
one layer, about .010 inch normally, and the next layer is
applied.
When the part is completely built it is separated from the
platform and any necessary support material is broken
away. The part is ready for use immediately, or it can be
sanded to improve the surface finish.
A. Advantages
The FDM process can build models from ABS plastic
which is light and strong but relatively brittle. Colored
filament is. available and a single part can be produced
multi-colored. Elastomer and polycarbonate materials
are now available. Wax filament is available for direct
building of patterns for investment casting of metal parts.
In most cases no secondary operations are necessary.
The process generates no fumes, or other byproducts.
B. Disadvantages
Most shapes require support material which must be
broken away, sometimes causing damage to the model.
Water-soluable support material is now available
however, and it can be disposed of in the sewer.
The process is limited to thermoplastic polymers.
4. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Selective Laser Sintering can be thought of as the SLA
process with the photopolymer replaced by powder. A
thin layer of thermoplastic powder (or plastic-coated
metal powder, ceramic powder, sand, etc.) is spread
across the top of the platform. The moving laser beam
fuses the plastic in the shape of the first slice. The
unfused powder is left in place as support for the object
being built. The platform is lowered and the next layer of
powder is spread over the first. The laser beam travels
over the surface of the powder, fusing it into the shape of
the second slice and at the same time to the layer beneath
it. Consecutive layers of powder are spread , with the
platform lowering for each and with each layer being
fused into the shape of its corresponding slice by the
laser. The finished model is lifted out of the remaining
unfused powder.
A. Advantages ’ The machine and material are expensive. Only one
Because the unfused powder provides support, there is no
solid support material to be broken off of the finished
part. This reduces material waste. A large variety of
materials, polymers, ceramics, and metals, can be used for
building models by coating their powders with resin.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins can be used
as binders.
B. Disadvantages
Machines and materials are expensive. Metal or ceramic
parts must be post-sintered to acheve strength.
5 . Solid Ground Curing
This process was developed by the Cubital Corp. which is
currently inactive. New machines are not available.
Solid-ground-curing uses a photosensitive resin and
ultraviolet light to create solidified layers. An image of
each layer is produced on an electrostatically-charged,
erasable glass plate. That image, serving as a photo mask,
is positioned over a thin layer of liquid photopolymer
resin. The resin is then selectively hardened by exposure
to ultraviolet light through the mask. The solidified resin
becomes the next solid slice of the object being built.
To provide support for portions of the object that would
be detached or cantilevered from the main body of the
growing object as layers are added, the solid-ground-
curing process surrounds each layer with wax. As each
slice is partially solidified, the uncured liquid resin is
vacuumed from the surface of the platform and molten
wax is spread into the cavities in and around the new solid
slice. The wax is chilled and then milled with a cutter to
create a smooth, flat surface. The exposed, partially
cured resin layer is then thoroughly cured by a second
exposure to ultraviolet light.
The process is repeated after lowering the platform by a
distance equal to one layer, replacing the image on the
erasable, electrostatic glass plate with a new image of the
next slice, and spreading a new layer of resin on the
milled surface of the growing object on the platform.
When the model is completely built, the wax support
material is removed by melting and the part is ready for
use.
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A. Advantages
The SGC process produces close-tolerance models with
good surface finish.
B. Disadvantages
polymer material is available. The process and machine
are complex.
6 . Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (BPM)
This process is a modification of the ink-jet printing
process. Solid layers are formed by spraying liquid
thermoplastic, rather than ink, through an accurately
controlled, flying head similar to an ink-jet printer. .
The more nozzles the head contains, the more detail and
better tolerances the process can produce. As in other
additive RP processes, the particles are sprayed in layers
defined by computer slicing software. As the liquid resin
hits the layer below it, it immediately cools and solidifies,
bonding to the layer beneath it. Accuracy in the vertical
build dimension is achieved by passing a rotating milling
cutter over the growing object after each layer of material
is deposited. As each layer is added the platform
supporting the growing object is lowered an amount equal
to the thickness of the layer (.002 - .003 inches).
Support material must also be sprayed, usually
through another set of nozzles
A. Advantages
The BPM process produces the smallest resolution and
dimensional tolerances of any W process. It is generally
used for small, precision parts. The machines are less
expensive than many other RP systems. No objectionable
fumes, noise, or byproducts are produced. Machines can
be operated in an office environment with little operator
training. Different colored resins with some variation in
properties are available.
B. Disadvantages
Most machines are small and perform best on small parts.
Only thermoplastic polymers can be used as build
materials. Support structure must be broken off of
finished models.
7. Three-Dimensional Printing (3DP)
The above BPM machines are commonly referred to as
3-D printers, but a variation on the process deserves
special classification. Three-dimensional printing here
refers to the use of an ink-jet type apparatus to build
layers by shooting room-temperature binders into clean,
unbonded powder instead of molten plastics. In such
cases the powder is spread in a thin layer as in the SLS
process. Liquid binder is sprayed through the moving
head, into the powder layer, where it quickly hardens,
binding the powder particles together wherever it hits.
Successive layers are bonded together by the sprayed
binder, and the finished part is lifted from the unbonded
powder and blown clean.
A. Advantages
High build-speed is an advantage of these machines. Also
relatively inexpensive hardware and materials.
B. Disadvantages
Small parts having larger tolerances are typical of 3D
Printing.
8. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
This process, owned by Sandia National Labs, produces
metal models directly from powder, No binders or
sintering are required. Metal powder is fed into a laser
beam which melts the particles and deposits the resulting
liquid in a thin layer. By guiding the metal-spray nozzle
as in other RF' processes, a layer of metal having the
desired slice shape can be formed. Successive layers are
deposited on top of one another to build a three-
dimensional shape. An inert gas shield is used to prevent
oxidation of the metal. Support structure must be built
for overhung or isolated parts of the object.
A. Advantages.
This is the only commercial process able to produce direct
metal parts having 100% density and requiring no post
sintering or infiltration. Many alloys can be used,
including those that require melting under inert gas or
vacuum.
B. Disadvantages
Availability is limited to services for hire. Tolerances and
surface finishes are not as good as other processes
achieve. Secondary machining is usually necessary.
111. SELECTING A PROCESS
With the variety of capabilities available for rapid
prototyping how should one decide which process to use?
111
The decision may involve anything from a single part to
be modeled by a service bureau to the purchase of a new,
in-house machine. a
What is the most impoftant criterion to consider in
selecting a process or machine? The answer to that
question will depend on which of the five uses described
above your model will be built for? The intended use
will largely dictate which criterion is most important.
Four criteria will be discussed in this section, followed by
a table of descriptive data for each of several current
machines.
1. Build Material
The choice of direct-build materials ranges from paper
and corn starch to sintered alumina and super-alloys. The
most common materials are thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers. These proprietary polymers tend
also to be the most expensive materials.
Pass-around, visualization models (use No. 1 above) are
the least demanding of material properties. However, the
distance the model must travel and the number of people
who will handle it should be considered. If it will be seen
by only a few people and never go further than the
building it is created in, then a fragile material may be
fine. More handling and greater travel distances,
especially if packaging and shipping are expected, will
demand a tougher material.
Form-and-fit issues such as transparency, elasticity
(plastic snap fits), surface textures, the ability to make a
seal or hold pressure, etc. will narrow the choice of
material. Likewise, end-use properties such as wear
resistance, strength and dimensional tolerance will restrict
material choice.
2. Time to Create Model
Since all rapid-prototyping processes start with a
computer solid representation of the part, the time to
create a model includes getting the CAD file to the
builder, slicing the file, setting up the location and
orientation of the model in the machine's build envelope,
loading material into the machine, building the model,
doing whatever post-processing and finishing might be
necessary and getting the model back to'the customer.
The actual build time on the machine is usually the most
time consuming step in the sequence, but not always.
Sometimes when parts are small and complex, or the
customer's file needs considerable cleaning up
to close gaps, etc., the slicing and setting-up steps can
take longer than the build time. Post-processing time may
also exceed the build time if extensive support material,
particularly internal support, must be removed by hand
(soluble support material is a time saver in such cases) or
if much sanding and hand finishing is required.
Models built from powdered ceramics or metals usually
require furnace sintering and infiltration that is typically a
batch process. Such post-processing could easily add a
week or two to the model delivery time.
3. Surface Finish and Tolerance
Where -form-and-fit or end-use are the intended
applications for a model, surface finish and tolerance may
be the deciding criteria in choosing the process. The
dimensional tolerance on a model will be a function of
many process variables. Some of those are the machine
stiffness and internal vibration damping characteristics,
the width and consistency of the line produced by the
process to generate the slice profiles, and the resolution of
the path-following apparatus that guides the line. As
shown in Table 1, .003 to ,005in. per inch tolerances are
about as small as direct RP processes can achieve.
Secondary machining will be necessary if closer
tolerances are called for.
Surface finish on models varies with the orientation of the
model on the machine platform. Horizontal surfaces on
models build by liquid-material processes such as SLA or
SGC may have finishes as fine as 32 RMS. Vertical
surfaces may have finishes between 63 and 125 RMS.
All sloped surfaces will have stair-steps due to the vertical
sides produced on each layer of the stack. The size of
these stair steps depends mostly on layer thickness.
Processes generally report the range of layer thicknesses
available rather than specifying an achievable surface-
finish.
4. cost
The costs associated with building an RP model are not
unlike those of other manufacturing processes. The cost
elements include labor, part material, consumable
material, and machine costs. There are no tooling or other
special-purpose equipment costs.
It is useful to be able to estimate the unit cost, or cost to
build one model by a rapid-prototyping process. In
making such an estimate, one approach is to consider
labor and machine costs as rate-time products. This
means that the workers and the machine are assigned
rates (costhnit time) which are then multiplied by time
estimates for each step in the process. Material costs are
estimated from the material cost per pound and the
amount used in producing one part.
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For example, assume that a machine operator is assigned
a rate of $50.00 per hour and that he or she performs all of
the part-creation steps from receiving the CAD file to
finishing and shipping the final model. Further assume
that the operator is tending the machine for only one-half
of the build time (it is sometimes suggested that one
operator can comfortably manage two machines). Now
let the following times be assumed:
. prepare sliced file . . . . . .1.5 hr
set up machine . . . . . . . 0.5 hr
build part . . 11 hrl2 = 5.5 hr
. clean & finish . . . . . . . 1.O hr
Total 8.5hr
The labor cost estimate for the part would then be
$425.00.
Assume the RP machine cost $100,000.00 installed and
must pay for itself in 1500 hours of operating time. Based
on simple paypack only the machine may be assigned a
rate of $67.00 per hour. This makes the machine-cost
estimate for one part $737.00.
Now if the build and support material are the same and
cost $45.00 per pound, and if the weight of the part plus
support structure is twelve ounces, the material cost may
be estimated as about $34.00. This brings the total cost
estimate to $1,196.00. With such a large proportion of
RP modeling cost attributable to machine time, machine
builders compete strongly on the issue of model build
time. Interestingly, there is no industry standard for
measuring build time. It depends many machine
parameters, but generally parts requiring greater precision
and smoother surface finish will take longer to build.
Machines today are much faster than their predecessors of
ten years ago, and their selling prices are coming down or
holding constant. These changes are making it easier to
invest in RF’ equipment or models. Many examples are
reported in the industry where the wise use of an Rp
model saves tens or even hundreds of thousands of dollars
in tooling costs. Such savings usually result from early
identification of design changes. These changes tend to
be caught in form-and-fit or bridge-tooling applications.
5. Comparison Table
Table I compares some of the important specifications
from currently popular machines. The information comes
form many sources, including product web sites,
literature, and interviews with machine sales departments
and with owners and users of machines.
 Table I. Capabilities of Modern Rapid Prototyping Machines

Notes: 1 most well-established materials

2 approx. derived values
3 multiple sets of numbers indicate multiple pieces
4 approx. relative values, depends upon machine and build parameters
5 approx. values without consideration of options

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 IV. CONCLUSIONS [2]. The solidfuture of rapidprototyping.
Economist, March 22, 2001.
A wide range of capabilities exists today in rapid (http://www.economist.com)
prototyping and manufacturing.. Many new materials are [3]. Overton, Rick. Fax It Up, Scotty. Business 2.0.
available to suit applications from simple visual models to Feb 2001
end-use parts made from exotic metals. http://home.att.netcastleisland/
http://~~~.3dsystems.com
There is an emphasis towards rapid manufacturing in the http ://www .aerometcorp.com
industry, manifested in the new direct metal part http://www.cubictechnologies.com
capabilities being developed at DTM, Soligen, Extrude http://www.dtm-corp.com
Hone, and the LENS process, and the new, tougher http://www .optomec.c o d
materials coming from almost all companies. http://www.partsnow.com-( Soligen)
http://www.prometal-rt.com
With a few exceptions, prices are still high for both new http://www.sandersdesign.com
rapid prototyping machines and proprietary materials. The http ://www.schroff.codjpsystem5/index. htm
potential for cost savings, however, is also high as both http://www.solid-scape.com
design and production problems are overcome by building http :Nwww .stratasys .com
models early in the new-product-development process. http://www.wohlersassociates.com
http://www.zcorp.com
Purchasers of machines or services must compare the (http://www.business2.com)
capabilities, advantages and disadvantages of the latest (http://www.plasticstechnology .corn)
equipment and processes to make the best choice for their
rapid-prototyping investment.
Perry W. Carter received his PhD in mechanical
REFERENCES engineering from the University of Massachusetts at
Amherst. He spent six years in industry and has taught in
Sherman, Lilli Manolis.. Rapid Prototyping: Pretty B W ' s Manufacturing Engineering ,Technology program
Soon You Won't Be Able To Get Along Without It. since 1980. His emphases are in metal-manufacturing
Plastics Technology. Feb 2001. processes and design for manufacturing.

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