PROCESSES AFFECTING CHANGES IN PROPERTIES

Reporters:
1. Dionisio B. Lopez Jr.
2. Maylene Libut
3. John Tristan Taron
4. Jerzen Fate Manlongat
5. Eran Salvador
6. Eddie Dagmante

I. INTRODUCTION

Many structural metals undergo some special treatment to modify their properties so that they will perform
better for their intended use. This treatment can include mechanical working, such as rolling or forging,
alloying and/or thermal treatments. Consider aluminum as an example. Commercially pure aluminum
(1100) has a tensile strength of around 13,000 psi, which limits its usefulness in structural applications.
However, by cold-working aluminum, its strength can be approximately doubled. Also, strength increases
are obtained by adding alloying metals such as manganese, silicon, copper, magnesium and zinc. Further,
many aluminum alloys are strengthened by heat treatment. Some heat-treatable aluminum alloys obtain
tensile strengths that can exceed 100,000 psi.

II. Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms

The ability of a crystalline material to plastically deform largely depends on the ability for dislocation to
move within a material. Therefore, impeding the movement of dislocations will result in the strengthening
of the material. There are a number of ways to impede dislocation movement, which include:

 controlling the grain size (reducing continuity of atomic planes)

 strain hardening (creating and tangling dislocations)
 alloying (introducing point defects and more grains to pin dislocation)

Control of Grain Size

The size of the grains within a material also has an effect on the
strength of the material. The boundary between grains acts as a
barrier to dislocation movement and the resulting slip because
adjacent grains have different orientations. Since the atom
alignment is different and slip planes are discontinuous between
grains. The smaller the grains, the shorter the distance atoms can
move along a particular slip plane. Therefore, smaller grains
improve the strength of a material. The size and number of grains within a material is controlled by the rate
of solidification from the liquid phase.

Strain Hardening

Strain hardening (also called work-hardening or cold-working) is the process of making a metal harder and
stronger through plastic deformation. When a metal is plastically deformed, dislocations move and
additional dislocations are generated. The more dislocations within a material, the more they will interact
and become pinned or tangled. This will result in a
decrease in the mobility of the dislocations and a
strengthening of the material. This type of strengthening
is commonly called cold-working. It is called cold-
working because the plastic deformation must occur at a
temperature low enough that atoms cannot rearrange
themselves. When a metal is worked at higher
temperatures (hot-working) the dislocations can
rearrange and little strengthening is achieved.

Strain hardening can be easily demonstrated with piece

of wire or a paper clip. Bend a straight section back and
forth several times. Notice that it is more difficult to bend
the metal at the same place. In the strain hardened area
dislocations have formed and become tangled, increasing
the strength of the material. Continued bending will
eventually cause the wire to break at the bend due to
fatigue cracking. (After a large number of bending
cycles, dislocations form structures called Persistent Slip Bands (PSB). PSBs are basically tiny areas where
the dislocations have piled up and moved the material surface out leave steps in the surface that act as stress
risers or crack initiation points.)

It should be understood, however, that increasing the strength by

cold-working will also result in a reduction in ductility. The graph
to the right shows the yield strength and the percent elongation as
a function of percent cold-work for a few example materials.
Notice that for each material, a small amount of cold-working
results in a significant reduction in ductility.

Effects of Elevated Temperature on Strain Hardened

Materials

When strain hardened materials are exposed to elevated

temperatures, the strengthening that resulted from the plastic
deformation can be lost. This can be a bad thing if the
strengthening is needed to support a load. However, strengthening due to strain hardening is not always
desirable, especially if the material is being heavily formed since ductility will be lowered.

Heat treatment can be used to remove the effects of strain hardening. Three things can occur during heat
treatment:

1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth

Recovery
When a strain hardened material is held at an elevated temperature an increase in atomic diffusion occurs
that relieves some of the internal strain energy. Remember that atoms are not fixed in position but can move
around when they have enough energy to break their bonds. Diffusion increases rapidly with rising
temperature and this allows atoms in severely strained regions to move to unstrained positions. In other
words, atoms are freer to move around and recover a normal position in the lattice structure. This is known
as the recovery phase and it results in an adjustment of strain on a microscopic scale. Internal residual
stresses are lowered due to a reduction in the dislocation density and a movement of dislocation to lower-
energy positions. The tangles of dislocations condense into sharp two-dimensional boundaries and the
dislocation density within these areas decrease. These areas are called subgrains. There is no appreciable
reduction in the strength and hardness of the material but corrosion resistance often improves.

Recrystallization
At a higher temperature, new, strain-free grains nucleate and grow inside the old distorted grains and at the
grain boundaries. These new grains grow to replace the deformed grains produced by the strain hardening.
With recrystallization, the mechanical properties return to their original weaker and more ductile states.
Recrystallization depends on the temperature, the amount of time at this temperature and also the amount
of strain hardening that the material experienced. The more strain hardening, the lower the temperature will
be at which recrystallization occurs. Also, a minimum amount (typically 2-20%) of cold work is necessary
for any amount of recrystallization to occur. The size the new grains is also partially dependant on the
amount of strain hardening. The greater the stain hardening, the more nuclei for the new grains, and the
resulting grain size will be smaller (at least initially).

Grain Growth

If a specimen is left at the high temperature beyond the time needed for complete recrystallization, the
grains begin to grow in size. This occurs because diffusion occurs across the grain boundaries and larger
grains have less grain boundary surface area per unit of volume. Therefore, the larger grains lose fewer
atoms and grow at the expense of the smaller grains. Larger grains will reduce the strength and toughness
of the material.

Alloying

Only a few elements are widely used commercially in their pure form. Generally, other elements are present
to produce greater strength, to improve corrosion resistance, or simply as impurities left over from the
refining process. The addition of other elements into a metal is called alloying and the resulting metal is
called an alloy. Even if the added elements are nonmetals, alloys may still have metallic properties.

Copper alloys were produced very early in our history. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first
alloy known. It was easy to produce by simply adding tin to molten copper. Tools and weapons made of
this alloy were stronger than pure copper ones. The typical alloying elements in some common metals are
presented in the table below.

Alloy Composition
Brass Copper, Zinc
Bronze Copper, Zinc, Tin
Pewter Tin, Copper, Bismuth, Antimony
Cast Iron Iron, Carbon, Manganese, Silicon
Steel Iron, Carbon (plus small amounts of other elements)
Stainless Steel Iron, Chromium, Nickel
The properties of alloys can be manipulated by varying composition. For example, steel formed from iron
and carbon can vary substantially in hardness depending on the amount of carbon added and the way in
which it was processed.

When a second element is added, two basically different structural changes are possible:

1. Solid solution strengthening occurs when the atoms of the new element form a solid solution with
the original element, but there is still only one phase. Recall that the term ‘phase’ refers to that
region of space occupied by a physically homogeneous material.
2. The atoms of the new elements form a new second phase. The entire microstructure may change to
this new phase or two phases may be present.

Solid Solution Strengthening

Solid solution strengthening involves the addition of other metallic elements that will dissolve in the parent
lattice and cause distortions because of the difference in atom size between the parent metal and the solute
metal. Recall from the section on crystal point defects that it is possible to have substitutional impurity
atoms, and interstitial impurity atoms. A substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the
bulk atoms, which has replaced one of the bulk atoms in the lattice. Substitutional impurity atoms are
usually close in size (within approximately 15%) to the bulk atom. Interstitial impurity atoms are much
smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix. Interstitial impurity atoms fit into the open space between the
bulk atoms of the lattice structure.

Since the impurity atoms are smaller or larger than the surrounding atoms they introduce tensile or
compressive lattice strains. They disrupt the regular arrangement of ions and make it more difficult for the
layers to slide over each other. This makes the alloy stronger and less ductile than the pure metal. For
example, an alloy of 30% nickel raises the cast tensile strength of copper from 25,000 PSI to 55,000 PSI.

Multiphase Metals

Still another method of strengthening the metal is adding elements that have no or partial solubility in the
parent metal. This will result in the appearance of a second phase distributed throughout the crystal or
between crystals. These secondary phases can raise or reduce the strength of an alloy. For example, the
addition of tin, zinc, or aluminum to copper will result in an alloy with increased strength, but alloying with
lead or bismuth with result in a lower strength alloy. The properties of a polyphase (two of more phase)
material depend on the nature, amount, size, shape, distribution, and orientation of the phases. Greek letters
are commonly used to distinguish the different solid phases in a given alloy.
Phase Diagrams

The phase diagram is simply a map showing the structure of phases present as the temperature and overall
composition of the alloy are varied. It is a very useful tool for understanding and controlling the structures
of polyphase materials.

TYPES
2-dimensional diagrams
The simplest phase diagrams are pressure–temperature
diagrams of a single simple substance, such as water.
The axes correspond to the pressure and temperature. The
phase diagram shows, in pressure–temperature space, the
lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries between the three
phases of solid, liquid, and gas.

 Binary Phase diagrams

A binary phase is a two-component system. Binary phase
diagrams are most commonly used in alloy designing. The
simplest binary system is the Cu-Ni which exhibits
complete solubility in liquid and solid state.
Liquidus line - The line above which the alloy is liquid. At
temperature just below this line crystals of  solid solution
start forming.
Solidus line- The line below which solidification
completes. Hence, only  solid solution exists at any Cu-Ni equilibrium phase diagram
temperature below the solidus line.
The two-phase region- the intermediate region between liquidus and solidus lines is where liquid and solid
coexist.

It can be noted that the two metals are soluble in each other in the entire range of compositions in both
liquid and solid state. This kind of system is known as ‘Isomorphous’ system.
Cooling curves- Upon cooling from liquid state, the temperature of the pure metal (A or B) drops
continuously till melting point at which solidification starts. Solidification happens at a constant
temperature. The temperature drops again on completion of solidification.
Alloys generally do not have a single melting point, but instead
melt (or alternately solidify) over a range of temperatures. At
each end of the phase diagram only one of the elements is
present (100% A or 100% B) so a specific melting point does
exists. Melting point of metals and alloys ranges from
44degrees celcius(Phosphuros)-3400deg celcius(tungsten).
Additionally, there is sometimes a mixture of the constituent
elements which produces melting at a single temperature like
a pure element. This is called Eutectic point.

3-dimensional diagrams

It is possible to envision three-dimensional (3D) graphs

showing three thermodynamic quantities. For example, for
a single component, a 3D Cartesian coordinate type graph
can show temperature (T) on one axis, pressure (p) on a
second axis, and specific volume (v) on a third. Such a 3D
graph is sometimes called a p–v–T diagram.
An orthographic projection of the 3D p–v–T graph showing
pressure and temperature as the vertical and horizontal axes
collapses the 3D plot into the standard 2D pressure–
temperature diagram. When this is done, the solid–vapor,
solid–liquid, and liquid–vapor surfaces collapse into three
corresponding curved lines meeting at the triple point,
which is the collapsed orthographic projection of the triple line.

Thermal Treatments (Heat-Treating)

The electrical, magnetic and structural properties of metals can be changed through heat. As the applications
of metal are varied, different environments prioritize different qualities. For example, in engineering
applications, toughness is desired; in electrical applications, low electrical resistivity is important.

There are a number of ways of heating metal which are commonly used to transform these properties. The
temperature to which the metal is heated and the rate of cooling are carefully controlled to achieve the
desired outcome.
The most important ways that metals are transformed through heat:

 Electrical Resistance
 Thermal Expansion
 Structure
 Magnetism

Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is the measure of how strongly the metal impedes the passage of electrical current. As
electrons pass through the metal, they scatter as they collide with the metallic structure. When the metal is
heated, the electrons absorb more energy and move faster. This leads to more scattering, thus increasing
the amount of resistance. Thermometers actually use the change in electrical resistance in a piece of wire
to measure temperature.

Thermal Expansion
Metal expands when heated. Length, surface area and volume will increase with temperature. The scientific
term for this is thermal expansion. The degree of thermal expansion varies with different types of metal.
Thermal expansion occurs because heat increases the vibrations of the atoms in the metal. Accounting for
thermal expansion is essential when designing metallic structures. An everyday example would be the
design of household pipes, which must accommodate expansion and contraction as the seasons change.

Structure
Metals are comprised of a symmetrical structure of atoms known as an allotrope. Heating the metal will
displace atoms from their position and the displaced atoms form a new structure. This process is known as
allotropic phase transformation. Allotropic phase transformation alters the hardness, strength and ductility
of the metal. The most important allotropic phase transformation is undergone by iron. When iron is heated
past 1,674 degrees Fahrenheit it is able to absorb more carbon, which is an ingredient that will increase the
hardness of any steel product. This desired effect is used in several types of High Carbon (above 0.50
carbon) steel – Example: Tool Steel

Magnetism
There are three metals with magnetic properties: iron, nickel and cobalt. They are known as ferromagnetic
metals. Heating these metals will reduce their magnetization to the point where magnetism is completely
eradicated. The temperature at which this occurs is known as the Curie temperature. For nickel, this
temperature is 626 degrees Fahrenheit; for cobalt it is 2,012 degrees Fahrenheit; and for Iron it is 1,418
degrees Fahrenheit.

Heat-treating is a term used to describe all of the controlled heating and cooling operations performed on a
material in the solid state for the purpose of altering its microstructure and/or properties. The focus of this
discussion will be on metals but is should be noted that heat-treatment is also used on ceramics and
composites to modify their properties.

HEAT TREATING THEORY

The various types of heat-treating processes are similar because they all involve the heating and cooling of
metals; they differ in the heating temperatures and the cooling rates used and the final results. The usual
methods of heat-treating ferrous metals (metals with iron) are annealing, normalizing, hardening, and
tempering. Most nonferrous metals can be annealed, but never tempered, normalized, or case-hardened.

Successful heat treatment requires close control over all factors affecting the heating and cooling of a metal.
This control is possible only when the proper equipment is available. The furnace must be of the proper
size and type and controlled, so the temperatures are kept within the prescribed limits for each operation.
Even the furnace atmosphere affects the condition of the metal being heat-treated.

Stages of Heat Treatment

Heat treating is accomplished in three major stages:

Stage l - Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature.

Stage 2 - Soaking (holding) the metal at a given temperature for a given time and cooling the metal to room
temperature Stage.

Stage 3 - Cooling the metal to room temperature.

HEATING STAGE

The primary objective in the heating stage is to maintain uniform temperatures. If uneven heating occurs,
one section of a part can expands faster than another and result in distortion or cracking. Uniform
temperatures are attained by slow heating. The heating rate of a part depends on several factors. One
important factor is the heat conductivity of the metal. A metal with a high-heat conductivity heats at a faster
rate than one with a low conductivity. Also, the condition of the metal determines the rate at which it may
be heated.

SOAKING STAGE

After the metal is heated to the proper temperature, it is held at that temperature until the desired internal
structural changes take place. This process is called soaking. The length of time held at the proper
temperature is called the soaking period. The soaking period depends on the chemical analysis of the metal
and the mass of the part. When steel parts are uneven in cross section, the soaking period is determined by
the largest section.

When a part has an intricate design, it may have to be preheated at more than one temperature to prevent
cracking and excessive warping. For example, assume an intricate part needs to be heated to 1500°F for
hardening. This part could be slowly heated to 600°F, soaked at this temperature, then heated slowly to
1200°F, and then soaked at that temperature. Following the final preheat, the part should then be heated
quickly to the hardening temperature of 1500°F.

NOTE: Nonferrous metals are seldom preheated, because they usually do not require it, and preheating can
cause an increase in the grain size in these metals.

COOLING STAGE

After a metal has been soaked, it must be returned to room temperature to complete the heat-treating
process. To cool the metal, you can place it in direct contact with a cooling medium composed of a gas,
liquid, solid, or combination of these. The rate at which the metal is cooled depends on the metal and the
properties desired. The rate of cooling depends on the medium; therefore, the choice of a cooling medium
has an important influence on the properties desired. Quenching is the procedure used for cooling metal
rapidly in oil, water, brine, or some other medium. Because most metals are cooled rapidly during the
hardening process, quenching is usually associated with hardening; however, quenching does not always
result in an increase in hardness; for example, to anneal copper, you usually quench it in water. Other
metals, such as air-hardened steels, are cooled at a relatively slow rate for hardening.

HEAT TREATING PROCESSES

HARDENING - Hardening increases the hardness and strength of the steel, but makes it less ductile.
Generally, the harder the steel, the more brittle it becomes. To remove some of the brittleness, you should
temper the steel after hardening. Many nonferrous metals can be hardened and their strength increased by
controlled heating and rapid cooling. In this case, the process is called heat treatment, rather than
hardening.
Case Hardening - Case hardening produces a hard, wear-resistant surface or case over a strong, tough
core. The principal forms of casehardening are carburizing, cyaniding, and nitriding. Only ferrous
metals are case-hardened. Case hardening is ideal for parts that require a wear-resistant surface and
must be tough enough internally to withstand heavy loading. The steels best suited for case hardening
are the low-carbon and low-alloy series. When high-carbon steels are case-hardened, the hardness
penetrates the core and causes brittleness. In case hardening, you change the surface of the metal
chemically by introducing a high carbide or nitride content.

 Carburizing is a case-hardening process by which carbon is added to the surface of low-

carbon steel. This results in a carburized steel that has a high-carbon surface and a low-
carbon interior. When the carburized steel is heat-treated, the case becomes hardened and the
core remains soft and tough.

Types of Carburizing

1. Pack Carburizing: A solid substance such as coke, coal, charcoal, calcium, sodium is
used. The steel is placed in a closed chamber where the surrounding of solid fumes.
2. Liquid Carburizing: A liquid hardrocarbon rich in carbon is used to bath for a steel.
3. Gas Carburizing: The steel is heated in a furnace whose surrounding is filled with
carbon-rich gas such as methane, propane etc.

 Cyaniding process is a type of case hardening that is fast and efficient. Preheated
steel is dipped into a heated cyanide bath and allowed to soak. Upon removal, it is
quenched and then rinsed to remove any residual cyanide.
 Nitriding is a case-hardening method that produces the hardest surface of any of the
hardening processes. It differs from the other methods in that the individual parts
have been heat-treated and tempered before nitriding.

Flame Hardening - Flame hardening is another procedure that is used to harden the surface of metal
parts. When you use an oxyacetylene flame, a thin layer at the surface of the part is rapidly heated to
its critical temperature and then immediately quenched by a combination of a water spray and the
cold base metal. This process produces a thin, hardened surface, and at the same time, the internal
parts retain their original properties. Whether the process is manual or mechanical, a close watch must
 be maintained, since the torches heat the metal rapidly and the temperatures are usually determined
visually.
5 General Methods:

1. STATIONARY METHOD-In this method the torch and the metal part are both held
stationary.
2. STRAIGHT-LINE PROGRESSIVE METHOD-With the straight-line progressive
method, the torch travels along the surface, treating a strip that is about the same
width as the torch tip. To harden wider areas, you move the torch and repeat the
process
3. SPIRAL BAND PROGRESSIVE METHOD-For this technique a cylindrical part
is mounted between lathe centers, and a torch with an adjustable holder is mounted
on the lathe carriage. As the part rotates, the torch moves parallel to the surface of the
part.
4. SPIRAL BAND PROGRESSIVE METHOD-For this technique a cylindrical part
is mounted between lathe centers, and a torch with an adjustable holder In mounted
on the lathe carriage. As the part rotates, the torch moves parallel to the surface of the
part
5. CIRCULAR BAND SPINNING METHOD-The circular band spinning method
provides the best results for hardening cylindrical parts of small or medium
diameters. The part is mounted between lathe centers and turned at a high rate of
speed pasta stationary torch. Enough torches are placed side by side to heat the entire
part. The part can be quenched by water flowing from the torch tips or in a separate
operation.

QUENCHING is the rapid cooling of a hot material. The medium used to quench the material can vary
from forced air, oil, water and others. Many steels are hardened by heating and quenching. Quenching
results in a metal that is very hard but also brittle.

LIQUID QUENCHING
Two methods used for Liquid Quenching:

1. Instill-bath quenching, you cool the metal in a tank of liquid. The only movement of the
liquid is that caused by the movement of the hot metal, as it is being quenched.
2. Flush quenching, the liquid is sprayed onto the surface and into every cavity of the part at
the same time to ensure uniform cooling. Flush quenching is used for parts having
recesses or cavities that would not be properly quenched by ordinary methods. That
assures a thorough and uniform quench and reduces the possibilities of distortion.

Quenching Liquids:

• Water - can be used to quench some forms of steel, but does not produce good results
with tool or other alloy steels.
• Brine - is the result of dissolving common rock salt in water. This mixture reduces the
absorption of atmospheric gases that, in turn, reduces the amount of bubbles.
• Oil - is used to quench high-speed and oil-hardened steels and is preferred for all other
steels provided that the required hardness can be obtained
• Caustic Soda - A solution of water and caustic soda, containing 10 percent caustic soda
by weight, has a higher cooling rate than water. Caustic soda is used only for those types
 of steel that require extremely rapid cooling and is NEVER used as a quench for
nonferrous metals.

DRY QUENCHING This type of quenching uses materials other than liquids. In most cases, this
method is used only to slow the rate of cooling to prevent warping or cracking.
Types of Dry Quenching:

• Air - Air quenching is used for cooling some highly alloyed steels. When you use still air,
each tool or part should be placed on a suitable rack so the air can reach all sections of
the piece. Parts cooled with circulated air are placed in the same manner and arranged for
uniform cooling. Compressed air is used to concentrate the cooling on specific areas of a
part. The airlines must be free of moisture to prevent cracking of the metal.
• Solids - The solids used for cooling steel parts include cast iron chips, lime, sand, and
ashes. Solids are generally used to slow the rate of cooling; for example, a cast-iron part
can be placed in a lime box after welding to prevent cracking and warping. All solids
must be free of moisture to prevent uneven cooling.

Annealing

Annealing is a heat treatment process used mostly to increase the ductility and reduce the hardness
of a material. This change in hardness and ductility is a result of the reduction of dislocations in the crystal
structure of the material being annealed. Annealing is often performed after a material has undergone a
hardening or cold working process to prevent it from brittle failure or to make it more formable for
subsequent operations.

The Annealing Process

There are three main stages to an annealing process.

1. Recovery stage.

During the recovery stage, a furnace or other type of heating device is used to raise the
material to a temperature where its internal stresses are relieved.

2. Recrystallization stage

During the recrystallization stage, the material is heated above its recrystallization
temperature, but below its melting temperature. This causes new grains without preexisting
stresses to form.

3. Grain growth stage

During the grain growth, the new grains fully develop. This growth is controlled by
allowing the material to cool at a specified rate. The result of completing these three stages is a
material with more ductility and reduced hardness. Subsequent operations that can further alter
mechanical properties are sometimes carried out after the annealing process.
Normalizing

Normalizing aims to give the steel a uniform and fine-grained structure. The process is used to
obtain a predictable microstructure and an assurance of the steel’s mechanical properties. Normalizing
heat treatment is a process applied to ferrous materials. The objective of the normalizing heat treatment is
to enhance the mechanical properties of the material by refining the microstructure.
The ferrous metal is heated to the austenite phase, above the transformation range, and is
subsequently cooled in still air at room temperature. The normalizing heat treatment balances the
structural irregularities and makes the material soft for further working.
The cold working operations such as forging, bending, hammering hardens the materials and
make it less ductile. Same goes for heat affected area near welded portion.
The normalizing heat treatment can re-gain the ductility and softness of this material. This
treatment is also used as before any subsequent surface hardening to improve response to the desired
hardening.

Application of Normalizing
The low cost of the normalizing process makes it one of the most extensively used industrial process
when compared to annealing. The furnace is available for the next batch as soon as heating and holding
periods are over. Normalizing is used to:

 Improve the grain size refinement and machinability of cast structures of castings
 Recover the original mechanical properties of forged or cold worked steel
 Ease the forging operations for high carbon steel
 Stress relieves of castings
Tempering
Tempering process of improving the characteristics of a metal, especially steel, by heating it to a
high temperature, though below the melting point, then cooling it, usually in air.
The process has the effect of toughening by lessening brittleness and reducing internal stresses.
Suitable temperatures for tempering vary considerably, depending on the type of steel and designed
application; for tool steels, the hardness of which must be retained, the range is usually from 200° to 250°
C (400° to 500° F).
The term is also used for hardening by cold-working, as in drawing wire or rolling sheet steel.

Tempering is used to alter:

 Hardness
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Strength
 Structural stability
 Tempering involves heating the metal to a precise temperature below the critical point, and is often
done in air, vacuum or inert atmospheres.

The temperature is adjusted depending on the amount of hardness that needs to be reduced. While it
varies depending on the metal type, generally, low temperatures will reduce brittleness while maintaining
most of the hardness, while higher temperatures reduce hardness which increases elasticity and plasticity,
but causes some yield and tensile strength to be lost.

It is essential to heat the metal gradually to avoid the steel being cracked. The metal is then held at
this temperature for a fixed period. A rough guideline is one hour per inch of thickness. During this time
the internal stresses in the metal are relieved. The metal is then cooled in still air.

REFERENCES:

https://www.nap.edu/read/4827/chapter/9#77

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/property.htm

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/strengthening.htm

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/alloying.htm

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/phase.htm

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/tie_rules.htm

https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Structure/thermal.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quenching

https://www.brighthubengineering.com/manufacturing-technology/30476-what-is-heat-treatment/

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