Educational Psychology, Theories of Personalities

1
Nouman Hafeez (M. Phil Education) ……. Coordinator Department of Education
CHAPTER NO 1
1. INTRODUCTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Meaning of Psychology
a. Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and the reasons for people's
behavior.
b. The scientific study of all forms of human behavior sometimes concerned with the
methods through which behavior can be modified.
c. The mental make-up or structure of an individual that causes him or her to think or act in
the way he or she does.
1.1 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS
From the early Egyptians to the ancient Greek philosophers, there has been no letup in
efforts to understand human thought and behavior. Yet, in spite of its long past, the formal
history of psychology dates back only 133 years to 1879 – the year when Wilhelm Wundt
opened the doors of the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. As a result of this
significant move, Wundt is widely regarded as the founder of psychology. Yet, this was just the
beginning of Wundt’s contributions to the field. He went on to become the first of several
spirited speakers to engage in an ongoing debate over what should be the focus of psychology.
1.2 STRUCTURALISM
Wundt’s ideas formed the basis of the first school of thought in psychology, known as
structuralism. In reality, though, it was one of Wundt’s students, Edward B. Tichener, who
formally established this psychological school of thought. Structuralism, as the name suggests,
Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

2
was centered on investigating the structure of the mind. Wundt believed that psychology should
focus on breaking down consciousness into its basic elements, in much the same way a child
would pull apart a toy to reveal its component parts. The idea of determining the specific
structure of something as abstract and dynamic as the mind may seem absurd to many today.
Yet, structuralists were confident that not only could they accomplish this goal, but that they
could do so scientifically.
Wundt advanced the technique of introspection as the “scientific” tool that would enable
researchers to unveil the structure of the mind. Introspection involves looking inwards; reflecting
on, analyzing and trying to make sense of our own internal experiences as they occur. In
employing this technique, trained subjects were presented with various forms of stimuli and
asked to describe as clearly and “objectively” as possible what they experienced. Reports would
then be examined to determine the basic elements of consciousness. For example, if you were
presented with a slice of cake, it would not be enough to simply identify the type of food before
you. You would also need to explain the basic elements of the cake that you able to sense. For
example, you might describe the taste, smell, texture, color, and shape of the cake in as much
detail as possible.
Structuralism played a significant role in shaping the field of psychology during its
formative years. Wundt and his followers helped to establish psychology as an independent
experimental science and their emphasis on scientific methods of inquiry remains a key aspect of
the discipline today. Nevertheless, structuralists could not escape criticism. Despite their noble
attempt at scientific investigation, introspection was less than ideal because no two persons
perceive the same thing in exactly the same way. Subjects’ reports therefore tended to be

3
subjective and conflicting. Some of the fiercest criticisms of structuralism came from the person
of William James, one of the leading proponents of the functionalist perspective.
1.3 FUNCTIONALISM
From the point of view of American scholar William James, structuralists were sorely
misguided. The mind is fluid, not stable; consciousness is ongoing, not static. Attempts to study
the structure of the mind would therefore be futile at worst and frustrating at best. A more fruitful
endeavor, they argued, would be to study the function, as opposed to the structure, of the mind.
Function in this sense can mean one of two things – first, how the mind operates – that is, how
the elements of the mind work together – and second, how mental processes promote adaptation.
Clearly influenced by the teachings of Charles Darwin and the principle of natural selection,
James believed that mental processes serve vital functions that enable us to adapt and survive in
a changing world.
Functionalism contributed greatly to the development of psychology. It extended both the
subject matter of psychology as well as the range of methods use to acquire data. For example,
the functionalists’ emphasis on adaptation led them to promote the study of learning since this is
believed to improve our adaptability and chances of survival. Their concern with “why” certain
mental processes occur also meant that they did extensive work on motivation. In addition, while
the structuralists established psychology as a pure science, the functionalists broadened this
narrow focus by also concentrating on the practical application of psychology to real-world
problems. As it relates to research methods, functionalists added to the existing repertoire by
utilizing mental tests, questionnaires and physiological measures, in addition to introspection.

4
Despite repeated verbal attacks aimed at each other, neither structuralism nor
functionalism remained at the forefront of psychology for very long. Both made significant
contributions to psychology but neglected one important influence on human thought and
behavior – the unconscious.
1.4 BEHAVIORISM
John B. Watson, a staunch supporter of behaviourism, strongly objected to this approach
and prompted a revolution in psychology. Behaviourists believed that human behavior can be
understood by examining the relationship between stimuli (events in the environment) and
responses (observable behavior). They saw no need to employ subjective techniques such as
introspection to infer mental processes over which even trained subjects and researchers could
not agree. What was once the study of the mind thus became the study of observable behavior?
B.F. Skinner, another famous behaviourist, supported Watson’s view by advancing the
idea that human behavior can be explained by reinforcement and punishment – observable,
environmental factors – with no need to consider inner mental processes. Later behaviourists
adopted a more balanced view of matters, embracing the study of both overt and covert behavior.
These became known as cognitive behaviourists.
Watson’s call for greater objectivity, radical as it was, greatly propelled psychology along
the path to becoming a science rather than a mere body of philosophical thought (Benjafield,
2004, cited in Coon & Mitterer, 2010). Many of the learning theories used by psychologists
today were also born out of the behaviourist school of thought and are frequently applied in
behavior modification and the treatment of some psychological disorders (e.g. phobias).
1.5 HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY

5
With the rise of each school of thought mentioned previously, the face of psychology was
gradually taking shape. Yet, not all were satisfied with the way things were progressing.
Foremost among these were the humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers, who were
uncomfortable with the highly deterministic view of two of the major forces in psychology –
psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Humanistic psychologists, however, viewed humans as free
agents capable of controlling their own lives (as opposed to being controlled), making their own
choices, setting goals and working to achieve them. Humanism asserted a positive view of
human nature, stressing that humans are inherently good. A unique form of therapy also emerged
out of this school of thought, with emphasis on helping people to achieve their full potential.
This differed greatly from psychoanalysis which only focused on reducing maladaptive behavior.
OVERVIEW ON THOUGHT OF SCHOOLS
In addition, many psychologists today adopt an eclectic approach – instead of clinging to
one particular perspective, they carefully choose from each school of thought those ideas and
methods they believe are most appropriate for achieving their objectives. Psychology has never
been nor will it ever be a static field of study. Even now, there are new theories being written,
new topics being studied and new ideas yet to be explored.
1.6 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Meaning of Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is one of the branches of psychology to study the behavior of the
learner in relation to his education. Educational psychology concerns itself with suggesting ways
and means of improving the process and products of education, enabling the teacher to teach
effectively and the learners to learn effectively with the minimum effort.

6
It is thus designated as the service of education. It has simplified the tasks and improved
the efficiency of the teacher or all those connected in the process and products of education by
supplying them with the essential knowledge and skills in much need the same way as science
and technology has helped in making possible maximum output through minimum input in terms
of time and labor in our day-to-day activities.
Definitions of Educational Psychology
1. Skinner:
“Educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with teaching and
learning”.
2. Crow and Crow:
“Educational psychology describes and explains learning experience of an individual
from birth to old age”.
The Nature of Educational Psychology
The nature of educational psychology is regarded as scientific because it is organized,
systematic and universally accepted body, wherein the facts remain constantly in search of truth
through research and experimentation. Employs scientific methods in its study and its results are
subjected to further verification and modification.
The following points further confirm the nature of educational psychology as scientific:
1. Laws of educational psychology are universal:
Educational psychology possesses a well-organized, systematic and universally accepted
body of facts supported by the relevant psychological laws and principles.

7
2. Scientific methods:
Educational psychology employs scientific methods and adopts a scientific approach for
studying the learner’s behavior such as observation, experimentation, clinical investigation and
generalization, etc.
3. Constant search of the truth:
The results of any study in educational psychology can be challenged and are modified or
altered in terms of the latest explanations and findings. So the findings of any study are never
taken as absolute and permanent.
4. Reliability:
Educational psychology emphasizes that essentially there is some definite causes linked
with a behavior and the causes of this behavior are not related to supernatural phenomena.
5. Positive science:
Educational psychology is a positive science rather than a normative science.
6. Applied behavioral science:
Educational psychology is an applied/behavioral science.
7. Developing positive science:

8
Educational psychology cannot claim the status of a developed positive science like other
natural or applied sciences. It is considered as one of the developing positive sciences of the
learner’s behavior.
Scope/function/purpose of Educational Psychology
The scope of Educational psychology mainly covers the mentioned below three areas:
1. LEARNER:
In the overall process of learning, the learner plays the main and the leading role. It
completely depends on the learner that how fast or how slow he/she learns. The occurrence of
problems is usual during the learning stage and that is the place where educational psychology is
applied for fixing that problem.
2. LEARNING PROCESS:
Educational psychology provides us with the knowledge regarding learning. It also
includes the factors and steps that affect our learning process. The main and the significant role
in the learning process are of ‘Teachers’. With the help of educational psychology, a teacher can
develop a sense of maturation in them. A teacher can develop a level of interest in them towards
their work. A teacher can develop self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-respect in them.
“Like Seriously I Wonder How Someone Can Teach Without Even Knowing A Little
Knowledge Of Educational Psychology. Because Teaching A Specific Subject Is Not
Everything, Understanding The Psychology Of Your Students Is The First And The Foremost
Thing.”
3. EVALUATION OF LEARNING PROCESS

9
Evaluation basically means to create a perception or judgment regarding something. Your
learning process is always dependent upon your evaluation and the perceptions that you form.
So with the help of educational psychology, you can evaluate the outcomes.
“As Long As You Don’t Know The Outcomes, You Cannot Learn In An Effective Way”.
1.7 FOUR-WAY TEACHING AGENDA OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Educational Psychology solves the four main problems in the teaching/learning process -
the students, the teacher, the classroom strategies, and the content. Spunthall (psychologist)
refers to them as the Four-way agenda of teaching.
Student Characteristics Teachers

1. Physical 1. Attitudes to learning
2. Physiological 2. Attitudes to students
3, Cognitive 3. Attitudes to self
4. Personal 4. Understanding research
5. Moral/Value
6. Motivations
7. Individual and group behaviour
8. Special needs
9. Cultural and gender
Teaching Strategies Subject Matter

10
1. Learning theories in practice 1. Structure of the disciplines

2. Teaching methods and models 2. Basic concepts of material being taught
3. Individual methods 3. Sequencing of subject matter
4. Lesson Planning 4. Priorities in content selected
5. Variations in structure 5. Degree of specialized content.
6. Student discipline
7. Questioning
8. Use of tests
Educational Psychology influences teachers as it focuses on these aspects of the teaching
process. The teacher is a problem solver and therefore draws on Educational Psychology in
decision making. Teachers are faced daily with various problems which fall in the following
categories: i) Instructional problems, ii) Motivational problems, iii) Management problems, iv)
Assessment problems
CHAPTER NO 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
2.1 OVERVIEW OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The terms Growth and Development are used with every aspect of life. There might be
some confusion when using the terms as they are often used interchangeably.
Growth is just ‘getting bigger’, whereas development is improvement.
Growth can be explained as becoming bigger or larger or having more importance.
Growth is termed as a physical change, where as development is said to be physical as well as
social or psychological change. Development also means transformation or improvement. While

11
growth is related to quantitative improvement, development is related to quantitative as well as
qualitative improvement.
When the term growth is related to living beings, it can mean the increase in size. Here,
the growth that comes over a living being is a physical change and it indicates the increase in
weight, height and bone seize. On the other hand, development is the process of developing skills
and capacities. It deals with the behavioral aspect of a living being. For example, we only say
that the Taimour has grown and not that the Taimour has developed. On the other hand, we
generally say that ‘he has developed into a better man’ or ‘he developed into a better citizen’ and
so on.
In terms of economy, we say there was a steady growth in the country’s economy over
the last few years. We also say that there was a tremendous growth in the case of hospitals in the
region. We also refer to countries as developed and developing, which means that the country
has made great strides in all spheres.
Summary
1. Growth is just ‘getting bigger’, whereas development is improvement.
2. Growth can be explained as becoming bigger or larger or having more importance.
3. Growth is termed as a physical change, where as development is said to be physical as
well as social or psychological change.
4. While growth is related to quantitative improvement, development is related to
quantitative as well as qualitative improvement

12
5. When the term growth is related to living beings, it can mean the increase in weight,
height and bone seize. On the other hand, development is the process of developing skills and
capacities. It deals with the behavioral aspect of a living being.
6. In terms of economy, we say there was a steady growth in the country’s economy over
the last few years. We also refer to countries as developed and developing, which means that the
country has made great strides in all spheres.
2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTION AND LANGUAGE
Vygotsky described developmental changes in children’s thinking in terms of cultural
tools; they use these to make sense of their world. Generally, they use technical tools to change
objects or gain mastery over the environment. Moreover, they used psychological tools to
organize behavior or thought. According to Vygotsky’s view, society shapes a child’s mind
through the transmission of tools which are appropriate for their culture. Both the culture and the
child’s experiences are necessary to understand children’s cognitive development.
A. Social Development Theory (Lev Vygotsky)
The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: “Every function in
the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the
individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-
psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the
formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.

13
A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive
development depends upon the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD): a level of development
attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon
full social interaction.
This zone describes the range of difficult tasks or it is very hard for the learners complete
this task alone. However, learners can complete this task with appropriate assistance or someone
who is more knowledgeable. Thus according to Vygotsky, cognitive development will occur
when a learner is confronted by a task that lies within the zone, if a task is easy to complete for
task learners then no cognitive development will occur. Also if the task is too hard for a learner
to complete the task alone or even with assistance then no cognitive development will occur.
Vygotsky’s theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of
socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults is
for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow “inner
speech”.
Vygotsky believed that language was one of the most important psychological tools that
effects children’s cognitive development. He identified that there are three different stages in the
children’s use of language. Firstly, language is an essential factor for communication (social
speech). Next, children begin to use egocentric or private speech to control their own thinking.
The last stage is language development. Children use verbal thoughts to guide what they are
thinking and their actions.
The second concept is that the scaffolding which describes the nature of the assistance
given by the more knowledgeable person. In this time the learner completes the task with the

14
Zone of Proximal development (with assistance). Infant’s cognitive development depends on the
assistance level. If the assistance is great at first and then it is slightly reduced as the learner’s
skill improves, ultimately, the learner will be able to complete the task but the cognitive
development will only continue if the task is replaced with another task or a more complex task
which is modified to the new zone.
The third concept is psychological tools give another reason that “social interaction” is an
essential factor in cognitive development. Psychological tools are “intellectual mechanisms or
operations” which people use to examine their environment and interact with others. Here is
some examples of psychological tools “written language, symbols, maps and scientific method
and oral language”.
B. Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed
observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal
different cognitive abilities.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are
merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly
different ways compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
a. Schemas (building blocks of knowledge).

15
b. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium,
assimilation, and accommodation).
Stages of Cognitive Development:
c. concrete operational,
a. Sensorimotor,
d. Formal operational.
b. preoperational,
a. Schemas
Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental
representation of the world. In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building
block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of
schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects,
actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.
b. Assimilation and Accommodation
Intellectual growth is a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens
through:
Assimilation
– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Accommodation
– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed
to deal with a new object or situation.
Equilibration

16
– This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive development
did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information
cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).
Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will
continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.
There are a number of important distinctions between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories.
The most important ones are that teachers worry about the role of language and learning in
development. But Piaget believed that egocentric speech is not a useful function in young
children’s development. Vygotsky argued that egocentric speech is the way children recognize
and regulate their thoughts and actions. Piaget claimed that children’s development is limited and
it is associated with what children are able to learn from social experiences.
2.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
"Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his characteristics behavior and thought". “The characteristics or blend of
characteristics that make a person unique” Personality development is the development of the
organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality
development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment.

17
We must also consider the influence and interaction of nature (biology, genetics, etc.) and
nurture (the environment, upbringing) with respect to personality development.
Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after
birth. A child's personality has several components: temperament, environment, and
character. Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child's
approach to the world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify
personality traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in
turn controls behavior.
A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child's
specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors—temperament and
environment—influence the development of a person's personality the most. Temperament, with
its dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as "nature," while the environmental
factors are called "nurture."
Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive,
and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and
behaves. A person's character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on
inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a person's moral development.
A. Erik Erikson Theory of Personality
In 1956, psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an insightful description as to how
personality develops based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy with children and
adolescents from low, upper, and middle-class backgrounds. According to Erikson, the
socialization process of an individual consists of eight phases, each one accompanied by a

18
"psychosocial crisis" that must be solved if the person is to manage the next and subsequent
phases satisfactorily. The stages significantly influence personality development, with five of
them occurring during infancy, Toddlerhood, Preschool, school age, and adolescence .
1. Infancy
During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning Basic
Trust or Mistrust (Hope) . Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust and security and a
basic optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure and learns "basic mistrust."
2. Toddlerhood
The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months to two years
and three to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame (Will) . Well-
parented, the child emerges from this stage with self-confidence, related with his or her newly
found control. The early part of this stage can also include stormy tantrums, stubbornness, and
negativism, depending on the child's temperament.
3. Preschool
The third stage occurs during the "play age," or the later preschool years from about three
to entry into formal school. The developing child goes through Learning Initiative or Guilt
(Purpose). The child learns to use imagination; to broaden skills through active play and fantasy;
to cooperate with others; and to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes
fearful, is unable to join groups, and harbors guilty feelings. The child depends excessively on
adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

19
4. School age
The fourth stage, Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence) , occurs during school
age, up to and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to master more formal
skills: relating with peers according to rules progressing from free play to play that is structured
by rules and requires teamwork (team sports) learning basic intellectual skills (reading,
arithmetic)
At this stage, the need for self-discipline increases every year. The child who, because of
his or her successful passage through earlier stages, trusts, autonomous, and full of initiative, will
quickly learn to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future and will feel
inferior.
5. Adolescence
The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) , occurs during
adolescence from age 13 or 14. Maturity starts developing during this time; the young person
acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-doubt and experiments with different constructive roles
rather than adopting a negative identity, such as delinquency. The well-adjusted adolescent
actually looks forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual identity is
established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her), and gradually
develops a set of ideals to live by.
B. Eysenck’s Personality Theory
Eysenck proposed a theory of personality based on biological factors, arguing that
individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their ability to learn and adapt to the
environment.

20
Eysenck found that human behavior could be represented by three dimensions:
Introversion / Extroversion (E); Neuroticism / Stability (N); and Psychoticism/normality.
1. Extraversion/introversion
Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can become bored
easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic and impulsive. They are more likely to take risks and
be thrill seekers. Eysenck argues that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous
system and so seek stimulation to restore the level of optimum stimulation.
Introverts on the other hand lie at the other end of this scale, being quiet and reserved.
They are already over-aroused and shun sensation and stimulation. Introverts are reserved, plan
their actions and control their emotions. They tend to be serious, reliable and pessimistic.
2. Neuroticism/stability
A person’s level of neuroticism is determined by the reactivity of their sympathetic
nervous system. A stable person’s nervous system will generally be less reactive to stressful
situations, remaining calm and level headed.
Someone high in neuroticism on the other hand will be much more unstable and prone to
overreacting to stimuli and may be quick to worry, anger or fear. They are overly emotional and
find it difficult to calm down once upset. Neurotic individuals have an ANS that responds
quickly to stress.
3. Psychoticism/normality
Eysenck later added a third trait / dimension - Psychoticism – e.g., lacking in empathy,
cruel, a loner, aggressive and troublesome. This has been related to high levels of testosterone.

21
The higher the testosterone, the higher the level of psychoticism, with low levels related to more
normal balanced behaviour.
According to Eysenck, the two dimensions of neuroticism (stable vs. unstable) and
introversion-extroversion combine to form a variety of personality characteristics.
C. The Five-Factor Theory of Personality
Personality psychologists believe that there are five basic dimensions of personality,
often referred to as the "Big 5" personality traits. The five broad personality traits described by
the theory are extraversion (also often spelled extroversion), agreeableness, openness,
conscientiousness, and neuroticism. OCEAN
1. Openness
This trait features characteristics such as imagination and insight. People who are high in
this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. They are curious about the world and other
people and eager to learn new things and enjoy new experiences.
People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative. People low in
this trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.
2. Conscientiousness
Standard features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse
control, and goal-directed behaviors. Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and
mindful of details. They plan ahead, think about how their behavior affects others, and are
mindful of deadlines.
3. Extraversion

22
Extraversion (or extroversion) is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness,
assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness. People who are high in
extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations. Being around other people
helps they feel energized and excited.
People who are low in extraversion (or introverted) tend to be more reserved and have to
expend energy in social settings. Social events can feel draining and introverts often require a
period of solitude and quiet in order to "recharge."
4. Agreeableness
This personality dimension includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection,
and other pro-social behaviors. People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more
cooperative while those low in this trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even
manipulative.
5. Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability.
Individuals who are high in this trait tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and
sadness. Those low in this trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.
D. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Personality Development)
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier
model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and
belonging, esteem and self-actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied
before individuals can attend to needs higher up.

23

24
1. Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air,
food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body
cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the
other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from
fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled,
the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for
interpersonal relationships motivates behavior Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and
acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family,
friends, work).
4. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself
(dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect
from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is
most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming.
2.4 THE SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Social and moral development is the process through which children develop proper
attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules,
and laws. Social and moral development is a concern for every parent. Teaching a child to
distinguish right from wrong and to behave accordingly is a goal of parenting.

25
Social and moral development is a complex issue that—since the beginning of human
civilization—has been a topic of discussion among some of the world's most distinguished
psychologists, theologians, and culture theorists. It was not studied scientifically until the late
1950s.
1. Piaget's theory of moral reasoning
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, explored how children developed moral reasoning. He
rejected the idea that children learn and internalize the rules and morals of society by being given
the rules and forced to adhere to them. Through his research on how children formed their
judgments about moral behavior, he recognized that children learn morality best by having to
deal with others in groups. He reasoned that there was a process by which children conform to
society's norms of what is right and wrong, and that the process was active rather than passive.
Piaget found two main differences in how children thought about moral behavior. Very
young children's thinking is based on how actions affected them or what the results of an action
were. For example, young children will say that when trying to reach a forbidden cookie jar,
breaking 10 cups is worse than breaking one. They also recognize the sanctity of rules. For
example, they understand that they cannot make up new rules to a game; they have to play by
what the rule book says or what is commonly known to be the rules. Piaget called this "moral
realism with objective responsibility." It explains why young children are concerned with
outcomes rather than intentions.
Older children look at motives behind actions rather than consequences of actions. They
are also able to examine rules, determining whether they are fair or not, and apply these rules and
their modifications to situations requiring negotiation, assuring that everyone affected by the

26
rules is treated fairly. Piaget felt that the best moral learning came from these cooperative
decision-making and problem-solving events. He also believed that children developed moral
reasoning quickly and at an early age.
2. Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist, extended Piaget's work in cognitive
reasoning into adolescence and adulthood. Kohlberg believed that individuals made progress by
mastering each stage, one at a time. A person could not skip stages. This would stimulate and
broaden the thinking of children and adults, allowing them to progress from one stage to another.
PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL
The child at the first and most basic level, the pre-conventional level, is concerned with
avoiding punishment and getting needs met. This level has two stages and applies to children up
to 10 years of age.
Stage one is the Punishment-Obedience stage. Children obey rules because they are told
to do so by an authority figure (parent or teacher), and they fear punishment if they do not follow
rules. Children at this stage are not able to see someone else's side.
Stage two is the Individual, Instrumentation, and Exchange stage. Here, the behavior is
governed by moral reciprocity. The child will follow rules if there is a known benefit to him or

27
her. In other words, if one child hits another, the injured child will hit back. This is considered
equitable justice. Children in this stage are very concerned with what is fair.
Children will also make deals with each other and even adults. They will agree to behave
in a certain way for a payoff. "I'll do this, if you will do that." Sometimes, the payoff is in the
knowledge that behaving correctly is in the child's own best interest. They receive approval from
authority figures or admirations from peers, avoid blame, or behave in accordance with their
concept of self. They are just beginning to understand that others have their own needs and
drives.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
This level broadens the scope of human wants and needs. Children in this level are
concerned about being accepted by others and living up to their expectations. This stage begins
around age 10 but lasts well into adulthood, and is the stage most adults remain at throughout
their lives.
Stage three, Interpersonal Conformity, is often called the "good boy/good girl" stage.
Here, children do the right thing because it is good for the family, peer group, team, school, or
church. They understand the concepts of trust, loyalty, and gratitude. Morality is acting in
accordance to what the social group says is right and moral.
Stage four is the Law and Order, or Social System and Conscience stage. Children and
adults at this stage abide by the rules of the society in which they live. These laws and rules
become the backbone for all right and wrong actions. Children and adults feel compelled to do
their duty and show respect for authority. This is still moral behavior based on authority, but
reflects a shift from the social group to society at large.

28
POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Some teenagers and adults move beyond conventional morality and enter morality based
on reason, examining the relative values and opinions of the groups with which they interact.
Few adults reach this stage.
Correct behavior is governed by the fifth stage, the Social Contract and Individual Rights
stage. Individuals in this stage understand that codes of conduct are relative to their social group.
This varies from culture to culture and subgroup to subgroup. With that in mind, the individual
enters into a contract with fellow human beings to treat them fairly and kindly and to respect
authority when it is equally moral and deserved.
Stage six is the Principled Conscience or the Universal/Ethical Principles stage. Here,
individuals examine the validity of society's laws and govern themselves by what they consider
to be universal moral principles, usually involving equal rights and respect. They obey laws and
social rules that fall in line with these universal principles, but not others they deem as aberrant.
Adults here are motivated by individual conscience that transcends cultural, religious, or social
convention rules. Kohlberg recognized this last stage but found so few people who lived by this
concept of moral behavior that he could not study it in detail.
2.5 FACTOR INFLUENCING CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Child development is a stage that every child will go through. Broadly, there are two
factors that influence child development- nature and nurture. Nature factors are factors carried by
the individual from conception to birth. Nurture factors are factors that affect the individual since
he is born and often after interaction with the environment.
NATURE FACTOR

29
1. Genetic: Genes always play a role with how a child responds to the environment.
Besides physical attributes, gene also affects the character and mental intelligence or IQ of an
individual.
2. Maternal nutrition: What the mother consume during pregnancy is very important to
the health and well being of the baby. The mother’s nutrition consumption determines the growth
of the child’s physical body and brain cell, and also the cognitive development of the child.
3. Mother’s health: What a mother does during pregnancy can affect the growth of the
baby overall. Personal hygiene, regular exercise, enough sleep etc. should be maintained.
4. Emotional stress: Emotional stress is also identified as one of the nature factors.
Whatever the mother feels during pregnancy will have effects on the baby.
NURTURE FACTOR
5. Child’s Nutrition and Fitness: Food has been put into a very important role in a child’s
growth. Correct food amount helps child to grow in the correct rate and size. Malnutrition on the
other hand causes many problems such as slow growth and many deficiency diseases. Sufficient
amount of exercise is important too. Playing basketball and skipping rope can help the child to
grow taller.
6. Family: Family is important as they are the person that support and educate the child.
The child should be given freedom to test out their ideas and have a better communication but
when the child fails the parent should be there to support.
7. Peer: Peer here refers to friend of the same age. This is the first step taken by a child to
the society. Here, they learn to respect other’s right as they learn to socialize.

30
8. School: Furthermore, school also plays a very important role as it functions as second
educator to the child after parents. School rules and regulations enable to discipline the student.
The environment of the school also support and encourage child to interact with one another.
Besides, moral values are also instilled in the students where teachers try to shape the child’s
behavior.
9. House and Neighborhood: The environment of the house also influences the child.
Appropriate decorated room with studying table and shelf of books provide a comfortable
environment to study. Collection of books or little library in the house can help in instill the
interest of reading among children. Besides, the neighborhood also influences the child. It is said
that children living in urban area are more individualistic compared with children from rural
area. Rural area has culture that creates a cooperative and closer relationship between families.
The child will try to suit the environment through adaptation.
10. Mass media: In today’s globalised age, information and technology are hugely
influencing our daily life. It also definitely influences the child’s development. Kids growing up
in families in which the TV is always on or most of the time spend less time reading and being
read to, are less likely to be able to read. Media violence can contribute to aggressive behavior,
nightmares, and fear of being harmed.
ALSO READ
To help professionals assess the factors affecting a child’s development, they have been grouped
into four areas:

31
1) Environmental factors
2) Biological factors
3) Interpersonal relationships
4) Early environments and experiences
1. Environmental factors
Housing, Income, Employment, Education, Political climate
2. Biological factors
Gender, General Health, Mental Health, Health Practices
3. Interpersonal relationship
Attachment, Parenting style, Social Networks
4. Early environments and experiences
Early experiences involve all senses through:
a) Touch, b) Smell, c) Taste, d) Sight, e) Hearing
A child needs experiences like these to develop her social, emotional, language,
cognitive, and physical skills Over time these experiences become more and more complex until
she has reached the ability to think symbolically, build bridges between ideas, connect feelings
and develop an understanding of how the world works.
1. Genetic
2. Nutritional
3. Socio Economic Condition:
4. Environmental & seasonal
5. Chronic diseases:
6. Emotional & cultural

32
7. Growth potentials
(1) Biological factors
(a) Sense organs
(b) Intelligence
c) Heredity
(d) Maturation
(2) Environment factors
(а) Learning opportunities
(b) Economic status
(c) Play
(d) Various types of stimuli
(e) Family and society
END OF SECOND CHAPTER

Educational Psychology, Theories of Personalities

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Educational Psychology, Theories of Personalities

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

1

Nouman Hafeez (M. Phil Education) ……. Coordinator Department of Education

methods through which behavior can be modified.

the way he or she does.

1.1 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

of William James, one of the leading proponents of the functionalist perspective.

Functionalism contributed greatly to the development of psychology. It extended both the

narrow focus by also concentrating on the practical application of psychology to real-world

problems. As it relates to research methods, functionalists added to the existing repertoire by

utilizing mental tests, questionnaires and physiological measures, in addition to introspection.

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

behavior – the unconscious.

John B. Watson, a staunch supporter of behaviourism, strongly objected to this approach

These became known as cognitive behaviourists.

1.5 HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Humanistic psychologists, however, viewed humans as free

OVERVIEW ON THOUGHT OF SCHOOLS

In addition, many psychologists today adopt an eclectic approach – instead of clinging to

new topics being studied and new ideas yet to be explored.

1.6 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Meaning of Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

of time and labor in our day-to-day activities.

Definitions of Educational Psychology

2. Crow and Crow:

“Educational psychology describes and explains learning experience of an individual

from birth to old age”.

The Nature of Educational Psychology

The nature of educational psychology is regarded as scientific because it is organized,

subjected to further verification and modification.

1. Laws of educational psychology are universal:

Educational psychology possesses a well-organized, systematic and universally accepted

body of facts supported by the relevant psychological laws and principles.

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

3. Constant search of the truth:

taken as absolute and permanent.

Educational psychology is a positive science rather than a normative science.

6. Applied behavioral science:

Educational psychology is an applied/behavioral science.

7. Developing positive science:

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

Scope/function/purpose of Educational Psychology

applied for fixing that problem.

Educational psychology provides us with the knowledge regarding learning. It also

Knowledge Of Educational Psychology. Because Teaching A Specific Subject Is Not

3. EVALUATION OF LEARNING PROCESS

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

Evaluation basically means to create a perception or judgment regarding something. Your

1.7 FOUR-WAY TEACHING AGENDA OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

refers to them as the Four-way agenda of teaching.

Student Characteristics Teachers

Educational Psychology (Course Code: EDUC3112) SPISE DGK

1. Learning theories in practice 1. Structure of the disciplines

Educational Psychology influences teachers as it focuses on these aspects of the teaching

FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

2.1 OVERVIEW OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth is just ‘getting bigger’, whereas development is improvement.

Growth can be explained as becoming bigger or larger or having more importance.

Growth is termed as a physical change, where as development is said to be physical as well as

social or psychological change. Development also means transformation or improvement. While