Chapter 1

CONCEPT OF LITHOSPHERIC PLATES AND MICROPLATES

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF TECTONICS

Plate tectonics, which has so profoundly influenced geologic thinking since

the early 1970s, provides valuable insight into the mechanisms by which the Earth's

crust and mantle have evolved. Plate tectonics is a unifying model that attempts to

explain the origin of patterns of deformation in the crust, earthquake distribution,

continental drift, and mid-ocean ridges, as well as providing a mechanism for the

Earth to cool. Two major premises of plate tectonics are the outermost layer of the

Earth, known as the lithosphere, behaves as a strong, rigid substance resting on a

weaker region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere 2 the lithosphere is broken

into numerous segments or plates that are in motion with respect to one another and

are continually changing in shape and size.

The parental theory of plate tectonics, seafloor spreading, states that new

lithosphere is formed at ocean ridges and moves away from ridge axes with a motion

like that of a conveyor belt as new lithosphere fills in the resulting crack or rift. The

mosaic of plates, which range from 50 to over 200 km thick, are bounded by ocean

ridges, subduction zones (in part collisional boundaries), and transform faults

(boundaries along which plates slide past each other). To accommodate the newly-

created lithosphere, oceanic plates return to the mantle at subduction zones such that

the surface area of the Earth remains constant. Harry Hess is credited with proposing

the theory of seafloor spreading in a now classic paper finally published in 1962,

although the name was earlier suggested by Robert Dietz in 1961. The basic idea of

plate tectonics was proposed by Jason Morgan in 1968. Many scientists consider the

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widespread acceptance of the plate tectonic model as a 'revolution' in the Earth

Sciences. As pointed out by J. Tuzo Wilson in 1968, scientific disciplines tend to

evolve from a stage primarily of data gathering, characterized by transient hypotheses,

to a stage where a new unifying theory or theories are proposed that explain a great

deal of the accumulated data. Physics and chemistry underwent such revolutions

around the beginning of the twentieth century, whereas the Earth Sciences entered

such a revolution in the late 1960s. As with scientific revolutions in other fields, new

ideas and interpretations do not invalidate earlier observations. On the contrary, the

theories of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics offer for the first time unified

explanations for what, before, had seemed unrelated observations in the fields of

geology, paleontology, geochemistry, and geophysics. The origin and evolution of the

Earth's crust is a tantalizing question that has stimulated much speculation and debate

dating from the early part of the nineteenth century. Some of the first problems

recognized, such as how and when did the oceanic and continental crust form, remain

a matter of considerable controversy even today. Results from the Moon and other

planets indicate that the Earth's crust may be a unique feature in the Solar System.

The rapid accumulation of data in the fields of geophysics, geochemistry, and geology

since 1950 has added much to our understanding of the physical and chemical nature

of the Earth's crust and of the processes by which it evolved. Evidence favours a

source for the materials composing the crust from within the Earth. Partial melting of

the Earth's mantle produced magmas that moved to the surface and formed the crust.

The continental crust, being less dense than the underlying mantle, has risen

isostatically above sea level and hence is subjected to weathering and erosion. Eroded

materials are partly deposited on continental margins, and partly returned to the

mantle by subduction to be recycled and perhaps again become part of the crust at a

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later time. Specific processes by which the crust formed and evolved are not well-

known, but boundary conditions for crustal processes are constrained by an ever-

increasing data base. In this book, physical and chemical properties of the Earth are

described, and crustal origin and evolution are discussed in the light of mantle

dynamics and plate tectonics. Included also is a discussion of the origin of the

atmosphere, oceans, and life, which are all important facets of Earth history. Finally,

the uniqueness of the Earth is contrasted with the other planets.

1.2 CONCEPT OF LITHOPHERE & STRUCTURE OF EARTH

First of all we need to review what is known about the structure of planet

Earth. The internal structural of the Earth is revealed primarily by compressional (P-

wave) and shear (S-wave) waves that pass through the Earth in response to

earthquakes. Seismic-wave velocities vary with pressure (depth), temperature,

mineralogy, chemical composition, and degree of partial melting. Although the

overall features of seismic-wave velocity distributions have been known for some

time, refinement of data has been possible in the last ten years. Seismic wave

velocities and density increase rapidly in the region between 200 and 700 km deep.

Three first-order seismic discontinuities divide the Earth into crust, mantle and core

the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho, defining the base of the crust; the core-

mantle interface at 2900 km; and, at about 5200 km, the inner-core/outer-core

interface. The core comprises about sixteen per cent of the Earth by volume and

thirty-two per cent by mass. These discontinuities reflect changes in composition or

phase, or both. Smaller, but very important velocity changes at 50-200 km, 410 km,

and 660 km provide a basis for further subdivision of the mantle. The crust consists of

the region above the Moho, and ranges in thickness from about 3 km at some oceanic

ridges to about 70 km in collisional orogens. 2 The Lithosphere (50-300 km thick) is

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the strong outer layer of the Earth, including the crust that reacts too many stresses as

a brittle. The asthenosphere, extending from the base of the Iithosphere to the 660-km

discontinuity, is by comparison a weak layer that readily deforms by creep. A region

of low seismic-wave velocities and high attenuation of seismic-wave energy, the low-

velocity zone (LVZ), occurs at the top of the asthenosphere and is from 50-100 km

thick. Significant lateral variations in density and in seismic-wave velocities are

common at depths of less than 400 km. The upper mantle extends from the Moho to

the 660-km discontinuity, and includes the lower part of the Iithosphere and the upper

part of the asthenosphere. The region from the 4l0-km to the 660-km discontinuity is

known as the transition zone. These two discontinuities, are caused by two important

solid-state transformations: from olivine to wadsleyite at 410 km and from spinel to

perovskite + magnesiowustite at 660 km. The lower mantle extends from the 660-km

discontinuity to the 2900-km discontinuity at the core mantle boundary. For the most

part, it is characterized by rather constant increases in velocity and density in response

to increasing hydrostatic compression. Between 220-250 km above the core-mantle

interface a flattening of velocity and density gradients occurs, in a region known as

the D'' layer, named after the seismic wave used to define the layer. The lower mantle

is also referred to as the mesosphere, a region that is strong, but relatively passive in

terms of deformational processes. The outer core will not transmit S-waves and is

interpreted to be liquid. It extends from the 2900-km to the 5200-km discontinuity.

The inner core, which extends from 5200-km discontinuity to the centre of the Earth,

transmits S waves, although at very low velocities, suggesting that it is near the

melting point.

There are only two layers in the Earth with anomalously low seismic velocity

gradients: the LVZ at the base of the lithosphere and the D" layer just above the core.

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These layers coincide with very steep temperature gradients, and hence are thermal

boundary layers within the Earth. The LVZ is important in that plates are decoupled

from the mantle at this layer: plate tectonics could not exist without an LVZ. The D"

layer is important in that it may be the site at which mantle plumes are generated.

Considerable uncertainty exists regarding the temperature distribution in the Earth. It

is dependent upon such features of the Earth's history as: 1 the initial temperature

distribution 2 the amount of heat generated as a function of both depth and time 3 the

nature of mantle convection 4 the process of core formation. Most estimates of the

temperature distribution in the Earth are based on one of two approaches, or a

combination of both: models of the Earth's thermal history involving various

mechanisms for core formation, and models involving redistribution of radioactive

heat sources in the Earth by melting and convection processes. Estimates using

various models seem to converge on a temperature at the core-mantle interface of

about 4500 ± 500 °C and the Centre of the core 6700 to 7000 °C. Both show

significant gradients in temperature in the LVZ and the D" layer. The layered

convection model also shows a large temperature change near the 660-km

discontinuity, since this is the boundary between shallow and deep convection

systems in this model. The temperature distribution for whole-mantle convection,

which is preferred by most scientists, shows a rather smooth decrease from the top of

the D" layer to the LVZ.

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Fig 1.1. Model of the Earth where the various shells correspond to physical

discontinuities allowing them to slide past one another, similar to that between the

molten outer core and the inner core, whose differential rotation generates the Earth’s

magnetic field. The lithosphere behaves in an elastic manner, whereas the mantle

exhibits visco-elastic behaviour, giving it the ability to flow if subjected to stress over

a long period of time. The convective motions postulated for the mantle therefore take

place in the solid state. There are two large areas in the lower mantle which show

relatively low seismic velocities beneath the central Pacific and Africa.

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1.3 EVIDENCE OF RIGID LITHOSPHERE

Rigid lithosphere is taken to be a necessary pre-condition for plate tectonics.

Higher mantle temperatures on the early Earth lead to models of lithosphere that is

impregnated with magma and has reduced viscosity and rigidity, relative to the

present day. Hence it is a poor medium for stress transmission. Geologic evidence for

the existence of significant areas of rigid lithosphere on the early Earth is provided by

the stabilization of cratons, the accumulation of large sedimentary basins on subsiding

stable substrates, and evidence for brittle fracturing and emplacement into the cratons

by rectilinear dyke swarms. These geological features extend back to the

Mesoarchean, become more prevalent in the Neo archean and are widespread in the

Proterozoic.

Fig 1.2. Schematic stratigraphy of the crust and

continental and oceanic lithosphere.

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1.4 WHAT ARE MICROPLATES?

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped

slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.

Plate size can vary greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the

Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the largest. Plate thickness also varies greatly,

ranging from less than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about 200 km or more

for ancient continental lithosphere (for example, the interior parts of North and South

America).

How do these massive slabs of solid rock float despite their tremendous

weight? The answer lies in the composition of the rocks. Continental crust is

composed of granitic rocks which are made up of relatively lightweight minerals such

as quartz and feldspar. By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic rocks,

which are much denser and heavier. The variations in plate thickness are nature's way

of partly compensating for the imbalance in the weight and density of the two types

of crust. Because continental rocks are much lighter, the crust under the continents is

much thicker (as much as 100 km) whereas the crust under the oceans is generally

only about 5 km thick. Like icebergs, only the tips of which are visible above water,

continents have deep "roots" to support their elevations.

Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot be seen, because they

are hidden beneath the oceans. Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped

accurately from outer space by measurements from GEOSAT satellites. Earthquake

and volcanic activity is concentrated near these boundaries. Tectonic plates probably

developed very early in the Earth's 4.6-billion-year history, and they have been

drifting about on the surface ever since-like slow-moving bumper cars repeatedly

clustering together and then separating.

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 Like many features on the Earth's surface, plates change over time. Those

composed partly or entirely of oceanic lithosphere can sink under another plate,

usually a lighter, mostly continental plate, and eventually disappear completely. This

process is happening now off the coast of Oregon and Washington. The small Juan de

Fuca Plate, a remnant of the formerly much larger oceanic Farallon Plate, will

someday be entirely consumed as it continues to sink beneath the North American

Plate.

These four diagrams illustrate the shrinking of the formerly very large Farallon

Plate, as it was progressively consumed beneath the North American and Caribbean

Plates, leaving only the present-day Juan de Fuca, Rivera, and Cocos Plates as small

remnants. Large solid arrows show the present-day sense of relative movement

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between the Pacific and North American Plates. (Modified from USGS Professional

Paper 1515).

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 REFERENCES

Anderson D.L. (1989) Theory of the Earth, Boston (MA), Blackwell.

Bostrom R.C. (2000) Tectonic consequences of the Earth’s rotation, Oxford,

Oxford University Press.

Bott M.H.P. (1979) Subsidence mechanisms at passive continental margins,

«American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Memoir», 29, 8-19.

Merlini S. et al. (2000) On the seismic profile crop M5 in the Ionian Sea,

«Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana», 119, 227-236.

Müller R.D. et al. (1997) Digital isochrons of the world’s ocean floor, «Journal of

Geophysical Research», 102, 3211- 3214.

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