A.

Starting points for the understanding of Culture,

Society, and Politics

1. Sharing of social and cultural backgrounds of students as

acting subjects or social actors, agents, persons

 What is Human Cultural Variation

Human Cultural Variation refers to the differences in social behaviors

that different cultures exhibit around the world. Music, language, dance,
cuisine and art all change from one culture to the next, but so do gender
roles, economic systems, and social hierarchy among any number of other
humanly organized behaviors. What may be considered good etiquette in
one culture may be considered bad etiquette in another.

Cultural Variation Between Cultures

If human Culture modify the natural environment, it is also true that
the natural environment initially shaped, and still shapes to some extent,
the culture of society

 Variation within Culture

1. Subculture- A segment of society which shares a distinctive pattern

of mores, folkways, and values which differ from the pattern of larger
society. It is a culture within a culture.

2. Counter Culture- is a group whole values and norms place it at odds

with mainstream society or a group that actively rejects dominant
cultural values and norms.

More recently, paramilitary groups, militias and survivalist groups constitute

countercultures as they reject the social changes that come out of the
1960s and become part of the mainstream.

Paramilitary- is a semi-militarized force whose organizational

structure tactics, training, subculture, and function are similar, to
 those of a professional military; and which is not included as part of a
sister formal armed forces.

Militia- a military force that engages in rebel or terrorist activities,

typically in opposition to a regular army.

 High Culture/ Popular Culture

High Culture- is a term now used in a number of different ways in

academic discourse, whose most common meaning is the set of
cultural products, mainly in the arts, held in the highest esteem by a
culture and consist of activities patrionized by elite audiences,
composed of members of the upper-middle and upper classes.

Example:
Classical Music, Opera, Ballet, live theather

Popular Culture- culture based on the taste of ordinary people rather

than an educated elite.
Consists of activities, products, and services that are assumed to
appeal to members of the middle and working classes.

Example:
Rock concerts, Spectator Sports, Movies, Soap operas, Situation
Comedies

 Ideal Culture Vs. Real Culture

Ideal Culture- is the way people describe the standard of behaviour,

the blueprint which provides the directions and guidelines in relating
with others or doing things.

Real Culture- refers to how one behaves in an actual situation within

the context of what may be regarded as acceptable by the other
members of society.
  Social Difference

These social differences are mostly based on accident of birth. Normally

we don’t choose to belong to our community. But all kinds of social
differences are not based on accident of birth. Some of the differences are
based on our choices.

 Social Change

Social change is the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure,

characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behaviour, social
organizations, or value systems.

 Political Identities

Identity politics are broadly defined, but they typically involve an

individual who bases his identity on social categories and divisions.
 Quiz # 1

Direction: Identify the following.

_____________1. It refers to the differences in social behaviors that
different cultures exhibit around the world.
_____________2. It is refers to how one behaves in an actual situation
within the context of what may be regarded as acceptable by the other
members of society.
_____________3. It is a group of whole values and norms place it at odds
with mainstream society or a group that actively rejects dominant cultural
values and norms.
_____________4. This is a military force that engages in rebel or terrorist
activities, typically in opposition to a regular army.
_____________5. This is a segment of society which shares a distinctive
pattern of mores, folkways, and values which differ from the pattern of
larger society. It is a culture within a culture.

Direction: JUMBLE WORDS: Answer the question by arranging the

following words
1. ISACMR- a poor treatment of or violence against people because of
their race.
2. MSSXIES- This is the unfair treatment of people because of their
sex, especially; unfair treatment of women
3. IOOOPHMBA- This is the irrational fear of, aversion to, or
discrimination against homosexuality or homosexuals.
4. GIHH UULTRCE- This is a term now used in number of different
ways in academic discourse and common meaning is the set of
cultural products.
5. AEIDL UULTRCE- This is the way people describe the standard of
behaviour, the blueprint which provides the directions and guidelines
in relating with others or doing things.
 2. OBSERVATIONS ABOUT SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND
CULTURAL BEHAVIOR AND PHENOMENA
Introduction

There are times that we find ourselves in a situation unlike other

situations. We personally encounter different ways of doing things,
behaving, and making sense of events. Observing them, we cannot help
but ask: Why do people do such a thing? What makes it normal and
acceptable to some people in some places and unacceptable to others in
other places?

These questions are triggered by our habit of looking at other

people’s worlds as we look at our own. In order to explore the issue further,
consider the following situations in the table below.

Situation Behavior and Phenomena

1. Gary graduated a year ago. istambay
Despite being blessed with
several job offers, he chose to
remain jobless and hang
around with his barkada.
Together they love to istambay
in the town plaza especially at
night.
2. As a businessman, Mang Leo lagay
is used to giving “padulas” (or
lagay) to his main suppliers in
order to expedite his business
transactions with them.
3. Members of the Seventh-Day Food taboos
Adventist Church are strongly
prohibited from eating pork
and food with blood, as well as
from smoking and drinking
alcoholic beverages.
4. Darius is openly gay. He lives Same-sex partnership
with his partner Garner. He
and Garner are both college
professors in the local city
 college.
5. If grades were to be the basis Use of a go-between/padrino
of Rusty’s standing in his
economics class, he would
surely fail the course.
However, he was given a
passing grade by his
economics teacher, who
happened to be a childhood
friend of his mother.

3. Observation on Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Scenario Phenomenon
1. Taking “selfies” is Alyssa’s preoccupation. It selfieing
became a habit when her parents gave her a
phone on her birthday.
2. Kapitan Tim is the incumbent mayor of the City Political dynasty
of Amin-Amin. His son, Timmy Jr. is currently
running for the congressional seat of the district,
a position occupied by his mother Cong.
Valencia for about three consecutive terms.
3. Amina, a college student, is living alone in Transnational
Manila. Both of her parents are OFWs working families
in the Middle East. She visits them every
summer break.
4. As a youth volunteer, Verna finds the rainy Youth volunteerism
seasons a busy season due to the frequency of
typhoon-related disasters. Sometimes she even
spends her own money to buy relief goods for
typhoon victims.
5. Michael almost missed the chance to finish high Video gaming
school because he had been absent most of the
time playing Clash of Clans (COC)
  What is Culture?

Culture refers to the complex whole which includes knowledge,

beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.

knowledge

Morals Beliefs

CULTURE

Customs Arts

Laws

According to Mark Banaag, culture functions in the following ways and from
which we can realize the significance of culture as well:

Adaption &
Integration

Patterns of
Human Acceptable
Satisfaction Social
Behavior

Production
Conveys &
of man-
Facilitates
made
Meaning
things
 Society
It is a product of human social process intended to meet basic needs
for survival. Every society is organized in such a way that there are rules of
conduct, customs, traditions, folkways and mores, and expectations that
ensure appropriate behaviour among members.

Representa
tion of our
identity

Avenue for Significance Characteri

economic ze the
interdepen of Studying totality of
dence Society a territory

Symbol of
political
independe
nce

 Politics
According to Ricardo Lazo, politics may be viewed in different ways:

Consensus
and
Compromise

Academics Society

Politics
Power and
Public affair distribution
of resources

Art of
government
In describing the characteristics of politics, two important things must be
emphasized:
1. All questions involve the making of a common decision for a group of
people is uniform decision applying in the same way to all members of the
group.
2. All involved the use of force by one person or a group of people to
affect the behaviour of another person or group of people.

Haque defines politics in four important points:

1. Politics is a collective activity.

2. Politics presumes an initial diversity of views.
3. Reconciliation of difference.
4. Authoritative Policy.
 Quiz #2

Answer the following:

1. What constitutes our sociality as human beings? (5points)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

1. Make a list, description, and explanation of cultural practices in your

community that may be considered as taboo or offensive. (5 points)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4. Definition of anthropology, political science, and sociology

Introduction
There are different ways of understanding social reality. These areas
of studies provide important ideas in analysing our society which is
essential in creating a productive society. Using anthropology, political
science, and sociology will give an overview on man’s early development.

 What is Anthropology?
Anthropology is the branch of knowledge which deals with the
scientific study of man, his works, his body, his behaviour and values, in
time and space.

 What is Political Science?

Political Science is a systematic study of a state and its government,
with the relationships of men in the community, with relations of men and
groups to the state itself, and with the relations of a state with other
sovereign states abroad.

IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Knowledge Based- It provides the students the knowledge and
understanding of a government, with all its component curricula like public
law, political theory, public administration, political philosophy, and political
dynamics.
 Competence Based- Inculcates the objectives and underlying
principles of the state that should be abided by the officials and its citizens.
 Skills Based- Prepares the students for future career path, be it in
legal profession, government services, politics, teaching, and many more.

 What is Sociology?
Sociology is the scientific study of patterned, shared human behavior.
It analyses human interaction which is essential in understanding man’s
cultural make-up.
 Quiz # 3

Direction: Identify the following

________ 1. It is the scientific study of patterned, shared human behaviour.

________2. The branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific study
of man, his works, his body, his behaviour and values, in time and space.

________3. It is the scientific study of the state and politics which deals
with the nature, principles, and mechanics of rule, authority, power, and
influence.

________4. It provides the learner the wisdom and understanding of a

government.

_________5. It prepares the learners the future career path, to the legal
profession, government services, politics, teaching, and many more.

Essay: Explain your answer.

Why do we need to understand the idea of culture, society, and politics?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
 B. Defining Culture and Society from the perspectives of
anthropology and sociology

1. Society as a group of people sharing a common culture

 Society as a Concept
 Society as a Facticity

 What makes society possible: Three theoretical perspectives

Structural functionalism and social order
Conflict theory and conflict
Symbolic interaction and meaning making

2. Culture as a Concept

 Society
Society refers to a group of people sharing common culture within a
defined territorial boundary. Thus, every society is unique in terms of
culture.

 What is Culture?

Culture According to E.B. Taylor:

Culture is the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morale, laws, custom, and any other capabilities and habits as acquired by
man as a member of society. Therefore, culture is:

1. A product of human interaction.

2. A social heritage that is complex and socially transmitted.
3. Provides socially acceptable patterns for meeting biological and
social needs.
4. A distinguish factor.
5. An established pattern of behavior.
6. Cumulative.
7. Meaningful to human beings.
 KINDS OF CULTURE

Culture is composed of material and non-material elements. Material

culture consists of tangible things whereas nonmaterial elements consist of
intangible things.

Material Culture Non- material Culture

Technological Tools Ideas

Architectural Structures Language and Symbols

Fashion and Accessories Religion

Food Behavior, gesture and Habits

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

 Symbol-A symbol is anything that is used to stand for something

else. People who share a culture often attach a specific meaning to an
object, gesture, sound, or image.

 Norms- are culturally defined expectations of behaviour. They

guidelines we use to determine how we should behave in any given
situation and what would be considered inappropriate behaviour.

2 TYPES OF NORMS
 Formal Norms- also called Mores and Laws refers to the standards
of behaviour considered the most important in any society.

 Informal Norms- also called Folkways and Customs refers to

standards of behaviour that are considered less important but still influence
how we behave.
 Social Norms- These are established expectations of society as to
how a person is supposed to act depending on the requirements of the
time, place, or situation.

 Values-culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable.

 Artifacts-material objects that constitute a society’s material culture.

 Knowledge- It refers to any information received and perceived to be

true.

 Beliefs- The perception of accepted reality.

 Attitude- is a mental position with regard to a fact or state or a

feeling or emotion toward a fact or state.
 Quiz # 4

Direction: Write the word True if the statement is correct and False if it is
not.
_____1. Society is a group of people sharing a common culture with a
defined territorial boundaries.
_____2. Folkways is a composite or multifarious areas that comprise
beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols,
knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member
of society.
_____3. Non-material culture is consists of tangible things used by a man
in his everyday life.
_____4. Culture is the patterns of repetitive behavior which becomes
habitual and conventional part of living.
_____5. Mores is the set of ethical standards and moral obligations as
dictates of reason that distinguishes human acts as right or wrong or good
from bad,

Essay: Explain your answer.

Why culture is important in our society? (5points)

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
 2. Aspect of Culture

E.B. Taylor, an English anthropologist, was the first to coin the term
‘culture’ in the eighteenth century. The study of society is incomplete
without proper understanding of the culture of that society because culture
and society go together.

1. Dynamic, flexible, and adaptive

2. Shared and contested
3. Learned through, socialization or enculturation
4. Patterned social interactions
5. Integrated and at times unstable
6. Transmitted through socialization
7. Requires language and other forms of communication

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. Culture is social because it is the product of behavior.

2. Culture varies from society to society.
3. Culture is shared.
4. Culture is learned.
5. Culture is transmitted among members of society.
6. Culture is continuous and cumulative
7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic

FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

1. Culture defines situations

2. Culture defines attitudes, values and goals.
3. Culture defines myths, legends, and the supernatural.
4. Culture provides behavior patterns.
 3. Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

 What is Ethnocentrism?
The word ethno comes from the Greeks and it refers to a people, nation, or
cultural grouping. Centric, on the other hand, comes from Latin and refers
to the “center.” The term ethnocentrism then refers to the tendency to each
society to place its own culture patterns at the center of things.
Ethnocentrism is the practice of comparing other cultural practices with
those of one’s own and automatically finding those cultural practices to be
inferior.

Functions of Ethnocentrism
The functions of ethnocentrism in maintaining order are more apparent
than those which promote social change.
1. Ethnocentrism encourages the solidarity of a group.
2. Ethnocentrism hinders the understanding or the cooperation between
groups.
3. Conflict of course often leads to social change.

 What is Cultural Relativism?

Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are
dependent on their cultural context and should be treated as such.

Xenocentrism and Xenophobia

Xenocentrism- refers to a preference for the foreign.

Xenophobia- is the fear of what is perceived as foreign or strange.

 Quiz # 5

Enumeration: Give the following:

Characteristics of Culture

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Definition of terms (6 points)

1. Ethnocentrism-

2. Cultural Relativism-
C. Looking back at Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

1. Biological and cultural evolution:from homo habilis

to Homo sapiens sapiens

Introduction

The origins of modern humans can be explained by studying the biological,

social, and cultural evolution. Biological evolution explains the physical
transformation of modern humans from hominids into thinking modern
humans or Homo sapiens sapiens.

Fossils refer to the human, plant, and animal remains that have been
preserved through time like human or animal teeth, skull and bone
fragments.

Artifacts refer to objects that were made and used by humans.

Hominid is the general term used by scientists to categorize the group of

early humans and other humanlike creatures that can walk erect during the
prehistoric times.

 Homo Habilis- Species with a brain of a Broca’s area which is

associated with speech in modern humans and was the first to make stone
tools. The ability to make and use tools is a unique quality to humans such
that the species is recognized to be the first true human. The species name
means “Handy Man”. Lived about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago scavenging
for food.
 Homo rudolfensis- Species characterized by a longer face, larger
molar and premolar teeth, and having a larger braincase compared to
habilis particularly larger frontal lobes, areas of the brain that processes
information. The species lived about 1.9 ton 1.8 million years ago.
 Homo erectus- The species name means “Upright Man” with body
proportions similar to that of modern humans. Lived 1.89 to 143, 000 years
ago; adapted to hot climates and mostly used spread in Africa and Asia.
They were the first hunters with improvised tools such as axes and knives,
and were the first to produce fire.
 Homo Heidelbergenesis- Species with larger brow ridge and short
wide bodies that lived about 700, 000 to 200, 000 years ago in Europe and
Africa. They were the first of early human species to live in colder climates,
first to hunt large animals on routine basis using spears, and first to
construct human shelters.
 Homo Floresiensis- Species nicknamed “Hobbit” due to their small
structure with a height of more or less 3 feet and lived 95,000 to 17 000
years ago in the island of Flores, Indonesia along with other dwarfed
animal species.
 Homo sapiens- The species name means “Wise Man” that appeared
from 200 000 years ago. The present human race belongs to this species.
 Homo sapiens neanderthanlensis- Subspieces with short yet
stocky in body build adapted to winter climates especially in icy cold places
in Europe and Asia. The subspecies also known as “Neanderthal man, is
the closet relative of modern humans. The first to practice burial of their
dead, hunting and gathering food, and sewing clothes from animal skin
using bone needles. They were lived about 200, 000 to 28, 000 years ago.
 Homo sapiens sapiens- Subspecies known as Cro-Magnon
characterized to be anatomically modern humans and lived in the last Ice
Age of Europe from 40, 000 to 10,000 years ago. They were the first to
produce art in cave paintings and crafting decorated tools and accessories.
 Quiz # 6
Directions: Fill-up the table with correct information

Evolution of Man
Species Characteristics

Homo Habilis

Homo Erectus

Homo Sapiens

Homo Sapiens Sapiens

 2. Cultural and Socio-political Evolution
Introduction

As societies respond to the threats and challenges posed by the

environment, they develop culture. The development of culture through
time, called as cultural evolution, led to the transformation of different
societies and political systems, a process called socio-political evolution.
Sociopolitical evolution happens when societies develop new forms of
economic subsistence, acquire knowledge, and apply new technology.

a. The Neolithic Revolution

Hunting and Gathering

Hunting and Gathering societies produce simple forms of tools used to hunt
for animals and gather plants and vegetation for food.

Agricultural Societies and the Neolithic Revolution

Agricultural societies began 5,000 years ago during the Neolithic Period. By
7000 BCE, Neolithic people produced cultivation tools and developed
farming skills that can support and sustain a town with a population of over
a thousand people.

Industrial Societies
During the industrial Revolution, new sources of energy were harnessed,
advanced forms of technology were applied, and machineries were
invented. Industrialization produced a number of changes in society. During
this time, people left their farm lands and transferred to the urban areas to
work in factories.

Post-Industrial Societies
The Post-Industrial Revolution is an important development from the
Industrial Revolution as economic production focused on the use and
application of new information technology rather than factories.
According to Bell, post-industrial societies are characterized by the
following:
1. Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service
2. A significant increase in the number of professional and technical
employment and a decline in the number of skilled and semiskilled workers.
3. Education as the basis of social mobility
4. Human capital as an essential aspect of understanding the strength
of society.
5. Application of “intellectual technology” which is based on the
application of mathematics and linguistics and the use of algorithms and
software programming models
6. Focus on communication infrastructure
7. Knowledge as source of invention and innovation

MAN’S CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Cultural Period Time Frame Cultural Development

Palaeolithic Age (Old Traditionally coincided>> Use of simple
Stone Age) with the first evidencepebble tools.
of tool construction and
>> Learned to live in
use by Homosome 2.5 caves
million years ago >> Discovered the use
of fire
>> Developed small
sculptures; and
monumental painting,
incised designs, and
reliefs on the walls of
caves.
>> “Food-collecting
cultures”
Neolithic Age (New Occurred sometime >> Stone tools were
Stone Age) about 10,000 BCE shaped by polishing or
grinding.
>> Settlement in
permanent villages
>> Dependence on
domesticated plants or
animals.
 >> Appearance of such
crafts as pottery and
weaving
>> “Food-producing
cultures”
b. Early Civilization and the rise of the State
The development of the early civilization showed the political evolution of
society. A civilization develops because of a society’s highly advanced
level of culture, social organization, political developments, judicial
system, arts, and other forms of culture at a particular time.

The Four major civilizations in the world flourished along the rich river
plains or river valleys.

1. Sumerian civilization that developed along the Tigris and Euphrates

River in West Asia;
2. Indus Valley civilization that started along the Indus River Valley in
India;
3. Shang Civilization of China that developed near the Huang Ho/Huang
He River;
4. Egyptian Civilization that started along the Nile River.

Characteristics of Four Civilizations

1. Developed and highly advanced cities
2. Well-defined city centers
3. Complex and systematic institutions
4. Organized and centralized system of government
5. Formalized and complex form of religion
6. Job specialization
7. Development of social classes
8. Implementation of large-scale public works and infrastructure like
defense walls, monuments, temples, mausoleums, government
edifices, trading centers, and markets
9. Sophisticated and detailed forms of arts and architecture
10. Advanced technology
11. System of writing and recording
Political leaders of early civilizations were also tasked to do the following:

1. Craft laws
2. Implement laws
3. Impose justice and punishment
4. Collect taxes
5. Sometimes act as religious leaders as well

c. Democratization
Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime. It
also refers to substantive political changes moving in a democratic
direction. It may be the transition from an authoritarian regime to a full
democracy, a transition from an authoritarian political system to a semi-
democracy or transition from a semi-authoritarian political system to a
democratic political system.
 Quiz # 7

Directions: Fill-up the table with correct information

Man’s Cultural Evolution

Cultural Period Cultural Development

Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age

 D. BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY

1. Enculturation and Socialization

 What is Socialization?

Socialization is a continuing process whereby an individual acquires a

personal identity and learns the norms, values, behaviour, and social skills
appropriate to his and her social position.

Socialization can be described form two points of view: objectively and

subjectively.

 Objective Socialization- It refers to the society acting upon the child.

 Subjective Socialization- The process by which society transmits its
culture form one generation to the next and adapts the individual to the
accepted and approved ways of organized social life.

a. Identity Formation
Identity formation is the development of an individual’s distinct personality,
which is regarded as a persisting entity in a particular stage of life by which
a person is recognized or known.

 Personality and Role Development- It is through the process of

socialization that we develop our sense of identity and belongingness.
 Skills Development and Training- The much-needed social skills
such as communication, interpersonal, and occupational are developed.
 Values Formation- Individuals are influenced or engulfed by the
prevailing values of social groups and society.
 Social Integration and Adjustment- The socialization process
allows us to fit-in an organized way of life by being accustomed including
cultural setting.
 Social Control and Stability- Integration to society binds individuals
to the control mechanisms set forth by society’s norms with regard to
acceptable social relationships and social behavior.
 What is Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which people learn the requirements of their
surrounding culture and acquire the values and behaviors appropriate or
necessary in the culture.

b. Norms and Values

Norms is a rule that guides the behavior of members of society or group.

Normal is the act of abiding by these rules.

Normative refers to beliefs that are expressed as directives or value

judgements.

 Forms of Social Norms

 Folkways- These are the customary patterns that specify what is
socially correct and proper in everyday life or they are the repetitive or the
typical habits and patterns of expected bahavior followed within a group of
community.
 Mores- They define what is morally right and morally wrong or these
are folkways with ethical and moral significance which are strongly held
and emphasized.
 Laws- These are norms that are enforced formally by a special
political organization and Component of culture that regulates and control
the people’s behavior and conduct.

Values are general conceptions of “the good’, ideas about the kind of ends
that people should pursue throughout their lives and throughout the many
different activities in which they engage.

c. Statuses and Roles

Status and role are important concepts in socialization because the
behavior of young members of society are controlled by assigning them
certain status which they will enact. Status is part of our social identity and
helps define our relationship with others.

Status simply as a ‘position’ in a social system, such as a child or parent.

Status refers to a social position that a person holds.
Social Statuses- refers to the position an individual occupies in society
and implies an array of rights and duties.

 SOCIAL STATUSES CLASSIFIED INTO TWO

 Ascribed Statuses

-Those which are assigned to the individual from birth.

- It involves little personal choice like age and sex

- It carries with it certain expectations of behavior

 Achieved Statuses
- It is acquired by choice, merit, or individual effort
- It is made possible through special abilities or talents, performance or
opportunities
- Choice in occupation, marriage, joining a religious organization are
examples.
 Quiz # 8

Direction: Identify the following

______1. It is a continuing process whereby an individual acquires a
personal identity and learns the norms, values, behavior, and social skills
appropriate his or her social position.
______2. It is through his process of socialization that we develop our
sense of identity and belongingness.
______3. These are the customary patterns that specify what is socially
correct and proper in everyday life.
______4. It defines what is morally right and morally wrong.
______5. These are norms that are enforced formally by a special
organization.
______6. It refers to the position an individual occupies in society and
implies an array of rights and duties.
______7. It refers to the society acting upon the child.
______8. It is made possible through special abilities or talents,
performance or opportunities.
______9. Individuals are influenced or engulfed by the prevailing values of
social groups and society.
______10. is the development of an individual’s distinct personality, which
is regarded as a persisting entity in a particular stage of life by which a
person is recognized or known.
 2. Compormity and Deviance

Conformity and deviance are twin process that flow from the enculturation
and socialtization processes.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONFOMITY

1. Compliance- This occurs when an individual accepts influence
because he hopes to achieve a favourable reaction from another
person or group.
2. Internalization- This occurs when individual accepts influence because
the content of the induced behavior-the ideas and actions of which it is
composed- is intrinsically rewarding.
3. Identification-This occurs “when an individual accepts influence
because he wants to establish or maintain a satisfying self-defining
relationship to another person or group”.
4. Ingratiational-This is when a person conforms to impress or gain
favour/acceptance from other people.

Deviance makes sense within the context of cultural norms, how they
change over time, how they are enforced, and the likehood of events when
those norms are challenged or violated

a. Social Control
Social Control refers to the efforts of a group or society to regulate the
behavior of its members in conformity with established norms..

b. Forms of deviance
Conformist- are people who believe in both the established cultural goals,
of society, as well as the normative means of attaining those goals.
a. Conformity- It involves accepting both the cultural goal of success
and the use of legitimate means for achieving that goal.
b. Innovation- This response involves accepting the goal of success
but rejecting the use of socially accepted means of achieving it,
turning instead to unconventional, illegitimate means.
 c. Ritualists- are individuals who do not believe in the established
cultural goals of society, but they do believe in and abide by the
means for attaining those goals.
d. Retreatism- This means withdrawal from society, caring neither
about success nor about working.
e. Rebellion- This occurs when people reject and attempt to change
both the goals and the means approved by society.
Innovators- are those individuals that accept the cultural goals of society
but reject the conventional methods of attaining those goals.
Retreatists- are individuals who reject both the cultural goals and the
accepted means of attaining those goals.
Rebels- are not only reject both the established cultural goals and the
accepted means of attaining those goals, but they substitle new goals and
new means of attaining these goals.
 Quiz # 9

Direction: Modified true or false: write true if the statement is correct and
change the underlined word if the statement is incorrect.

______1. A conformist utilizes positive success goad and legitimate

means.

______2. Innovation involves accepting the goal of success but rejecting

the use of socially accepted means to achieve it.

______3. Retreatists are people who deemphasize or reject the importance

of success one they realize they will never achieve it and instead
concentrate on enforcing rules.

______4. Rebellion means withdrawal from society, wanting neither

success nor work.

______5. Social control refers to the efforts of a group or society to

regulate the behavior of its members.

______6. Social control is intended to motivate people to obey social

expectations.

______7. Ridicule, ostracism, and rejection are examples of informal

sanctions.

______8. The criminal justice system is the most important and visible
institution of social control.

______9. Natural rights are rights inherent to man and given to him by God
as human being.

______10. The right to receive a minimum wage is an example of

economic rights.
 3. Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common

The pursuance of the common good should not be a cause for the violation
of the rights of individuals. It is in this context that the United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) becomes a vital document.

 Preamble
 Article 1- all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights.
 Article 2- Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth
in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race,
colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status.
 Article 3- Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
 Article 4- No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and
the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
 Article 5- No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment.
 Article 6- Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a
person before the law.
 Article 7- All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal
protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration
and against any incitement to such discrimination
 Article 8- Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the
competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights
granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9- No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention, or
exile.
 Article 10- Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public
hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination
of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
  Article 11
1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed
innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he
has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
2. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offense on account of any act or
omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or
international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier
penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the
penal offence was committed.
 Article 12- No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
privacy, family, home or correspondence, or to attacks upon his
honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the
law against such interference or attacks.
 Article 13
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the
borders of each state.
2. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to
return to his country.
 Article 14
1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum
from persecution.
2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely
arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes
and principles of the United Nations.
 Article 15
1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right
to change his nationality.
 Article 16
1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality
or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are
entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its
dissolution.
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the
intending spouses.
3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is
entitled to protection by society and the State.
 Article 17
1. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association
with others.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
 Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this
right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either
alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his
religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
 Article 19- Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and
expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers.
 Article 20
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
 Article 21
1. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country,
directly or through freely chosen representatives.
2. Everyone has the right to equal access to public service in his country.
3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government;
this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall
be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by
equivalent free voting procedures.
 Article 22- Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social
security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and
international co-operation and in accordance with the organization
and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural
rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his
personality.
 Article 23
1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favourable conditions to work and to protection against unemployment.
2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal
work.
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration
ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity,
and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
4. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection
of his interests.
 Article 24- Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including
reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
 Article 25
1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and
well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing
and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security
in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age
or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All
children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social
protection.
 Article 26
1. Everyone has the right to education.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human
fundamental freedoms.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind education that shall be
given to their children.
 Article 27
1. Everyone has the right to participate freely in the cultural life of the
community, to enjoy the arts and share in scientific advancement and its
benefits.
2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material
interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of
which he is the author.
 Article 28- Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in
which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully
realized.
  Article 29
1. Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full
development of his personality is possible.
2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only
to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of
securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of
others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and
the general welfare in a democratic society.
3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the
purpose and principles of the United Nations.
 Article 30- Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying
for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to
perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and
freedoms set forth herein.
 Quiz # 10

Essay: Explain your answer.

How do we protect our human rights? What are the important

responsibilities that we need to perform or play to contribute in the
development of our country? (8 points)

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
 E. How is Society is organized

Introduction

How do you spend your time from the moment you wake up in the morning
until the time you sleep in the evening? How much time do you spend each
day with yourself alone? How about with your family, and with your friends?
Maybe you spend a little time with your family before attending your class.
In school you meet your classmates. After school you may join in different
school club meeting and activities. Perhaps you work by yourself doing
your assignments in a very short time. You join your family for dinner and
watch television or go to a classmate’s house to finish a school project.
Most of us spend a big part of our waking hours in the presence of other
people—in groups.

 What is a Group?
A group could be very small, such as a girl and a boy talking to each other.
A group is constituted by two or more persons who interact together and
are together physically.

1. Groups within a society: The Primary Group and the

Secondary Group

 Primary Group- Primary group relationship, the total personality of

the human being is taken into account. Primary group are characterized by
intimate face to face association and cooperation and it also consist of
small face to face structure such as the family and friendship groups where
personalities fuse into a common whole. Primary group are so-called
because they are the initial groups that a person joins and they provide him
or her with experiences in social relations.
 Secondary Group- This relationship involves a reaction to only a
part of the individual’s personality. Secondary groups tend to impose
patterns of conformity on their members.
2. In-Groups and Out-Groups

Groups may be classified as in-group and out-group when taking into

consideration the individual’s sense of belongingness in a group. These
two groups are not actually groups but a variety of relationships that exist in
the mind as a person who learns to use the pronouns “we” referring to the
in-group and “they” referring to the out-group.

 In-Group- Is the group with which the individual identifies and which
gives him a sense of belonging, solidarity, camaraderie, esprit de corps,
and protective attitude toward the other members.
 Out-Group- is generally viewed as the outsiders by the in-group. Any
member of the in-group has insufficient contact with the members of the
out-group.

3. Reference group- refers to the groups that are significant to us as

models even though we ourselves may not be a part of the group.
4. Networks/Stereotypes- Out groups are generally perceived in terms of
sterotypes. A sterotypes is a group-shared image of another group or
category of people. Streotypes can be positive, negative or a
combination of both.
 Quiz # 11

Direction: Differentiate the following social groups according to their

importance

Social Group
1. Secondary group ________________________________
________________________________

2. In-group ________________________________
________________________________

3. Out-group ________________________________
________________________________

4. Reference Group ________________________________

________________________________
 F. Cultural, social and political institutions

1. Kinship, Marriage and the Household

Kinship
Kinship is a social institution that refers to relations formed between
members of society.

a. Kinship by Blood

What is the family?

The family is the basic social institution and the primary group in society.
Families carry from culture to culture.

Descent and Marriage

Descent refers to the origin or background of a person in terms of family or
nationality.
 Unilineal- society is one in which the descent of an individual is
reckoned either from the mother’s or the father’s line of descent.
 Matrilineal- individuals belong to their mother’s descent group.
Matrilineal descent includes the mother’s brother, who in some societies
may pass along inheritance to the sister’s children or succession to a
sister’s son.
 Patrilineal- individuals belong to their father’s descent group.
 Bilineal- is a system of family lineage in which the relatives on the
mother's side and father's side are equally important for emotional ties or
for transfer of property or wealth.

Marriage- is an institution consisting of a cluster of mores and folkways, of

attitudes, ideas, and ideals of social definitions and legal restrictions.
Marriage is an important element of family institution.
b. Kinship Marriage
Affinal kinship or kinship based on marriage refers to the type of relations
developed when a marriage occurs.

Marriage Across Cultures

Different societies have different sets of cultural practices, norms, and rules
pertaining to marriage. Cultures across societies have developed traditions,
customs, rules, and norms that determine how marriage will be done.

Endogamy and Exogamy

 Endogamy or Compulsory Marriage, in their own village, community,
ethnic, social, or religious group.
 Exogamy or out-marriage refers to a marriage custom where an
individual is required by society’s norms and rules to marry outside of their
own group, community, or social classes.

Forms of Marriage
The forms of marriage practiced in a society affects the structure of the
family’s larger kinship group. The accepted form may be either
monogamous and polygamous.
 Monogamy- allows or permits a man to take only one spouse at a
time.
 Polygamy- is form of plural marriage and can assume three forms:
polygyny, polyandry, and group marriage.
 Polygyny- is the marriage of one man to two or more women
at the same time.
 Polyandry- is the marriage of a woman to two or more men at
the same time.
 Group Marriage-Group marriage (a form of polyfidelity) is a
marriage-like arrangement between more than two people. Usually
consisting of three to seven adults, all partners live together, share
finances, children, and household responsibilities.
 Post-martial Residency Rules
 1. Patrilocal rule of residence occurs when married
couples stay in the house of the husband’s relatives or
near the husband’s kin.
2. Matrilocal rule of residence happens when the couples
live with the wife’s relatives or near the wife’s kin.
3. Biolocal residence happens when the newlywed
couple stay with the husband’s relatives and the wife’s
kin alternately.
 Referred Marriage
Matchmakers help their single friends or relative to find their
possible husband or wife by referring him or her to another man or
woman who is also interested in finding a life partner.

c. Kinship by ritual (compadrazgo)

Compadrazgo, literally translated as “godparenthood,” is a ritualized form of
forcing co-parenthood or family. Through the compadrazgo set-up, a
relationship between the child’s biological parents, their children, and
persons close to the parents but bot related by blood become a family.

d. Family and the household

 Nuclear family- is a type of family that is made up of a group of
people who are united by social ties and is usually made up of two adults
and their socially recognized children.
 Extended family- is a type of family whose members go beyond the
nuclear family made up of parents and their offspring.

Two types of family structures corresponding to the nuclear and

extended families.
1. The conjugal family which is made up of the spouses and their
underage children whose ties to relatives are voluntary and based on
emotional bonds;
2. The consanguine family which consists of the nuclear family and their
relatives who are living together under one roof.
 Reconstituted Families- is a family unit where one or both parents
have children from a previous relationship, but they have combined to form
a new family. The parents may or may not then have children with each
other.

e. Politics of kinship

 Political dynasty- generally refer to families whose members are

involved in politics.
 Political Alliance- referred to as political coalition or political bloc, is
an agreement for cooperation between different political parties on
common political agenda, often for purpose of contesting an election.
 Quiz # 11

Direction: Choose the answer from the answer from the terms inside the
box below and write it in the space provided.

__________1. It allows or permits a man to take only one spouse at a time.

__________2. It is the rule of residence happens when the couples live

with the wife’s relatives or near the wife’s kin.

__________3. It is an institution consisting of a cluster of mores and

folkways, of attitudes, ideas, and ideals of social definitions and legal
restrictions. Marriage is an important element of family institution.
__________4. It is a descent of an individual is reckoned either from the
mother’s or the father’s line of descent.
__________5. It is the basic social institution and the primary group in
society.
__________6.it is refers to the families whose members are involved in
politics.
__________7. It is a marriage custom where an individual is required by
society’s norms and rules to marry outside of their own group, community,
or social classes.
__________8. It refers to a marriage which is the type of relations
developed when a marriage occurs.
__________9. This is a family unit where one or both parents have children
from a previous relationship, but they have combined to form a new family.

__________10. It is the rule of residence occurs when married couples

stay in the house of the husband’s relatives or near the husband’s kin.

Biolocal Political dynasty Monogamy

Marriage Exogamy Unilineal

Affinal Kinships Patrilocal

Matrilocal Reconstituted Families Family

 2. Political and Leadership Structures

Introduction
Human beings are considered social animals. Being such, they
have a natural tendency to join groups. However, considering that
individuals have different interest, the tendency towards conflict is as
natural as the tendency to join social groups.

a. Political Organization
The government or the political institution is another institution that is
universal. Political institution is defined as the system of norms, values, and
roles responsible for maintaining social order in the society. The following
are the aspects in maintain social order.

1. Creating formal norms- it is the political institution that has created

formal norms or laws that guide our behavior. There are three types of laws
depending on their origins, namely:
a. Constitutional laws- These are formalized norms that emerge in the
constitution, the written plan of any government. The constitution describes
the broad duties of the government as well as the right and responsibilities
of every citizen.
b. Statutory laws- these are laws that have been enacted by a
legislative body of the government like Congress and City Councils. A
curfew hour for minor is an example.
c. Common laws-these are unwritten laws built over a centuries on
local custom and precedent, and further developed by judicial decisions.
The law originated from judicial branch of government but not from the
legislative branch. Common laws become “common” or part of the tradition
of a country, They are not permanent; they change depending on the new
judicial interpretations.
2. Applying sanctions-It is the responsibility of a political institution to
apply sanction to those who fail to follow or obey certain norms.
3. Settling disputes among individuals- it is also one of the duties of
political institution.
4. Settling disputes between nations- Political institution tries to
resolve disputes between nations as well.

i. Bands
A band is usually a very small, oftentimes nomadic group that is connected
by family ties and is politically independent. Moving from place to place,
usually in search of food, bands are most often made up of hunter-gathers.
ii. Tribes
A tribe is a somewhat more complex than a band. As the population size
increases with a shift in subsistence pattern from foraging to horticulture or
pastoralism, kinship ties and friendship are no longer sufficient to hold
society together.
iii. Chiefdoms
Chiefdoms are similar to bands and tribes in being mostly classless
societies. However, chiefdoms differ in having a more or less permanent,
fulltime leader with real authority to make major decisions for their
societies.

Chiefdoms can either be simple or complex

Simple chiefdom is characterized by a central village or community ruled
by a single family.
Complex chiefdom is composed of several simple chiefdoms ruled by a
single paramount chief residing in a single paramount center.
iv. States and Nations
States is a political unit consisting of a government that has sovereignty
presiding over a group of people and a well-defined territory and is thus the
highest form of political organization.
Nation
Being historically constituted and having a common sense of identification
among its members, as well as the consciousness of having the potential to
be autonomous, nevertheless do not possess political sovereignty.
 Quiz # 12

1. Discuss the differentiate band, tribe, and chiefdom. (8points)

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
b. Authority and Legitimacy

Authority Types
i. Traditional authority- is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The
ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity.
ii. Charismatic authority- is found in a leader whose mission and
vision inspire others. It is based upon the perceived extraordinary
characteristics of an individual.
iii. Legal-rational authority- is empowered by a formalistic belief in the
content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality).

Legitimization
Legitimacy is the popular acceptance of an authority, usually a governing
law or a regime. Whereas “authority” denotes a specific position in an
established government, the term “legitimacy” denotes a system of
government. Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for
governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock (s)
and collapse.

Types of Legitimacy
Legitimacy is a “value whereby something or someone is recognized and
accepted as right and proper”.
Traditional Legitimacy- derives from societal customs and habits that
emphasized the history of the authority of tradition.
Charismatic Legitimacy- derives from the ideas and personal charisma of
the leader, a person whose authoritative persona charms and
psychologically dominates the people of the society to agreement with the
government’s regime and rule.
Rational-legal legitimacy- derives from a system of institutional
procedure, where government institutions establish and enforce law and
order in the public interest.
 Quiz # 12

A list of the Powerful

Direction: Identify somebody in your community that possesses the
following types of authority. Try to offer an explanation for each case.

Traditional authority Charismatic Authority Rational Legal Authority

Description of the person Description of the person Description of the person
 3. Economic Institutions

An economic Institution provides the distribution of goods and services to

the members of the society. In societies with a recognized economic
system, five parts are essentials for the economic system to function
accurately.

a. Reciprocity (Cultural Anthropology)

In cultural anthropology, reciprocity refers to the non-market exchange of
goods or labor ranging from direct barter (immediate exchange) to forms of
gift exchange where a return is eventually expected (delayed exchange) as
in the exchange of birthday gifts.

b. Transfer
A change of ownership of an asset or a movement of funds and/or assets
from one account to another is called transfer. Transfer may involve an
exchange of funds when it involves a change in ownership, such as when
Gian investor sells a real state holding.

c. Redistribution (Cultural Anthropology)

In cultural anthropology and sociology, redistribution refers to a system of
economic exchange involving the centralized collection of goods from
members of a group followed by the distribution of those goods among
those members. It is a form of reciprocity.

d. Market Transactions
The exchange of goods and services through a market is called market
transaction. The set of market transactions taking place in the economy is
most important in terms of measuring gross domestic product (GDP).

e. Markets and States

An actual or nominal place where forces of demand and supply operate,
and where buyers and sellers interact (directly or through intermediaries) to
trade goods, services, or contracts or instruments, for money or barter is
called a market. Markets include mechanism or means for:
1. Communicating the price information,
2. Determining price of the traded item,
3. Facilitating deals and transactions, and
4. Effecting distribution.
The market for a particular item is made up of existing and potential
customers who need it and have the ability and willingness to pay for it.

State
State is an organized political community living under a single system of
government.
 Quiz # 13

Essay: Discuss the following:

Does economy affect on the economic development of one country? How?
Explain. (8pints)
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
 4. Non-state Institutions

Introduction

The private sector, as well as other non-state actors, perform roles that
complement the state and of markets.

a. Banks and Corporations

Banks are places or institutions where people place or deposit their money
or savings with corresponding interest on a given period of time and , or
assets for safekeeping.

Banks play an important role as an intermediary, or go-between, in the

financial system. There are three main functions of banks:
1. Banks are depository of savings.
2. Banks are largely responsible for the payments system.
3. Banks issue loans to both people and companies.

A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a

single entity (legally a person) and recognized as such in law.

Corporations come in many different types but are usually divided by the
law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered into two kinds:
1. Whether or not they can issue stock.
2. Whether or not they are for profit.

b. Cooperatives and Trade Unions

A cooperative is a legal entity owned and democratically controlled by its

members. Members often have a close association with the enterprise as
producers or consumers its products or services, or as its employees.
Cooperatives play a critical role in building community wealth for several
key reasons:
1. They often provide quality goods and services to areas that have been
shunned by traditional business because they are deemed less profitable
markets.
2. They typically invest in local communities.
3. Since most cooperative members are local residents, business profits
remain and circulate within the community.
4. Cooperative membership builds social networks and strengthens social
cohesion which are essential elements of strong, healthy communities,
by connecting diverse community residents.
5. Purchasing cooperatives, in particular, help small, local businesses
remain competitive within markets dominated by large, national retailers.
6. Worker cooperatives, in particular, create quality, empowering jobs for
community members.
7. Cooperatives are typically are typically based on the cooperative values
of “self-help, self- responsibility, democracy and equality, equity and
solidarity” and the seven cooperative principles:
1. Voluntary and open membership
2. Democratic member control
3. Economic participation by members
4. Autonomy and independence
5. Education, training and information
6. Cooperation among cooperatives
7. Concern for community

Trade Unions is an organization whose membership consists of workers

and union leaders, united to protect and promote their common interests. A
trade union may be:
1. A company union that represents interests of only one company and may
not have any connection with other unions.
2. A general union that represents workers form several companies in the
same industry. This is also called industrial union.
3. A craft union that represents skilled workers in a particular field such as
carpentry or welding.
The principal purposes of a labor union are to:
1. Negotiate wages and working condition terms,
2. Regulate relations between workers (its members) and the employer,
3. Take collective action to enforce the terms of collective bargaining,
4. Raise new demands on behalf of its members, and
5. Help settle their grievances.

c. Transnational Advocacy Groups

Transnational advocacy groups/networks are fluid and open
relationships among knowledgeable, committed actors
(individuals and organizations).

Importance of Transnational Advocacy Groups

The fact that advocacy groups are networks does not make them
unique. Many other networks of individuals and organization exist and have
a great deal of influence on international law and policy: bankers,
accountants, government agency officials, judges, attorneys- and the list go
on.
What makes transnational advocacy networks so important is their
advocacy. They campaign on behalf of principled causes, sets of values
and ideas, vulnerable constituencies or environments.

Major participants of Transnational advocacy Groups

1. National and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
2. Local social movements
3. Foundations
4. The media
5. Religious organizations, trade unions and consumer organizations
6. Intellectuals and scholars
7. Agencies within international and regional intergovernmental
organizations
8. Parts of executive or parliamentary branches of governments.

d. Development Agencies
A development agency is an organization committed/dedicated to
distributing aid. Aid can be subdivided into two categories: humanitarian
aid (emergency relief efforts, e.g. in response to natural disasters), and
development aid (or foreign aid), aimed at helping countries to achieve
long-term sustainable economic growth, with the aim of achieving poverty
reduction.

e. International Organization
An international organization is an organization with an international
membership, scope, or presence. There are two main types:

International Non-governmental Organizations (INGOs): non-

governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally. These
include international non-profit organizations and worldwide companies
such as the World Organization of the Scout Movement, international
Committee of the Red Cross and Medicines sans Frontiers
Intergovernmental organizations, also known as International
Governmental Organizations (IGO’s): the type of organization most
closely associated with the term ‘international organization’, these are
organizations that are made up primarily of sovereign states.
 Quiz # 14

Direction: Discuss the pros and cons of free trade. What are the institutions
that should be strengthened and improved in order for the Philippines and
its industries to benefit more from free trade? Explain your answer.
____________________________________________________________
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 5. Education
The primary function of educational institution is the socialization of children
and the new members of the society. There are numerous aspects to the
socialization process.

a. Functions of education in a society:

1. Giving training in specific skills or the basic general education literacy
2. Prepare people for occupational roles
3. Preserving the culture from one generation to the next
4. Encouraging democratic participation by teaching verbal skills
5. Developing the person’s ability to think rationally and independently
6. Enriching life by enabling the student to expand his/her intellectual and
aesthetic horizons
7. Improving personal adjustment through personal counselling and such
courses as applied psychology, sex education, family living and drug
abuse.
8. Improving the health of the nation’s youth by providing physical exercise
and courses in hygiene.
9. Producing patriotic citizens through lessons illustrating the country’s glory
10. Building character.

 Formal Education
Formal Education refers to the systematic and deliberate process of
hierarchically structured and sequential learning corresponding to the
general concept of elementary and secondary level of schooling.

 Non-formal Education
Non-formal education refers to any organized systematic educational
activity carried outside of the framework of the formal system to provide
selected types of learning to a segment of the population.

 Special Education
Special Education refers to the education of persons who are physically,
mentally, emotionally, socially or culturally different form so called “normal”
individuals, such that they require modification of school practices to
develop their potential.
 i. Productive citizenry
Productive citizenry refers to the idea that a citizen by him/herself must
create the environment and opportunities to become productive. It is based
on the logic that a productive citizen contributes to the overall betterment of
the community.

ii. Self-actualization
Self-actualization refers to the desire for self-fulfilment, namely, to the
tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially.

Maslow listed several characteristics of a self-actualized people:

 Acceptance and Realism.
 Problem-centering
 Spontaneity
 Autonomy and Solitude
 Continued Freshness of Appreciation.

iii. Primary education as a human right

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the
right to education. Education has to be free and compulsory at least in the
primary leve, whereas higher education should be made available on the
basis of merit. Technical and vocational education should also be generally
available.

Statement of UNESCO:

Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all
other human rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and
yields important development benefits. Yet millions and children and adults
remain deprived of educational opportunities, many as a result of poverty.

Normative instruments of the United Nations and UNESCO lay down

international legal obligations for the right to education. These instruments
promote and develop the right of every person to enjoy access to education
of good quality, without discrimination or exclusion. These instruments bear
witness to the great importance that Member States and the international
community attach to normative action for realizing the right to education. It
is for governments to fulfil their obligations both legal and political in regard
to providing education for all of good quality and to implement and monitor
more effectively education strategies.

Education is a powerful tool by which economically and socially

marginalized adults and children can lift themselves out of poverty and
participate fully as citizens.
 Quiz # 15

1. Being a student how can you become a productive citizenry? (8

points)

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____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

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 1. Religion and Belief Systems
Religion is a social institution that answers questions and explains the
seemingly, inexplicable. Religion provides explanations for why things
happen and demystifies the ideas of birth and death. Religions based on
the belief in a single deity are monotheistic. Those that encompass may
deities are polytheistic.

a. Animism
Animism refers to the belief in innumerable spiritual beings concerned with
human affairs and capable of helping or harming human interests.
Animistic beliefs were first competently surveyed by Sir Edward Burnet
Tylor in his work Primitive Culture (1871), to whom is owned the continued
currency of the term. While none of the major world religions is animistic
(though they may contain animistic elements), most other religions-e.g.,
those of tribal peoples-are. For this reason, an ethnographic understanding
of animism, based on field studies of tribal peoples, is no less important
than a theoretical one, concerned with the nature or origin of religion. The
belief that all objects have spirits is animistic.

b. Polytheism
Polytheism is belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. The word
comes from the Greek words poly+theoi, literally “many gods.” Most
ancient religions were polytheistic, holding to pantheons of traditional
deities, often accumulated over centuries of cultural interchange and
experience. Present-day polytheistic religions include Hinduism, Shinto,
some forms of Wicca, Vodun, and Asatru.

c. Monotheism
Monotheism refers to the belief in the existence of one god, or in the
oneness of God; a such , it is distinguished from polytheism, the belief in
the existence of many gods, and from atheism, the belief that there is no
god. Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other
religions.
Monotheism and Polytheism are often thought of in rather simple terms-
e.g., as a merely numerical contrast between the one and the many. The
history of religions, however, indicates many phenomena and concepts that
should warn against oversimplification in this matter.

d. Institutionalized Religions
There are two forms of religion: Religion and the definition of it, and
institutionalized Religion. Religion is limitless and open, and
Institutionalized Religion is formed by a sect, meaning it is not limitless, and
it is closed. In summary: Religion is something that exists as time exists,
but when it is changed or tampered with separated and ripped in different
directions, it simply becomes an institution.

Most of the world subscribes to one of the following religions:

Christianity: The most widespread world religion, Christianity was derived
from Judaism. It is based on the belief that Jesus Christ is the son of God
and the redeemer of mankind. There are many different Christian
denominations.
Islam: Followers of Islam are called Muslims. Muslim believes that the true
word of God was revealed to the prophet Muhammad around 570 A.D.
God in Islam is the same god as the Christian and Judaic deity.
Five Pillars of Islamic Faith
1. Shahada-Islam’s profession of faith that there is only one God, Allah,
and Muhammed is his prophet.
2. Salat- Prayer done five times every day
3. Zakat-Almsgiving done by Muslims
4. Sawm- Fasting done by Muslims during the holy month of Ramadan
5. Hajj-Pilgrimage done by Muslims to the holy city of Mecca.

Judaism:.Judaism is a monotheistic religion that predates Christianity, built

on the belief that the Israelites are the “chosen people” of God.
Hinduism: Hinduism is the oldest major world religion, dominant in India.
Hindus do not worship a single person or deity but rather are guided by a
set of ancient cultural beliefs. They believe in the principle of karma, which
is the wisdom or health of one’s eternal soul. Karma can be strengthened
with good acts and harmed by bad acts. Hindus believe that karma plays a
role in reincarnation, a cycle of continuous rebirth through which, ideally,
the soul can achieve spiritual perfection. The state of a person’s karma
determines in what form he or she will be reborn.
Buddhism: Buddhists, most of whom live in Japan, Thailand, Cambodia,
and Burma, Follow the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a spiritual
teacher of the sixth century B.C.E. Buddhism, like Hinduism, does not
feature any single all-powerful deity but teaches that by eschewing
materialism, one can transcend the “illusion” of life and achieve
enlightenment.

Four noble truths of Buddha:

1. Noble truth of suffering (dukkha)- Life is full of suffering and it is made up
of a cycle of birth, decay, illness, death.
2. Noble truth of the cause and origin of suffering- The ignorance of the
nature of reality creates desires, and suffering is caused by desire.
3. Noble truth of the cessation of suffering-Suffering can be eliminated by
removing desires.
4. Noble truth of the path to the cessation of the cause of suffering- To end
suffering, one must follow the Eight-Fold Path. It includes right
understanding/belief, right attitude of mind, right speech, right action and
behavior, right livelihood, right effort, right recollection/mindfulness, and
right meditation or concentration.

e. Separation of Church and State

The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines declares: “ The separation of
Church and State shall be inviolable.” (Article II, Section 6). “No law shall
be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof.
 Quiz # 16

Enumeration
Direction: Give the following:
Five Pillars of Islamic Faith
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

4 Noble truths of Buddha

1.
2.
3.
4.

Essay:
Being a student are you agree or disagree that there is a separation of
power in state and church? Why? Expalin.
 2. Health

Bughat (ilonggo term) or Binat (Tagalog version) is the term used to refer to
the ailments (headache, chills, body pains, malaise, dizziness, muscle
weakness, and in some it is blindness) a mother experiences after giving
birth or after having suffered abortion or miscarriage if she did not follow
certain rituals after childbirth.

The list of prohibited activities include:

1. Drinking cold water
2. Eating coconut or other coconut-based viand like ginataan
3. Going up and down the stairs.
4. Getting a manicure or pedicure
5. Go hungry or miss meals
6. Getting a manicure or pedicure
7. Taking a bath immediately after giving birth (must be 3-7 days later)
8. Taking a bath in cold water
9. Exposing one’s self to cold air
10. Opening one’s legs or crossing them Indian-style
11. Walking around
12. Reading a book
13. Sewing
14. Not taking a first bath with the 7-leaves concoction
15. Carrying heavy objects

a. Culture-Specific Syndromes and illnesses

Usog is a Filipino superstition that attributes an illness to the greeting
of a stranger. It is believed that young children are vulnerable to usog. If
after encountering a stranger, a child develops a fever, the stranger is
sought after and asked to touch lightly his or her saliva on the child’s
forehead, chest or abdomen.
Bales just like in bales , usog victims suffer like abdominal distress,
or abdominal distension, sometimes with severe nausea. These conditions
are attributed to a certain word or comment like: “You look pretty today.”
“What a beautiful child!” Immediately the word “Puwerausog!” is used as an
initial therapy and as a preventive word when usog is suspected to happen.
 Sometimes, usog is also attributed to the inhaling of “alimuom,” the
sulphuric odorous heat vapours coming from the surface of the earth, after
a rain. Some give attribution to a “bad wind” that emanates from someone
who is supernaturally endowed with such an ability to cause ill health
though verbal utterances.
Parents usually do some remedies at home, like applying warmed
wrap of mamin leaves, mixed with a little amount of coconut oil, to the
abdomen. Sometimes, coconut oil alone anointed on the abdomen or
forehead will do. Some may try a bulong or an orasyon, from a personal
treasury of collected prayers or through consultations with a local healer or
someone knowledgeable or more accessible in the immediate
neighbourhood. Some parents also try the help of nagtatawas who use a
candle in determining who caused the usog or bales.
Another is burning a clump of wet earth, preferably taken from the
“punso” ( a mound of earth believed to be habited by the “nuno”), place on
a half of a coconut shell, placed on a fire and heated to the point of embers.
The embered earth is then doused with water to create the cloud of smoke
which is made to engulf the patient. The use of the smoke is similar to that
in “suob”.

Failure of the verbal antidote and home therapies will warrant a visit to the
albularyo. The healer will often suggest a whole body application of “nga-
nga”( a chewable mixture of bunga [betel nut], apog, lilit leaves, and tabako
ng intsik) or use an “unton” ( A small pouch, usually about an inch square
and red, filled with any of a variety of materials, like: tree bark, sili leaves,
seeds, grain, Chinese tobacco, carabao horn, etc. that is pinned on the
shirt).

b. System of Diagnosis, Prevention and Healing

1. Traditional medicine
Complementary/alternative medicine (CAM). The terms “complementary
medicine” or “alternative medicine” are often used interchangeably with
traditional medicine in some countries. They refer to a broad set of health
care practices that are not part of that country’s own tradition and are not
integrated into the dominant health care system.
2. Herbal medicines
Herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and
finished herbal products that contain as active ingredients parts of plants,
or other plant materials, or combinations of plant materials.
Herbs are crude plant materials such as leaves, flowers, fruit, seed , stems,
wood, bark, roots, rhizomes or other plant parts, which may be entire,
fragmented or powdered.
3. Traditional use of herbal medicines
Traditional use of herbal medicines refers to the long historical use of these
medicines. Their use is well established and widely acknowledged to be
safe and effective and may be accepted by national authorities.
4. Therapeutic activity
Therapeutic activity refers to the successful prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of physical and mental illnesses; improvement of symptoms of
illnesses; as well as beneficial alternation or regulation of the physical and
mental status of the body.
5. Active ingredient
Active ingredient refers to ingredients of herbal medicines with therapeutic
activity. In herbal medicines where the active ingredients have been
identified, the preparation of these medicines should be standardized to
contain a defined amount of the active ingredients, if adequate analytical
methods are available. In cases where it is not possible to identify the
active ingredients, the whole herbal medicine maybe considered as one
active ingredient.

c. Health as a human Right

All individuals have the right to health. This right implies an economic,
social, and cultural right to a universal minimum standard of health. The
right to health is cited in international agreements which includes the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities
 The human right to health care means that hospitals, clinics, medicines,
and doctors’ services must be accessible, available, acceptable, and of
good quality for everyone, on an equitable basis, where and when needed.
The design of a health care system must be guided by the following key
human rights standards:

Universal Access: Access to health care must be universal, guaranteed

for all on an equitable basis. Health care must be affordable and
comprehensive for everyone, and physically accessible where and when
needed.
Availability: Adequate health care infrastructure like hospitals, community
health facilities, trained health care professionals; goods like drugs and
equipment; and services like primary care and mental health must be
available in all geographical areas and to all communities.
Acceptability and Dignity: Health care institutions and providers must
respect dignity, provide culturally appropriate care, be responsive to needs
based on gender, age, culture, language, and different ways of life and
abilities. They must respect medical ethics and protect confidentiality.
Quality: All health care must be medically appropriate and of good, quality,
guided by quality standards and control mechanisms, and provided in a
timely, safe, and patient-centered manner.

The human right to health also entails the following procedural principles,
which apply to all human rights:

Non-Discrimination. Health care must be accessible and provided without

discrimination (in intent or effect) based on health status, race, ethnicity,
age, sex, sexuality, disability, language, religion, national origin, income, or
social status.
Transparency. Health information must be easily accessible for everyone,
enabling people to protect their health and claim quality health services.
Institutions that organize, finance or deliver health care must operate in a
transparent way. The health care system must be open with regard to
information, decision-making, and management.
Participation. Individuals and communities must be able to take an active
role in decision that affect their health, including in the organization and
implementation of health care services. The health care system must
enable meaningful public participation in all decisions affecting people’s
right to health.
Accountability. Private companies and public agencies must be held
accountable for protecting the right to health care through enforceable
standards, regulations, and independent compliance monitoring. The health
care system must be accountable to the people it serves.
Healthcare. Is a human right campaign in several U.S States, inspired by
the example of Vermont, which in 2011 became the first state to pass a law
for a universal, publicly financed health care system. All of these
campaigns have translated the human rights standards listed above into
clear human rights principles that guide their actions and policy positions:

Universality: Everyone must have access to equal high—quality and

comprehensive health care.
Equity: Resources and services must be distributed and accessed
according to people’s needs. We get what we need and give what we can.
 Quiz # 17

Fill in the Blanks

Direction: Enumerate several illnesses diseases and place them under the
appropriate type of healer.

Illness/Disease Traditional Medical

 G. Social and Political Stratification

Introduction
Take a walk around and observe your neighborhood. You would
possibly become aware of the differences among the people. People vary
in the clothes they wear, the cars they drive, the houses they live in, the
friends they associate with, and the job they do. They also vary in wealth,
prestige, popularity, and many others.

a. Social Desirables
Any rational individual in a human community will always aspire for
things that bestow wealth, power, and prestige.
Differentiation is the method of relating people in terms of certain social
characteristics and then classifying them into social categories based on
these characteristics.

The layering of these social categories into higher and lower position of
prestige or respect is called social stratification

Social stratification is a society’s categorization of people into

socioeconomic strata, based on their occupation and income, wealth and
social status, or derived power (social and political).

Social stratification is distinguished as three social classes:

1. The upper class- consists of the elite families who are the most prolific
and successful in their respective areas. These are the groups of people
who are stockholders, investor, and who live in an exclusive neighborhood.

2. The middle class- these are mostly professional people like lawyers,
doctors, managers, owners of small businesses, executives etc.

3. The lower class- these are the office and clerical workers, skilled and
unskilled craftsman, farm employees, underemployed and indigent
families.
Status
The individual’s position in the social structure is called status. The higher
or lower position that come about through social stratification are called
statuses.

Ascribed and Achieved Statuses

Ascribed. Which are assigned or given by the society or group on the
basis of some fixed category, without regard to a person’s abilities or
performance.
Achieved statuses. Are earned by the individual.

Prestige and Esteem

Prestige- refers to the evaluation of status.
Esteem- refers to the assessment of our role behavior.

Causes of Social Stratification

Social Class is generally referred to as a number of people who are
grouped collectively because they have similar professional/ occupation
statuses, amount of prestige, or lifestyle.

b. Social Mobility System/ Structure

The act of moving from one social status to another is called Social
Mobility. Social Mobility makes the inequality of social class reasonable
and, in the point of view of some, even justifiable.

 Open class system-means that individuals can change their social

class position in the society. The degree of downward individual mobility is
one of the test of an open class society.

 Through “caste” and “closed-class system” are approximately the

same things, the concept of open and closed classes is more useful than
the concept of caste, because it can be used as a measure of the amount
of mobility in different societies.
 Types of Social Mobility
People may change their social class position either of two ways.
1. They can move from one position to another either of two ways.
2. They can move into another class.

Horizontal mobility is the movement of a person within a social class

level.
Vertical Mobility is the movement of the person between social class
levels. The movement may be upward or downward. In other words the
person may either rise or fall in the social class structure.

c. Social Inequality
The existence of uneven opportunities and rewards for a diverse social
position or statuses within a group or society is referred to as social
inequality. Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are
distributed unevenly, generally through norms of allocation, that bring about
specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons.

i. Access to social, political, and symbolic capital

1. Social capital-refers to the ability of a collective to act together to
pursue a common goal.
2. Political capital- refers to the trust, goodwill, and influence
possessed by a political actor, such as a politician, to mobilize
support toward a preferred policy outcome.
3. Symbolic capital-refers to the resources that one possesses which
is a function of honor, prestige or recognition, or any other trait that
one values within culture.

ii. Gender inequality

Gender inequality is the idea that women and men are not equal. Gender
inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals wholly or
partly due to their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed
gender roles.
Sex and Gender-based prejudice and discrimination, called sexism, are
major contributing factors to social inequality. Almost all societies have
some sexual division of labor.
Racial and Ethnic Inequality
Racial or ethnic inequality is the consequence of hierarchical social
distinctions between racial and ethnic categories within a society and are
often recognized based on characteristics such as skin color and other
physical characteristics or an individual’s place of origin or culture.

Minorities in the Social Structure

Members that have more power than other people in a society are called
the dominant members. Dominant members set the standards and
establish the values and norms of the society.
Discrimination and Prejudice
Minorities are being deprived of equal treatment and are kept in a lower
status by the dominant members of the society and the resistance of
equality is called discrimination. Discrimination is a damaging act, which
can take many forms.
Stereotyping
More often than not, prejudice involves stereotyping; which refers to our
propensity to picture all members of a particular category as having the
same qualities. Usually stereotyping is the result of overgeneralization.
Ethnocentrism
The belief that our own nation, race, or group is the best is called
ethnocentrism. The consequence is we suppose that other groups or
societies are inferior to our own.
Scapegoating
This is a situation when people encounter problems that they do not know
how to solve. Often they feel frustrated.
Racism
It is the thinking that one’s own race is superior and has the right to control
or direct others.
iii. Ethnic Minorities
It is the fact that in every society there are some people whose manner of
life departs from the principles of the society as a whole. When people
dwell in a society that does not share their cultural heritage, they are
labelled an ethnic minority. Ethnic minorities then, are people whose
cultural background differs from that of the dominant members of a society.

iv. Other Minorities

Women
Women constitute a majority of the population and of the electorate, but
they have never spoken with a unified voice for civil rights, nor have they
received the same degree of protection as racial and ethnic minorities.
Lesbians and Gay Men
Gay people, lesbians and gay men, are at the forefront of controversial civil
rights battles today. They have won civil rights in several areas but not in
others.
People with Disabilities
People with disabilities have sought and gained civil rights protections.
When society does not accommodate their differences, they view this as
discrimination.

How people Become Minorities

There are three basic ways in which minority definition develop according
to sociologists namely: migration, colonialism, and annexation.
1. Migration
When people move, or migrate, from one society to another, they are
commonly called minorities in the new society. Migration could be
voluntary, or it could be involuntary.
2. Colonialism
Some people become minorities in their own country, without ever leaving
their place of birth. This happens when people from another country
decides to settle in a new land and then take control, of the society.
3. Annexation
Citizens may turn out to be a minority when their country is joined, or
annexed, to another nation. Annexation could either be voluntary or
involuntary. Annexation usually happens after a war ends.
How minorities are treated
The existence of minorities in a society means that the dominant group of
people must deal with or treat in some other way.

1. Extermination
The most tremendous form of rejection by dominant members of a society
toward minorities is to kill or exterminate them. Extermination is the most
brutal of all the treatments of minority people.
2. Expulsion
Expulsion is less severe form of rejection, compared to extermination.
Expulsion is the elimination of the minority group from the dominant
society. Sometime minorities are expelled to an unused tract of land.
3. Segregation
In addition to being expelled from the society, the minority may be
segregated or isolated, in specific neighborhood. Segregation is the spatial
separation of the minority from the dominant members of the society.
4. Cultural pluralism
Another form of dominant-minority relationships is cultural pluralism.
Cultural pluralism is the acceptance and recognition of cultural differences
in subgroups among the residents, with no single subgroup dominating the
others.
5. Assimilation
Today many ethnic and racial minorities are looking to preserve some of
their cultural differences. This has not always been the case. At one point
in time it was hoped that people from all racial and ethnic backgrounds
would come together and blend into a “new” American culture.
6. Amalgamation
There are instances that assimilation leads to amalgamation.
Amalgamation is a blending through accepted intermarriage. Through this
process, the differences between dominant and minority members of
society disappear. All individuals have ancestors of various nationalities in
an amalgamated society.
v. Global Inequality
Inequality does not exist only in societies and states, but also among
states. There are states that are wealthier and more powerful than other
states, and the former end up being more influential in the global
community. This leads to a situation of global and influenced by the richer
and more powerful states.
 Quiz # 18

Venn Diagrams
Direction: Compares the three social classes in social stratification using
the Venn Diagram

Lower Class Middle Class Upper Class

 H. Cultural, Social, and political change

Introduction
We live in a changing environment. The challenges that we face as a
human community change over time, and our tools and techniques to
address these challenges change, too. Problems evolve and new problems
emerge.

1. Innovation
Innovation at first is a form of deviance. It refers to the use of new
techniques to achieve desired ends. When the goals of a society are
stressed more heavily than the strategies by which they are to be achieved,
members of the society tend to disregard moral or legal standards to reach
these goals. Instead, the individual acquires the cultural weight of the goals
without internalizing the norms governing the means by which they were to
be reached.

2. Diffusion
Diffusion is an important source of social change. Most of the social
changes between societies developed through diffusion. Diffusion refers to
transmission of cultural characteristics or traits from the common society to
all other societies. This criticizes the beliefs of the evolutionists. Quick
means of communication and transportation made possible an invention or
to diffuse a cultural element to another culture.

3. Acculturation and assimilation

Acculturation is a process where a minority adopts the cultural aspects of
the majority without losing its own traditions and customs.
Assimilation is a process wherein an individual loses all the awareness of
his previous group identity and culture and adopt the traditions and
attitudes of a new group where he is in.

4. Social Contradictions and tensions

Social contradictions are different from all others in nature because they
apply only to humans. They describe qualities specific to social and interest
groups, social classes, and human social structures.
The Antagonist Stage of Contradictions

 Ethnic Conflict
Ethnic Conflict is an armed conflict between different ethnic groups. It is
different from civil war which is a war between any organized groups within
the same state or country.

Theroies of Ethnic Conflict

1. Primordialist
Based on the primordialist accounts, ethnic conflict exists because there
are traditions of belief and action towards primordial objects such as
biological features and especially territorial location.

2. Instruments
This concept gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States
during the debate about white ethnic persistence in what was supposed to
have been an effective melting pot.

3. Constructivist
The constructivist view stresses the importance of the socially constructed
nature of ethnic groups, based from the concept of Benedict Anderson’s
imagined community.

Ethnic Conflict & post-Cold War

The end of the Cold War sparked two important questions about ethnic
conflict: is ethnic conflict on the rise? Given that some ethnic conflicts had
escalated into serious violence, what could scholars offer by way of
explanation?

4. Gender issues
Aside from ethnic conflict, gender issues also serve as a source of social
tension and contradictions. The issue on gender equality, also known as
sex equality, has been a hot topic in debates. Gender equality sexual
equality or equality of the genders, refers to the view that all genders,
including men and women, should receive equal treatment, and therefore
should not be discriminated against based on their gender.
 Quiz # 19

Direction: Give an example of the following and explain your answers on

the graphic organizer for your answer.

Example Explanation

a. Social change

b. Cultural change

c. Political change
I. New Challenges to Human Adaption and Social Change

Adaption refers a change or the process of change by which an organism

or species becomes better suited to its environment.

Human adaption
Humans like any other organisms and animals try to act more cautions if
changes in their environment are perceived to have a dangerous impact on
their welfare.
Adaption
Adaption refers a change or process of change by which an organism or
species becomes better suited to its environment.

1. Global Warming and Climate Change

Global warming and climate change are environmental realities that
have become a global concern. Increasing atmospheric temperatures
brought about by the increasing levels of carbon in atmosphere, mainly
resulting from carbon emissions from the industrialization process, not only
threaten the physical landscapes of the earth, but also more importantly, it
can severely disrupt the social, cultural and political lives of human
societies.

2. Transnational Migration and Overseas Filipino Workers

Aside from the human adaption to changes in the environment
brought by the unstoppable global warming and its after effect- climate
change- people on earth are also facing adaption challenges borne by the
need for mobility. Life has been moving so fast and peoples are well are
changing residences as rapidly.

Migration is defined as the process of geographic mobility, or the change

of residence of a person from one community to another with the intention
of settling temporarily or permanently.
Transnational Migration as “those persons who having migrated from one
relations that embed them in more than one nation-state.”

Overseas Filipino Worker is a person of Filipino origin who works and

lives outside of the Philippines. This term applies to Filipinos who are
abroad indefinitely as citizens or as permanent residents of a different
country and to those Filipino citizens, who are abroad for a limited, define
period as workers or as students.
 Quiz # 20

Converging Radial
Direction: Give examples of adaption

Adaption

Direction: Enumerate the causes and effects of global warming and climate
change

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 3. Responding to Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Introduction

Changes are inevitable. They bring a host of problems, and as members of

human communities, we are challenged to respond to these problems not
only individually but also collectively. As citizens of a state, there are
several ways by which we can actively respond to these changes. New
mechanisms brought about by social media and networks are available.
We can also actively participate in social movements.

1. Inclusive Citizenship

Citizenship is defined as the status of being a citizen of a particular place,

or the qualities that a person is expected to have as a responsible member
of a community. It is also the status of a person recognized under the law
as being a member of a country.

Media, which is the plural form of the word medium, refers to the collective
or different communication tools used to store and deliver variety of
information and data.

2. New Forms of Media

From media to mass media, to electronic media, and now to the so-called
new media. Indeed, technology not just changes our way of living; it also
widens our social circles through the media. The introduction of Facebook,
instragram, blogging, twitter and the likes has given us the opportunity to
meet old friends and even meet many new “friends”.

3. Social Movements
Social movement is a developing collective action of a significant portion of
members of a major social category. It consists of a collective behavior that
is ideologically inspired, idealistic, and action-oriented.

Materialist Nonmaterialist
Environmentalism Environmentalism
Environmentalism of Reaction against the Cultural shift to post-
Affluence increased adverse material “quality of
 impacts of life” values and
industrialization- increased
“effluents of appreciation for
affluence” natural amenties
Environmentalism of The Biocentric indigenous
Survival “environmentalism of religions
the poor”-Defense of
livelihoods and
communal access to
natural resources
threatened by the
state or the market.
Reaction against
environmental
degradation caused
by unequal exchange,
poverty, and
population growth

Feminism is a social movement that addresses the situation of women in

society. It is distinguished by their analyses of the “logic of domination.”
Liberal feminists believe that all humans possess the same nature and
that any unequal treatment of women denies this moral equality and is
therefore unjust.
Socialist feminists believe that a complex web of social relationships
underlies the oppression of women.
 Quiz # 21

Essay: Explain your answer.

1. Aside from women, who are the other members of the community that have
been denied of their rights and privileges as citizen of a country? (5 points)
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2. What do you imagine will happen in the future with these new media
around? (5 points)
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