Introduction :-

Transformer is a device which :

Transfer Electrical power from one electrical circuit to another Electrical circuit.
It’s working without changing the frequency.
Work through on electric induction.
When, both circuits take effect of mutual induction.
Can’t step up or step down the level of DC voltage or DC Current.
Can step up or step down the level of AC voltage or AC Current.

Without transformers the electrical energy generated at generating stations won’t probably be sufficient
enough to power up a city. Just imagine that there are no transformers.How many power plants do you think
have to be set up in order to power up a city? It’s not easy to set up a power plant. It is expensive.
power plant have to be set up in order to have sufficient power. Transformers help by amplifying the
Transformer output (stepping up or down the level of voltage or current).
When the number of turns of the secondary coil is greater than that of primary coil, such a transformer is
known as step up transformer.
Likewise when the number of turns of coil of primary coil is greater than that of secondary transformer, such a
transformer is known as step down transformer.
Construction of a Transformer | Parts of a Transformer
Construction of a Transformer |
Construction of a Transformer | Parts of a Transformer

Basic Parts of a Transformer

These are the
basic
components of a
transformer.

Laminated core
Windings

Insulating
materials
Transformer oil
Tap changer
Oil Conservator
Breather
Cooling tubes
Buchholz Relay
Explosion vent
Of the above,
laminated soft
iron core,
windings and
insulating
material are the
primary parts and are present in all transformers, whereas the rest can be seen only in transformers having a
capacity of more than 100KVA.
I
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
• A transformer consists of two windings coupled through a magneticmedium.
• The two windings work at different voltagelevel.
• The two windings of the transformer are called High voltage winding and
Low voltagewinding.
• Both the windings are wound on a commoncore.
• One of the winding is connected to ac supply and it is calledprimary.
• The other winding is connected to load and it is calledsecondary.
• The transformer is used to transfer electrical energy from high voltage
winding to low voltage winding or vice-versa through magneticfield.
• The construction of transformers varies greatly, depending on their
applications, winding voltage and current ratings and operatingfrequencies.
• The two major types of construction of transformers (used in transmission and
distribution of electrical energy) are core type and shelltype.
• Depending on the application, these transformers can be classified as
distribution transformers and powertransformers.
• The transformer is extremely important as a component in many different
types of electric circuits, from small-signal electronic circuits to high voltage
power transmissionsystems.
• The most important function performed by transformersare,
✓ Changing voltage and current level in an electricsystem.
✓ Matching source and load impedances for maximum power
transfer in electronic and controlcircuitry.
✓ Electrical isolation.
CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER
• In core type transformer, the magnetic core is built of laminations to form a
rectangular frame and the windings are arranged concentrically with each
other around the legs orlimbs.
• The top and bottom horizontal portion of the core are calledyoke.
 • The yokes connect the two limbs and have a cross sectional area equal to or
greater than that oflimbs.
• Each limb carries one half of primary andsecondary.
• The two windings are closely coupled together to reduce the leakage
reactance.
• The low voltage winding is wound near the core and high voltage winding is
wound over low voltage winding away from core in order to reduce the
amount of insulating materialsrequired.

SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

• In shell type transformers the windings are put around the central limb and the
flux path is completed through two sidelimbs.
• The central limb carries total mutual flux while the side limbs forming a part
of a parallel magnetic circuit carry half the totalflux.
• The cross sectional area of the central limb is twice that of each sidelimbs

COMPARISON OF CORE & SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMERS

CORE TYPE SHELL TYPE

1. Easy in design and construction. 1. Comparatively complex.

2. Has low mechanical strength due to non-
bracing of windings.
3. Reduction of leakage reactance is not
easily possible.
4. The assembly can be easily dismantled
for repair work.
5. Better heat dissipation from windings.
6. Has longer mean length of core and
shorter mean length of coil turn. Hence best Voltage) requirements.
suited for EHV (Extra High Voltage)
requirements.
2. High mechanical strength.
3. Reduction of leakage reactance is highly
possible.
4. It cannot be easily dismantled for repair
work.
5. Heat is not easily dissipated from
windings since it is surrounded by core.
6. It is not suitable for EHV (ExtraHigh
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
• Transformers up to 200kVA are used to step down distribution voltage to a
standard service voltage or from transmission voltage to distribution voltage
are known as distributiontransformers.
• They are kept in operation all the 24 hours a day whether they are carrying
any load ornot.
• The load on the distribution transformer varies from time to time and the
transformer will be on no-load most of thetime.
• Hence in distribution transformer the copper loss (which depends on load)
will be more when compared to core loss (which occurs as long as transformer
is inoperation).
• Hence distribution transformers are designed with less iron loss and designed
to have the maximum efficiency at a load much lesser than fullload.
• Also it should have good regulation to maintain the variation of supply
voltage with in limits and so it is designed with small value of leakage
reactance.

POWER TRANSFORMER
• The transformers used in sub-stations and generating stations are called power
transformers.
• They have ratings above 200kVA. Usually a substation will have number of
transformers working inparallel.
• During heavy load periods all the transformers are put in operation and during
light load periods some transformers aredisconnected.
• Therefore the power transformers should be designed to have maximum
efficiency at or near fullload.
• Power transformers are designed to have considerably greater leakage
reactance that is permissible in distribution transformers in order to limit the
faultcurrent.
• In the case of power transformers inherent voltage regulation is less important
than the current limiting effect of higher leakagereactance.
OUTPUT EQUATION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
• The equation which relates the rated kVA output of a transformer to the area
of core and window is called outputequation.
• In transformers the output kVA depends on flux density andampere-turns.
• The flux density is related to core area and the ampere-turns is related to
windowarea.
• The simplified cross-section of core type and shell type single phase
transformers are shown in figures (4-1) and(4-2).
• The low voltage winding is placed nearer to the core in order to reduce the
insulationrequirement.
• The space inside the core is called window and it is the space available for
accommodating the primary and secondarywinding.
• The window area is shared between the winding and theirinsulations.
• The induced emf in atransformer,

• Emf perturn,

• The window in single phase transformer contains one primary and one
secondarywinding.
• The window space factor Kwis the ratio of conductor area in window to total
area ofwindow.

• Conductor area inwindow,

• The current density is same in both the windings. Therefore Currentdensity,

• Area of cross - section of primaryconductor,

• Area of cross - section of secondaryconductor,

• If we neglect magnetizing mmf then primary ampere turns isequal to

secondary ampere turns. Therefore ampereturns,

• Total copper area inwindow,

Ac = Copper area of primary winding + Copper area of secondary winding
= (Number of primary turns x area of cross-section of primary
conductor) + (Number of secondary turns x area of cross - section of
secondary conductor)
 • On equating the above equations, weget,

• Therefore Ampereturns,

• The kVA rating of single phase transformer is givenby,

• On substituting for E and AT from equations weget,

The above equation is the output equation of single phasetransformer.

OUTPUT EQUATION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

• The simplified cross-section of core type three phase transformer is shown in
figure.
• The cross-section has three limbs and twowindows.
• Each limb carries the low voltage and high voltage winding of aphase.
• The induced emf perphase,

• Emf perturn,

• In case of three phase transformer, each window has two primary and two
secondarywindings.
• The window space factor K is the ratio of conductor area in window to total
area ofwindow,

• Therefore Conductor area in thewindow,

• The current density is same in both thewindings.

where, I = Primary current per phase

= Secondary current per phase
• Area of cross - section of primaryconductor,
• Area of cross - section of secondaryconductor,

• If we neglect magnetizing mmf then primary ampere turns per phase is equal
to secondary ampere turns per phase.

• Total copper area in window, Ac = (2 x Number of primary turns x area of

cross-section of primary conductor) + ( 2 x Number of secondary turns x area
of cross - section of secondaryconductor)

• On equating weget,

• The kVA rating of three phase transformer is givenby,

 • On substituting for E and AT from equations weget,

• The above equation is the output equation of three phasetransformer.

EMF PER TURN

• The transformer design starts with selection of an appropriate value for emf
per turn.
• Hence an equation for emf per turn can be developed by relating output kVA,
magnetic and electricloading.
• In transformers, the ratio of specific magnetic and electric loading is specified
rather than actual value of specificloadings.
• Let, ratio of specific magnetic and electric loadingbe,

• The volt-ampere per phase of a transformer is given by the product of voltage

and current perphase.
• Considering the primary voltage and current per phase we canwrite,
 • We know that Emf perturn,

• On substituting for 0mfrom equation weget,

• From the above equation we can say that the emf per turn is directly
proportional toK.
• The value of K depends on the type, service condition and method of
construction oftransformer.
• The value of K for different types of transformers is listed in tablebelow.
Transformer type K
Single phase shell type 1 0 to 1 2
Single phase core type 0.75toO.85
Three phase shell type 1.3
Three phase coretype, 0.45
distribution transformer
Three phase coretype, 0 6_to 0 7
power transformer

DESIGN OF CORES
• For core type transformer the cross-section may be rectangular, square or
stepped.
• When circular coils are required for distribution and power transformers, the
square and stepped cores areused.
• For shell type transformer the cross-section may berectangular.
• When rectangular cores are used the coils are also rectangular inshape.
• The rectangular core is suitable for small and low voltagetransformers.
 • In core type transformer with rectangular cores, the ratio of depth to width of
the core is 1.4 to2.
• In shell type transformers with rectangular cores the width of the central limb
is 2 to 3 times the depth of thecore.
• The figure shows the cross-section of transformercores.

• In square cores the diameter of the circumscribing circle is larger than the
diameter of stepped cores of same area ofcross-section.
• Thus when stepped cores are used the length of mean turn of winding is
reduced with consequent reduction in both cost of copper and copperloss.
• However with larger number of steps a large number of different sizes of
laminations have to beused.
• This results in higher labor charges for shearing and assembling different
types of laminations.

SQUARE CORES

• Let d = diameter of circumscribingcircle

• Also, d = diagonal of the square core and a = side ofsquare
• Diameter of circumscribingcircle,
 • Therefore Side ofsquare,

• Gross core area, Agj= area of square =a2

• Let stacking factor, Sf=0.9

• Net core area, Ai= Stacking factor x Gross corearea
= 0.9 x 0.5 d2= 0.45 d2
• Area of circumscribingcircle,

• Another useful ratio for the design of transformer core is core areafactor.
• It is the ratio of net core area and square of the circumscribingcircle

TWO STEPPED CORE FOR CRUCIFORM CORE

• In stepped cores the dimensions of the steps should be chosen, such as to
occupy maximum area within a circle. The dimensions of the two step to give
maximum area for the core in the given area of circle are determined as
follows.
• Let, a = Length of the rectangle
b = Breadth of therectangle
d = Diameter of the circumscribing circle
 Also, d = Diagonal of the rectangle
0 = Angle between the diagonal and length of the rectangle.
• The cross-section of two stepped core is shown infigure.

• The maximum core area for a given d is obtained when 0 is maximumvalue.

• Hence differentiate Agiwith respect to 0 and equate to zero to solve for
maximum value of0.
• From figure weget,

• The two stepped core can be divided into three rectangles. The area of three
rectangles gives the gross core area. With reference to figure, we canwrite,

• On substituting for a and b in above equation we get,

• To get maximum value of 0, differentiate Agiwith respect to 0, and equate to

zero,
• On differentiating equation with respect to 0 weget,

• When 0 =31 .72° the dimensions of the core (a & b) will give the maximum
areaforcoreforaspecified‘d’.

• On substituting the above values of a & b weget,

• Let stacking factor, Sf=0.9

• Net core-area, Ai= Stacking factor x Gross corearea
= 0.9 x 0.6 18 d = 0.56 d

• Another useful ratio for the design of transformer core is core area factor. It is
the ratio of net core area and square of the circumscribingcircle
MULTI-STEPPED CORES
• We can prove that the area of circumscribing circle is more effectively utilized
by increasing the number ofsteps.
• The most economical dimensions of various steps for a multi-stepped core can
be calculated as shown for cruciform (or two stepped) core. The results are
tabulated intable.

CHOICE OF FLUX DENSITY IN THE CORE

• The flux density decides the area of cross-section of core and coreloss.
• Higher values of flux density results in smaller core area, lesser cost,
reduction in length of mean turn of winding, higher iron loss and large
magnetizingcurrent.
• The choice of flux density depends on the service condition (i.e., distribution
or transmission) and the material used for laminations of thecore.
• The laminations made with cold rolled silicon steel can work with higher flux
densities than the laminations made with hot rolled siliconsteel.
• Usually the distribution transformers will have low flux density to achieve
lesser ironloss.
• When hot routed silicon steel is used for laminations the following values can
be used for maximum flux density(Bm)
✓ Bm = 1.1 to,1.4 Wb/m2 - For distributiontransformers
✓ Bm = 1.2 to1.5Wb/m2 - For power transformers
• When cold rolled silicon steel is used for laminations, the following values
can be used for maximum flux density(Bm)
 ✓ Bm = 1.55 Wb/m - For transformers with voltage rating upto 132kV
✓ Bm= 1.6 Wb/m - For transformers with voltage rating 132 kV to 275kY
✓ Bm = 1.7 Wb/m - For transformers with voltage rating 275 kV to 400Kv

OVERALL DIMENSIONS OF THE TRRNSFORMER

• The main dimensions of the transformer are Height of window (Hw) and
Width of window(Ww).
• The other important dimensions of the transformer are width of largest
stamping (a), diameter of circumscribing circle (d), and distance between core
centres (D), height of yoke (Hy), depth of yoke (Dy), overall height of
transformer frame (H) and overall width of transformer frame(W).
• These dimensions for various types of transformers are shown infigures.
• The above figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of the core and
winding assembly of a core type single phasetransformer.
• The following figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of the core
and winding assembly of a core type three phasetransformer.

• The next figure shows a vertical and horizontal cross-section of a shell type
single phasetransformer.
COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS
• The losses developed in the transformer cores and windings are converted into
thermal energy and cause heating of corresponding transformerparts.
• The heat dissipation in transformer occurs by Conduction, Convection and
Radiation.
• The paths of heat flow in transformer are the following
✓ From internal most heated spots of a given part (of core or
winding) to their outer surface in contact with theoil.
✓ From the outer surface of a transformer part to the oil that coolsit.
✓ From the oil to the walls of a cooler, eg. Wall oftank.
✓ From the walls o the cooler to the cooling medium air orwater.
• In the path 1 mentioned above heat is transferred by conduction. In the path 2
and 3 mentioned above heat is transferred by convection of the oil. In path 4
the heat is dissipated by both convection and radiation.
• The various methods of cooling transformersare
➢ Airnatural
➢ Forced circulation ofoil
➢ Air blast
➢ Oil forced-airnatural
➢ Oilnatural
➢ Oil forced-airforced
➢ Oil natural-airforced
➢ Oil forced-waterforced
➢ Oil natural-waterforced
• The choice of cooling method depends upon the size, type of application and
type of conditions obtaining at the site where the transformer ininstalled.
• Air natural is used for transformers up to 1.5 MVA. Since cooling by air is not
so effective and proves insufficient for transformers of medium sizes, oil is
used as acoolant.
• Oil is used for almost all transformers except for the transformers used for
specialapplications.
• Both plain walled and corrugated walled tanks are used in oil cooled
transformer.
• In oil natural-air forced method the oil circulating under natural head transfers
heat to tank walls. The air is blown through the hollow space to cool the
transformer.
• In oil natural-water forced method, copper cooling coils are mounted above
the transformer core but below the surface of oil. Water is circulated through
the cooling coils to cool thetransformer.
• In oil forced-air natural method of cooling, oil is circulated through the
transformer with the help of a pump and cooled in a heat exchanger by natural
circulation ofair.
• In oil forced-air forced method, oil is cooled in external heat exchanger using
air blast produced byfans.
• In oil forced-water forced method, heated oil is cooled in a water heat
exchanger. In this method pressure of oil is kept higher than that of water to
avoid leakage ofoil.
• Natural cooling is suitable up to 10 MVA. The forced oil and air circulation
are employed for transformers of capacities 3Q MVA andupwards.
• The forced oil and water is used for transformers designed for powerplants.
PROBLEMS
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
PART-A
1. What are the most important functions performed bytransformers?
2. Compare core & shell typetransformers.
3. What are distribution and powertransformers?
4. List the value of K for different types oftransformers.
5. What are squarecores?
6. What are multi-steppedcores?
7. Mention the different paths of heat flow intransformer?
8. What are the various methods of coolingtransformers?
PART-B
9. Derive the output equation of single phasetransformer
10. Derive the output equation of three phasetransformer
11. Derive the equation for emf per turn of atransformer
12. Determine the core and yoke dimensions for a 250 kVA, 50Hz, single phase, core
type transformer. Emf per turn = 1V, the window space factor = 0.33, current
density 3A/mm and Bma = 1 .1 T. The distance between the centres of the square
section core is twice the width of the core.
13. A 375 kVA, single phase core type transformer operating on 6.6 kV/4 15 V is to be designed with approximately 7.5V per turn and a
flux density of 1 .1 1. Design a suitable core section and yoke section using two sizes of stampings. The width of smaller stampings may
be approximately 0.62 times the larger stampings. State the assumptionsmade.
14. Calculate the dimensions of the core, the number of turns and cross sectional area of conductors in the primary and secondary windings
of a 250 kVA, 6600/400V, 50Hz,singlephaseshelltypetransformer.Ratioofmagnetictoelectricloadings
= 560 x 10-8, Bm = 1.1T, 8 = 2.5 A/mm2, K = 0.32, Depth of stacked core/Width of central climb = 2.6. Height of window/Width of
window = 2.0.
15. The tank of a 500 kVA, 1- 0, 50 Hz, 6600/400 V transformer is 110 cm x 65 cm x 155 cm. If the load loss is 6.2 kW, find the suitable
arrangements for the cooling tubes to limit the temperature rise to 35°C. Take the diameter of the cooling tube is 5 cm and average length
of the tube as110cm.
16. The tank of a 500 kVA, 50Hz, 1- 0, core type transformer is 1 .05 x 0.62 x 1 .6 m high. The mean temperature rise is limited to 35°C. The
loss dissipating surface of tank is 5.34 m Total loss is 5325 W. Find area of tubes and number of tubes needed.

Instrument Transformer
In power system, the currents and voltages are verylarge
Therefore, their direct measurements are notpossible.

It might appear that the extension of range could beconveniently

done by the use of shunts for currents and multiplier for voltage
measurement, as inDC.
But this method is suitable only for small values of current andvoltage.
Difficult to achieve accuracy with a shunt on AC
Capability of having shunt of large range is notpossible
The power consumed by multipliers become large as the voltageincreases
The measuring circuit is not isolated electrically from the powercircuit
Current Transformer (C.T.):
Transformers used for currentmeasurement
Steps down the current to the level ofammeter.

Voltage Transformer (V.T. or P.T.):

Transformers used for voltage (Potential)measurement
Steps down the voltage to the level ofvoltmeter.

Used in AC system for the measurement of current,voltage,

power andenergy.

Finds a wide application in protection circuits of powersystem

Ex. over current, under voltage, earth fault,etc.
Advantages of Instrument Transformer:
Their reading do not depend upon circuit constant such as R, L &C
As in the case of shunts andmultipliers

The measuring circuit is isolated from the powercircuit

Low power consumption in the meteringcircuit
Several instrument can be operated from a singleinstrument
transformer
Ratios of Instrument Transformer:
TransformationRatio, R = IPri / ISec for a C.T.
and R = VPri / VSec for aP.T.

NominalRatio, Kn = Rated IPri /Rated ISec for aC.T.

= Rated VPri / Rated VSec for a P.T.

TurnsRatio, n = Nsec / NPri for aC.T.

= NPri / NSec for aP.T.

Ratio Correction Factor (RCF) = Transformation Ratio/Nominal Ratio=R/Kn

or R = RCF ×Kn
Current Transformer:
Primary winding is connected in series with line carrying thecurrent to
bemeasured
Therefore, IPri αLoad

Primary winding consist of very fewturns

Therefore, no appreciable voltage drop across it
Relationship in a C.T.:
rs and xs = resistance and reactance of secondarywinding
re and xe = resistance and reactance of externalburden
Ep and Es = primary and secondary winding inducedvoltage
Np and Ns = number of primary and secondary windingturns
Vs = voltage at secondary windingterminals
Ip and Is = primary and secondary windingcurrents
Φ = working flux of thetransformer
θ = phase angle of transformer (angle between Is reversed andIp)
δ = angle between Es andIs
Δ = phase angle of secondary winding loadcircuit
Io = excitingcurrent
Im and Ie = magnetizing and loss component ofIo
α = angle between Io andΦ

Expression for Transformation Raito is derived onboard

Errors in C.T.:
The secondary winding current is not a constant fraction ofthe
primary windingcurrent
depend upon magnetizing and loss component of excitingcurrent
this introduces considerable errors into currentmeasurements

ratio error = (Kn-R)/R

It is necessary that the phase of Is shall be displaced exactly by
1800 fromIp.
but, it is displaced by an angleθ.
Characteristic of C.T.:
Effect of change ofIp
If Ip changes, Is also changesproportionally
At low values of Ip, the current Im and Ie are a great portion ofIp

Effect of change ofIs

Increment in Is means increase in Volt-Ampererating
This increases the secondary winding inducedvoltage
Therefore, Im and Ie areincreased
Thus, the errors will beincreased.

Effect of change ofFrequency

Increase in frequency will result in proportionate decrease influx
density
Means to reduce the error in C.T.:
Ideally, R=n andθ=0
But, as a result of physical limitations inherent in electric andmagnetic
circuit, the ideality will be lost and errors areinduced

The expression of R and θ indicatesthat

Both depend upon the Ie and Imrespectively
Thus, they are chosensmall.
Specific design feature will help in minimization of theerrors
Core:
Core must have a low reluctance and low coreloss
Reduction of reluctance flux path can be doneby

large cross section ofcore

Low value of fluxdensity
The number of joints in building up core should beminimum
because joints produce airgape
which offer path of high reluctance for theflux
Core loss is reduced by choosing materials of lowhysteresis
and low eddy currentlosses
 Effect of secondary winding open
C.T. are always used with the secondary windingclosed
Never open the secondary windings circuit of a C.T. while itsprimary
winding isenergized
Failure to this may lead to serious consequences forboth
In case of P.T., the current flowing in the primary winding is
largely the reflection of that flowing in the secondarycircuit.
whereas, in case of a C.T., the primary winding is connected inseries
with the line whose current is beingmeasured
This current is in no ways controlled or determined by the conditionof
secondary windingcircuit
Under normal operating conditions, both primary andsecondary
windings produces mmf, which act against each other
The secondary mmf is slightly less than the primarymmf
Thus, the resultant mmf issmall
 The resultant mmf maintains the flux in core and
supply the ironlosses
since the resultant mmf is small, the flux density is
also quitelow
hence, a small voltage is induced in the
secondarywinding
If the secondary winding is open-
circuited when theprimary winding
is carryingcurrent
the primary mmf remains same while the
open secondary mmfreduces tozero
therefore, the resultant mmf is very large (i.e.,
equal to primary mmf=IpNp)
this large mmf produces a large flux in core till
itsaturates
this large flux linking the turn of
secondary winding would inducea
high voltage in the secondary
winding which could bedangerous
to the transformer insulation and to the person
operatingit
Also, the eddy current and hysteresis
loses would be very highunder
thiscondition
thus the transformer may be overheated and
completely damaged
 Even if this does not happen, the
core may become permanently
magnetized and give
erroneous results.
Faraday's laws of electrolysis
Firstlaw of electrolys Faraday’s Second
Lawis

In 1832, Michael Faraday reported that the quantity of

elements separated by passing an electric current through
a molten or dissolved salt is proportional to the quantity of
electric charge passed through the circuit. This became the
basis of the first law of electrolysis:

Second law ofelectrolysis

Faraday also discovered that the mass of the resulting

separated elements is directly proportional to the atomic
massesof the elements when an appropriate integral
divisor is applied. This provided strong evidence that
discrete particles of matter exist as parts of the atoms of
elements.

Electrolysis of water

One important use of electrolysis of water is to produce

hydrogen.

2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g); E0= +1.229 V

Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for powering internal

combustion engines by combustion or electric motors via
hydrogen fuel cells (see Hydrogen vehicle). This has been
suggested as one approach to shift economies of the world
from the current state of almost complete dependence
upon hydrocarbons for energy (See hydrogen economy.)

The energy efficiency of water electrolysis varies widely.

The efficiency is a measure of what fraction of electrical
energy used is actually contained within the hydrogen.
Some of the electrical energy is converted to heat, an
almost uselessbyproduct.
Some reports quote efficiencies between 50% and 70%
This efficiency is based on the Lower Heating Value of
Hydrogen. The Lower Heating Value of Hydrogen is
total thermal energy released when hydrogen is
combusted minus the latent heat of vaporisation of the
water. This does not represent the total amount of energy
within the hydrogen, hence the efficiency is lower than a
more strict definition. Other reports quote the theoretical
maximum efficiency of electrolysis as being between 80%
and 94%.The theoretical maximum considers the total
amount of energy absorbed by both the hydrogen and
oxygen. These values refer only to the efficiency of
converting electrical energy into hydrogen's chemical
energy. The energy lost in generating the electricity is not
included. For instance, when considering a power plant
that converts the heat of nuclear reactions into hydrogen
via electrolysis, the total efficiency is more likely to be
between 25% and40%.

NREL found that a kilogram of hydrogen (roughly

equivalent to a gallon of gasoline) could be produced by
wind powered electrolysis for between $5.55 in the near
term and $2.27 in the long term.

About four percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide

is created by electrolysis, and normally used onsite.
Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer
via the Haber process,and converting heavy petroleum
sources to lighter fractions via hydrocracking.

Electro-Refining Operations

Copper anodes from the converter process are dissolved

electrolytically using an acid copper sulphate solution as an
electrolyte. The products of this operation are pure copper
cathodes and an anode slime which may contain gold and
small quantities of the platinum group metals. The cells are
constructed of rubber-lined concrete. Internal
measurements are approximately 84 x2 x3 feet. The
warmed electrolyte is fed in at one end and overflows from
the other into a launder running between the lines of cells.
From the launder the liquid is pumped to overhead tanks
where its heat is maintained, and by gravity flows to a
manifold which feeds it back to the cells. During
electrolysis the electrolyte tends to accumulate nickel and
quantities have to be bled off occasionally and replaced by
pure coppersulphate.
The impure electrolyte is treated for recovery of the
copper sulphate and the nickel sulphate is passed to the
nickel refinery. There are 21 anodes and 20 cathodes in
each cell and a current of 15; amp per square foot is
maintained. The quantity of anode slime formed by the
dissolving of these anodes is small and falls to the
bottom of the cells, where it is periodically recovered.
The dissolving of the nickel anodes follows the same
general pattern, the products being pure nickel cathodes
and an anode slime containing the bulk of the platinum
group metals. In this case the electrolyte is a neutral
solution of nickel sulphate containing boric acid as a
buffer and has to be continually purified to produce a
purecathode.

Copper and iron are present in the anodes and being

more electro-negative than nickel must be removed from
the electrolyte or they will deposit on the cathode as
impurities. To achieve this each cathode is placed in a
calico bag with purified electrolyte flowing into it, so
that the cathode will grow in clean liquor. The stripped
liquor flows out of the bag laterally and picks up the
impurities from the solution of the anode. This liquor
flows out of each cell into a launder and is pumped
across to large circular treatment tanks where it is
heated to approximately 70°C. An emulsion of nickel
carbonate is added to adjust the pH andair
is blown through to hydrolyse out the iron. After this any
copper present is precipitated and the contents pumped
through a filter press to separate out the solid impurities.

Faraday's Law, Lenz's Law

Do you remember Archimedes’s Principle? We were able

to say something simple, specific, and useful about a
complicated phenomenon. The gross idea was that a
submerged object being pressed upon on every surface
element in contact with fluid, by the fluid, experiences a
net upward force because the pressure in a fluid is greater
at greater depth. The infinite sum, over all the surface area
elements of the object in contact with the fluid, of the
force of magnitude pressure-times-the-area, and direction
normal to and into the area element, resulted in an upward
force that we called the buoyant force. The thing is, we
were able to prove that the buoyant force is equal in
magnitude to the weight of that amount of fluid that
would be where the object is if the object wasn’t there.
Thus we can arrive at a value for the buoyant force
without having to even think about the vector integration
of pressure-related force that causesit.

We are about to encounter another complicated

phenomenon which can be characterized in a fruitful
fashion by a relatively simple rule. I’m going to convey
the idea to you by means of a few specific processes, and
then sum it up by stating the simple rule.

Consider a gold1ring and a bar magnet in the hands of a

person. The person is holding the ring so that it encircles
the bar magnet. She is holding the magnet, north end up.
N

S
There is a magnetic field, due to the bar magnet,
within the bar magnet, and in the region of space
around it.

1
Any conductive material will do here. I chose gold arbitrarily.
It is important to note that the magnetic field lines are
most densely packed inside the bar magnet.

Now suppose that the person, holding the magnet at rest

in one hand, moves the loop upward. I want to focus on
what is going on while she is moving it upward. As she
moves the loop upward, she is moving it roughly along
the direction of the magnetic file lines, but, and this is
actually the important part, that loop will also be “cutting
through” some magnetic field lines. Consider an instant
in time when the loop is above the magnet, and moving
upward:

From above, the scene looks like:

where it is important to realize that none of those
magnetic field lines begin on the magnet or end at the tip
of the arrow depicted, rather, they extend out of the
magnet toward us, flower out and over, back down away
from us, and then they loop around to enter the south pole
of the magnet from which they extend back up through
the magnet toward us. In fact, no magnetic field line ever
begins or ends anywhere. They all form closed loops.
This is a manifestation of the fact that there is no such
thing as magnetic charge. (There are no
magneticmonopoles.)
 View From Above

Here’s where we’re going with this: The motion of the

ring relative to the magnet is going to cause a current in
the ring. Here’s how: The ring is neutral, but, it is chock
full of charged particles that are free to move around
within the gold. [I’m going to discuss it in our positive
charge carrier model but you can verify that you get the
same result if the charge carriers are negative (recalling
that our current is in the direction opposite that in which
negative charge carriers are moving.)] Pick any short
segment of the ring and get the direction of the force
exertedonthechargecarriersofthatsegmentusingF=qv×B
and the right-hand rule for the
cross product of two vectors. In the view from above, all
we can see is the horizontal component of the magnetic
field vectors in the vicinity of the moving ring but that’s
just dandy; the vertical component, being parallel to the
ring’s velocity (and hence parallel to the velocity of the
charge in the ring), makes no contribution to v × B .
Now, pick your segment of the ring. Make your fingers
point away from your elbow, and, in the direction of the
first vector (the velocity vector) in v × B , namely, “out
of the page”. Now, keeping your fingers pointing both
away from your elbow, and, out of the page, rotate your
forearm as necessary so that your palm is facing in the
direction of B (at the location of the segment you are
working on), meaning that if you were to close your
fingers, they would point in the direction of B . Your
extended thumb is now pointing in the direction of the
force exerted on the positive charge carriers in the ring
segment you chose. No matter what ring segment you
pick, the force is always in that direction which tends to
push the positive charge carriers counterclockwise around
the ring! The result is a counterclockwise (as viewed
from above) current in thering.

Suppose that, starting with the ring encircling the magnet,

the person who was holding the ring and the magnet
moved the magnet downward rather than moving the ring
upward. She holds the ring stationary, and moves the
magnet. I said earlier that a charged particle at rest in a
magnetic field has no force exerted on it by the magnetic
field. But we were talking about stationary magnetic
fields at the time. Now we are talking about the magnetic
field of a magnet that is moving. Since the magnet
responsible for it is moving, the magnetic field itself must
be moving. Will that result in a force on the charges in the
ring (and hence a current in the ring)? This brings us to a
consideration of relative motion. To us, the two processes
(person moves ring upward
while holding magnet at rest, vs. person moves magnet
downward while holding ring at rest) are different. But
that is just because we are so used to viewing things from
the earth’s reference frame. Have you ever been riding
along a highway and had the sense that you were at rest
and the lampposts on the side of the road were moving
past you at high speed. That is a valid viewpoint. Relative
to your reference frame of the car, the lampposts are
indeed moving and the car is a valid reference frame.
Suppose we view the magnet moving downward through
a ring situation from a platform that is moving downward
at the same speed as the magnet. In that reference frame,
the magnet is at rest. If for instance, as we, while seated
on the platform, see the magnet at eye level, it remains at
eye level. But the ring, as viewed from the platform
reference frame is moving upward. So in the platform
reference frame, we have, in the new processes (which in
the room reference frame is a magnet moving downward
through and away from a ring) the same situation that we
had in the room frame for the original process (which in
the room reference frame is a ring, originally encircling a
stationary magnet, movingupward).
Thus in the platform reference frame, we must have the
same result for the new process that we had for the
original process in the room frame, namely, a
counterclockwise (as viewed from above) current in the
ring. The current in the ring doesn’t depend on what
reference frame we view the ring from. Hence, we can
conclude that the magnet moving downward through the
stationary ring at speed v results in the same current as we
have when the ring moves upward at the same speed v
relative to the stationary magnet.

When the person holding the magnet and the ring moved
the ring upward, there was a current in the ring. Now we
have established that if, instead of moving the ring, she
moves the magnet downward at the same speed, she will
get the same current in the ring. Based on what caused
thatcurrent,theF=qv×B
force on the charged particles in the ring, you can surmise
that the
current will depend on things like the velocity of the ring
relative to the magnet, the strength of the magnetic field,
and the relative orientation of the velocity vector and the
magnetic field. It has probably occurred to you that the
current also depends on the resistance of the ring.

Michael Faraday came up with a very fruitful way of

looking at the phenomenon we are discussing and I will
convey his idea to you by means of the example we have
been working with.
Looking at the diagrams of that ring moving relative to the
magnet again,

View From Above

we can describe what’s happening by saying that the ring

is “cutting through” magnetic field lines (or, equivalently,
by saying that the magnetic field lines are “cutting
through” the ring). What Faraday recognized was that, in
conceptual terms, by the ring cutting through magnetic
field lines (or vice versa depending on your point of
view), what was happening was, that the number of
magnetic field lines encircled by the loop was changing.
In the diagrams above, each time the ring “cuts through”
one more field line, the number of field lines encircled by
the loop decreases by one. The rate at which the ring “cuts
through” magnetic field lines (or the magnetic field lines
cut through the ring) is determined by the same things that
determine the force on the charged particles making up
the ring (relative speed between ring and magnetic field,
strength of magnetic field, relative orientation of velocity
of ring and magnetic field) such that, the greater the rate
at which the ring “cuts through” magnetic field lines (or
the greater the rate at which magnetic field lines cut
through the ring), the greater the force on the charged
particles and hence the greater the current. Faraday
expressed this in a manner that is easier to analyze. He
said that the current is determined by the rate at which the
number of magnetic field lines encircled by the loop is
changing. In fact, Faraday was able to write this statement
in equation form. Before I show you that, I have to be a
lot more specific about what I mean by “the number of
magnetic fieldlines.”
I’m going to call the statement I have just attributed to Faraday, the conceptual form of
Faraday’s Law. In other words, Faradays Law, in conceptual form is: A changing number of
magnetic field lines through a closed loop or coil causes a current in that loop or coil, and, the
faster the number is changing, the greater the current.
Our field line concept is essentially a diagrammatic
scheme used to convey some information about the
direction and the relative strength of a field. We have
used it both for the electric field and the magnetic field.
What I say here about the number of field lines can be
applied to both, but, since we are presently concerned
with the magnetic field, I will talk about it in terms of the
magnetic field. Conceptually, the number of field lines
encircled by a loop is going to depend on how closely
packed the field lines are, how big the loop is, and to what
degree the loop is oriented “face-on” to the field lines.
(Clearly, if the loop is oriented edge-on to the field lines,
it will encircle none of them.) Now, diagrammatically,
how closely packed the field lines are is representative of
how strong the magnetic field is. The more closely-
packed the field lines, the greater the value of B. Imagine
that someone has created a beautiful, three-dimensional,
magnetic field diagram. Now if you view the field lines
end-on, e.g. such that the magnetic field lines are directed
right at you, and depict a cross section of “what you see”
in a two-dimensional diagram, you would get something
likethis.
This is a graphical representation of the magnitude of
that component of the magnetic field which is directed
straight at you.
Suppose the scale of the diagram to be given by
(1µT⋅m2) n where n is the magnetic field line density, the
number-of-magnetic-field-lines-per-area, directed
through the plane represented by the page, straight at
you. Let’s use a square, one centimeter on a side, to
sample the field at a position near the center,

I count 19 field lines that are clearly in the square

centimeter and four that are touching it, I’m going to
count two of those four for an estimated 21 field lines in
one square centimeter. Thus, in that region,
21 lines
 n
(1×10−2m)2

Using the given scale factor,

lines
n = 2100
m2

B = (1.0µT ⋅ m2 ) n

B = (1.0µT ⋅ m ) 2100 lines

2

m2

B = 2.1 mT

Let’s make it more clear what the number of lines

represents by replacing n with
Numberof
A
Lines

and solving the expression

B=(1.0µT)n

for the number of lines.

Numberof
B=(1.0µT⋅m 2)
A
Lines

Number of

Lines=
BA
1.0 µT ⋅ m
2
So the number of lines through a loop encircling a plane
region of area A is proportional to BA, with the constant of
proportionality being the reciprocal of our scale factor for
the field diagram. The simple product BA is really only
good if the magnetic field lines are “hitting” the area
encircled by the loop “head on,” and, if the magnetic field
is single-valued over the whole area.
We can take care of the “which way the loop is facing”
issue by replacing BA with B ⋅A
where
A , the area vector, is a vector whose magnitude is the
area of the plane region encircled by the loop and whose
direction is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. There
are actually two directions that are perpendicular to the
loop. One is the opposite of the other. In practice, one
picks one of the two directions arbitrarily, but, picking a
direction for the area vector establishes a positive
direction for the current around the loop. The positive
direction for the current is the direction around the loop
that makes the current direction and the area vector
direction, together, conform to the right-hand rule for
something curly something straight. We take care of the
possible variation of the magnetic field over the region
enclosed by the loop, by cutting that
planeregionupintoaninfinitenumber
ofinfinitesimalareaelementsdA, calculatingB⋅dA
for

each area element, and adding up all the results. The final
result is the integral
B ⋅ dA . You
won’t be held responsible for using the calculus algorithms
for analyzing such an integral, but,
you are responsible for knowingwhat
B ⋅dA
means. It is the infinite sum you get when you
subdivide the area enclosed by the loop up into an infinite
number of infinitesimal area elements, and, for each area
element, dot the magnetic field vector at the location of
that area element into the area vector of that area element,
and add up all the resulting dot products. You also need to
know that, in the special case of a magnetic field that is
constant in both magnitude and
direction over the entire area enclosed by the loop,
B ⋅dA
is just B ⋅ A .

Using a generic “constant” for the reciprocal of the field

diagram scale factor yields

Number of Lines = (constant)

B ⋅dA
for the number of field lines encircled by the loop or coil.
The quantity
B ⋅dA
is called the
magnetic flux through the plane region enclosed by the
loop. Note that the flux is directly proportional to the
number of magnetic field lines through the loop.

The magnetic flux is given the name Φ (the Greek letter

upper case phi).

ΦB =

B ⋅dA
The expression yields T⋅ m as the units of magnetic flux.
2

This combination of units is given a name, the Weber,

abbreviated Wb.
1 Wb = T⋅ m 2
Faraday’s Law, the one that says that the current induced
in a loop or coil is proportional to the rate of change in
the number of magnetic field lines encircled by the loop
or coil, can be written in terms of the flux as:

N dΦB
I =−
R dt

where:
N is the number of windings or turns making up the
closed coil of wire. N = 1 for a single loop.
R is the resistance of the loop or coil.
dΦ is the rate of change in the flux through the loop.
B

dt

The derivative of a function with respect to time is often

abbreviated as the function itself with a dot over it. In
other words,

⋅
ΦB =
dΦB dt

Using this notation in our expression for the current in

Faradays Law of induction we have:
 N⋅
I=−

Φ
R B

Faraday’s Law is usually expressed in terms of an EMF

rather than a current. I’m going to use a specific case
study to develop the idea which is of general
applicability. Consider a coil of ideally-conducting wire
in series with a resistor. For closure of the loop, the
resistor is to be considered part of the loop (and hence is
the resistance of the loop), but, we have a negligible
number of magnetic field lines cutting through the
resistor itself. Suppose there to be an increasing magnetic
flux directed upward through the coil.

B increasing

R
ByFaraday’sLawofInduction,therewillbeacurrentI=−N ⋅
induced in the
coil.The

ΦB
R
charge will flow around and around the coil, out the top
of the coil and down through the resistor.

B increasing

But, for a resistor to have a current in it, there must be a

potential difference V = IR between the terminals of the
resistor.

B increasing
 R

Recognizing that, in the case at hand, the I in V = IR is the

N⋅
I=−

resulting from the

changing magnetic flux through the coil, we have

N⋅
V= −
ΦB
R
= − ΦB R
R

which we can write as

⋅
V=−
N ΦB
Where there is a voltage across a resistor, there is an
electric field in the resistor. What exactly causes that
electric field? The answer is, the changing flux through
the coil. More specifically, it is the magnetic field lines
cutting through the coil as they must be doing to cause a
change in the number of field lines through the coil. The
field lines through the coil causes a force on the charge
carriers in the coil. In our positive charge carrier model,
this causes positive charge carriers in the coil all to surge
toward the top of the resistor, leaving an absence of
same on the bottom of the resistor. It only takes a
minuscule amount of charge to cause an appreciable
electric field in the resistor. A dynamic equilibrium is
reached in which the changingmagnetic
field force on the charged particle becomes unable to push
any more charge to the top terminalof the resistor than is
forced through the resistor by the electric field in the
resistor. The changing magnetic field can’t push more
charge there because of the repulsion of the charge that is
already there. The changing magnetic field force in the
coil maintains the potential difference across the resistor
in spite of the fact that charge carriers keep “falling”
through the resistor. This should sound familiar. A seat of
EMF does the same thing. It maintains a constant
potential difference between two conductors (such as the
terminals of the resistor in the case at hand). The coil with
the changing flux through it is acting like a seat of EMF.
One says that the changing flux induces an EMF in the
coil, calls that Faraday’s Law of Induction, andwrites:

where:
E is the EMF induced in the loop.
E =−
⋅
NΦB
N is the number of windings or turns making up the coil
of wire.
⋅
Φ is the rate of change in the flux through the loop.
B
Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s Law of Induction has the direction of the

current built into it. One arbitrarily establishes the
direction of the area vector of the loop. This determines,
via the right-hand rule for something curly something
straight, the positive direction for the current. Then the
algebraic
sign of the result of I = − N•

determines whether the current is really in that direction

(“+”) or
in the opposite direction (“−”). This is tough to keep
track of. I advise using Faraday’s Law in the form
•
I= ΦB

to get the magnitude of the current, and, using Lenz’s

Law to get the direction.

The current induced in the loop or coil, by the changing

flux through the loop or coil, produces a magnetic field
of its own. I call that magnetic field B for “the
PIN

magnetic field produced by the induced current.” At

points inside the loop or coil, B is related to the
PIN

induced current itself by the right hand rule for

something curly something straight. Lenz’s Law states
that B is in that direction which tends to keep the
PIN

number of magnetic field lines what it was.

Consider, for instance, a horizontal loop.

Suppose there are magnetic field lines directed

upward through the loop, and, that they are
increasing in number. By Faraday’s Law, the
changing number of field lines through the loop will
induce a current in the loop. By Ampere’s Law, a
current in the loop will produce a magnetic field
(B ). By Lenz’s Law, B will be downward to
PIN PIN

cancel out some of the newly-appearing upward

magnetic field lines, in a futile attempt to keep the
number of magnetic field lines directed upward
through the loop, what it was. By the right-hand rule
for something curly something straight; to produce a
downward-directed magnetic field line inside the
loop, the induced current must be clockwise, around
the loop, as viewed fromabove.

Suppose there are magnetic field lines directed

upward through the loop, and, that they are
decreasing in number. By Faraday’s Law, the
changing number of field lines through the loop will
induce a current in the loop. By Ampere’s Law, a
current in the loop will produce a magnetic field
(B ). By Lenz’s Law, B will be upward to make up
PIN PIN

for the departure of upward-directed magnetic field

lines, in a futile attempt to keep the number of
magnetic field lines directed upward through the
loop, what it was. By the right-hand rule for
something curly something straight; to produce an
upward-directed magnetic field line inside the loop,
the induced current must be counterclockwise,
around the loop, as viewed fromabove.

.Isolation transformer

An isolation transformer is a transformer used to

transfer electrical power from a source of
alternating current (AC)

power to some equipment or device while isolating

the powered device from the power source, usually
for safety.
Isolation transformers provide galvanic isolation
and are used to protect against electric shock, to
suppress electrical

noise in sensitive devices, or to transfer power

between two circuits which must not be connected.
Isolation

transformers block transmission of DC signals from

one circuit to the other, but allow AC signals to
pass.

Suitably designed isolation transformers block

interference caused by ground loops. Isolation
transformers with

electrostatic shields are used for power supplies for

sensitive equipment such as computers or laboratory
instruments.

Salient Features

• Isolates the equipment from noisy power line

• Reduces power line Noise, Surges, Spikes &

Transients.

• High Insulation resistance

• Provides the complete Electromagnetic & Electro

static shielding

Applications

• Computers & Peripherals

• Analytical Instruments

• Communication Equipments

• CNC Machines

• Medical Instruments

Advantages of Three Phase Transformer over Single Phase Transformer are:

Less cost
Less Weight
less size
Less time require to assembling
Require less space
Deliver more power
Higher efficiency
Easier to install
Easy transportation and installation
Easy to repair
Easy assembling and
Also We can get Single Phase supply from Three Phase supply, while it is not
possible to get Three Phase supply from Single Phase Supply.
Disadvantages of Three Phase Transformer over Single Phase Transformer are:
Greater cost of standby Units
increased cost and inconvenience of repairs.
In Single Phase transformer ( three Single Phase Transformer) failure of one
transformer, the other two, Single Phase Transformer still supply the power, while
it is not possible in case of failing a Three Phase Transformer.