International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)

Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

Principal Characteristics of Thermoacoustic

Sound Generator and Refrigerator’s Application
Naoki Maruyama1, Yoshikatsu Iwasaki1, Mitsunori Saito1, Yujiro Kitaide1, Kouji Takiguchi2, Shin
Ishida2, Yuuhei Yamagami2, Toshiaki Tsuchiya2 and Masafumi Hirota1

pump system through a refrigerant. Nevertheless, a majority of

Abstract--The simplified thermoacoustic refrigerator and current refrigerants usually contain environmental impacts,
sound generator is introduced and the characteristics of this such as the greenhouse gas effect. The thermoacoustic
equipment are evaluated in this paper. A continuous oscillatory refrigerator and sound generator can be implied as an
sound in the resonance tube generated by a thermoacoustic engine environmentally-friendly refrigerator because its principal
was converted to cold heat using a thermoacoustic refrigerator. characteristic is that the refrigerant is unnecessary.
This concept involves a refrigerator without a refrigerant and
Accordingly, this kind of refrigerator will replace the
moving parts, which is different from the currently popular,
conventional refrigerant cycle. The performance of the conventional refrigerator, and become the forerunner of
thermoacoustic system is experimentally examined, and then modern refrigerator systems.
theoretically estimated based on the experimental results. The In order to enhance the performance and thermal efficiency
purpose of this study is to find an optimal system configuration of the thermoacoustic refrigerator with the sound generator,
and system condition to achieve a high-performance the behavior of acoustics inside the resonance tube should be
thermoacoustic refrigerator and sound generator. The theoretically and experimentally examined.
characteristics and performance of a thermoacoustic sound
generator and refrigerator are evaluated separately from the
The purpose of this study is to find an optimal system
experimental and theoretical point of view in this paper. configuration and adequate system condition to achieve a high
performance thermoacoustic refrigerator and sound generator.
Index Terms-- Resonance tube, Sound generator, Refrigerator, The characteristics of a thermoacoustic sound generator, called
Thermoacoustic a thermoacoustic engine, and refrigerator are individually
evaluated in this paper. Afterwards, the performance of the
I. NOMENCLATURE thermoacoustic system is theoretically examined based on the
f: Resonance frequency [Hz] experimental results.
I: Work intensity [W/m2]
L: Resonance tube length [m] III. THERMOACOUSTIC ENGINE AND REFRIGERATOR
p: Pressure amplitude [Pa] The thermoacoustic energy conversion system can convert
Qin: Heater input [W] the heat source to the acoustic sound, and then, the sound is
T: Temperature [deg-C]
transformed into cold heat [1]. Figure 1 shows a schematic
vs: Sound velocity [m/s]
layout of a loop-type thermoacoustic refrigerator with a
x: Distance [m]
thermoacoustic engine. A thermoacoustic engine consists of
λ: Wavelength [m]
working gas, a regenerator, heat exchangers and an acoustic
Subscripts resonance tube. One side of the regenerator, which is made of
c: Regenerator a ceramic honeycomb, is warmed by a heat source, such as
E: Engine waste heat, and the other side is cooled by a cooler, such as
R: Refrigerator ambient air. The working gas reaches a high-temperature
gradient inside the regenerator. When the temperature gradient
II. INTRODUCTION of the gas inside the regenerator reaches a critical value, the

T
he large temperature gradient of gas inside the thin tube
generates a thermoacoustic sound. On the other hand, the
thermoacoustic sound creates a temperature difference of gas
inside a thin tube. A thermoacoustic system signifies energy
conversion between heat and sound. Generally, a temperature
below room temperature is obtained from a refrigerator or heat
N. Maruyama, Y. Iwasaki, M. Saito, Y. Kitaide and M. Hirota are with
the Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Mie, 514-8507,
Japan (e-mail: maruyama.naoki@mie-u.ac.jp)
K. Takiguchi, S. Ishida, Y. Yamagami and T. Tsuchiya are with Fuji
electric Co., Ltd., Yokkaichi, Mie, 510-8631, Japan
gas in the thin ceramic tube produces an acoustic sound. Then,
the acoustic energy is propagated throughout the
thermoacoustic refrigerator. The resonance tube can transmit
the acoustic energy to the arbitrary point. However, the
wavelength of the acoustic sound is controlled by the
resonance tube length. Therefore, the tube length influences
the resonance frequency of the acoustic sound. The transmitted
sound causes a temperature gradient of the gas inside the
regenerator of a thermoacoustic refrigerator, and the acoustic
sound is converted into cold heat if the hot side of the
regenerator is cooled by ambient air. As a result, a high-
International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)
Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

temperature heat produces low-temperature heat using a loop discharge machine. As a result, each side of the regenerator
type of thermoacoustic system. The most important was heated and cooled by these cores, respectively. The
measurements in an acoustic device are the resonance tube regenerator was constructed of fine ceramic with thin ceramic
length and thin cell diameter of the ceramic honeycomb as a rectangular ducts, as shown in Fig. 2(c). The overall diameters
regenerator. of a regenerator were 39 mm and 35 mm in length. The
specifications of the regenerator employed in this experiment
Regenerator (ceramic honeycomb) are shown in Table I.
Thermoacoustic refrigerator
Cold heat Data logger TE3 FFT Power amplifier

Sound TE1 TE2 Regenerator

pE1 pE2 pE3 pE4 pE11
Heat exchanger Cooler Thermoacoustic engine
Acoustic energy Thermal energy

I34 Air Resonance tube

Thermoacoustic refrigerator Resonance tube Heat exchangers
Qin
55
155 505
C L
L H
Sound
xE
Working gas 0
Thermoacoustic engine
*Resonance tube: SUS304 (LE = 660 mm, od: 42.7 mm, id: 40.3 mm)
(a) Schematic diagram of a thermoacoustic engine

Regenerator (ceramic honeycomb)

Variable transformer Regenerator
Thermoacoustic engine
Tap water in Tap water in
Heat source
Micro sheath
Sound heater

Heat exchanger Cooler

Acoustic energy Thermal energy TE1 TE2

Fig. 1. Outline of loop-type thermoacoustic refrigerator with thermoacoustic

engine.

IV. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

Heat exchanger
Figure 2 shows an outline of the experimental apparatus Tap water out Tap water out
employed for the thermoacoustic engine in this study[2, 3]. (b) Details of thermoacoustic engine
The system consists of a thermoacoustic engine and resonance
tube, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The pressures of local sound were
measured by a semiconductor transducer (JTEKT, PD104K),
which was attached to the resonance tube. The detected sound
pressure was amplified by a power amplifier (JTEKT,
AA6210), and then the pressure profile was presented and
recorded by a FFT analyzer (Ono Sokki, DS3104). The
resonance frequency of this system depends on the resonance 39 mm
tube length. Eleven local pressures were measured in this
(c) Regenerator (Ceramic honeycomb. 900 cell/in2)
experiment. The typical temperatures of the regenerator’s
edges (TE1, TE2) with the ambient temperature (TE3) were Fig. 2. Experimental apparatus of thermoacoustic engine.
measured and recorded using K-type thermocouples and a data
logger (HIOKI, 8422-50), respectively.
TABLE I
Figure 2(b) shows details of a thermoacoustic engine. The SPECIFICATIONS OF REGENERATOR EMPLOYED IN THIS EXPERIMENT.
engine consisted of a hot and cold heat exchanger, between
which the regenerator was placed. The heating and cooling Material Fine ceramic
cores of these heat exchangers were made of brass. And the Cell density 900 cell/in2
heating core was twisted around by a micro sheath heater. On Wall thickness 2 mil
the other hand, tap water passed through the core, in order to Channel width 0.397 mm
cool a cooling core. These cores were cut using an electric Length 35 mm
International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)
Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

The temperature of the hot side of a regenerator was

Function generator Power amplifier
controlled by a voltage transformer. The acoustic intensity was
controlled by a temperature difference of each regenerator side, FFT (Personal computer)
that was controlled by a temperature gradient inside the Data logger Power amplifier
regenerator. Furthermore, an additional cooling device was TR1
pR1 pR2 pR3 TR2 pR18
attached behind the heating core in order to avoid heat
conduction through the resonance tube wall. Speaker
Figure 3 shows the schematic layout of the acoustic
refrigerator employed in this experiment[2, 4]. The system TR3 Resonance tube
consists of a sound source, regenerator and resonance tube.
Regenerator
The regenerator employed in this experiment was the same as LR
the fine ceramic tube employed for the thermoacoustic engine.
The regenerator was set inside the resonance tube, while the LR/20
position of the regenerator could be moved along the tube. xc
The sound source was supplied by a speaker which was xR
operated using a function generator (Agilent Technology, 0
33120A) with a power amplifier (EK Japan, PS-3246). The *Resonator: SUS304 (LR = 720mm, od: 42.7mm, id: 40.3mm)
function generator’s frequency was set as the resonance Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of a thermoacoustic refrigerator.
frequency of the tube, whereas the local pressure was
measured using a semiconductor transducer (JTEKT,
350
PD104K), which was attached to the resonance tube. The

Temperature TE (deg-C)
detected sound pressure was amplified by the power amplifier 300
Stack hot side temp. 331 deg-C
(JTEKT, AA6210), and then the pressure profile was 250
presented and recorded by a FFT analyzer (Ono Sokki,
200
DS3104) with a personal computer. An oscillating frequency,
150 156 deg-C
which is the resonance frequency of this system, depends on a
resonance tube length. The temperatures of the regenerator’s 100
Stack cold side temp. 62 deg-C
edges (TR1, TR2) with the bulk temperature (TR3) were measured 50 Room temp. 24 deg-C
and recorded using K-type thermocouples and a data logger
(HIOKI, 8422-50), respectively. 0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500
145 sec.
Time t (sec)
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(a) Progress of regenerator’s temperatures
A. Thermoacoustic engine
6.0
The temperature progress and local acoustic pressures
Pressure amplitude pE3 (kPa)

caused by a thermoacoustic engine along the resonance tube 4.0

were measured. Figure 4 shows a typical example of the 2.0
experimental results obtained by the thermoacoustic engine
employed in this experiment. The experimental conditions for 0.0
this result are shown in Table II. By choosing the empirical 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
-2.0
experimental condition, the heater input varied from 50 to 250
W, and was adjusted every 50 W steps. The resonance -4.0
frequency was f = 135 Hz, and it also depended on the
-6.0
resonance tube length. Thus, the resonance tube length should Time t (sec)
be set to around a 1/4 wave length.
A typical example of a regenerator’s temperature progress (b) Local pressure profiles of resonance tube (Position 3 in Fig. 2(a))
is shown in Fig. 4(a). In this case, the resonance began at 156
deg-C, and the hot side’s temperature increased gradually. The Fig. 4. Typical example of experimental results obtained from
thermoacoustic engine. (Qin = 150 W, 900 cell/in2, f = 135 Hz)
pressure amplitude increases when the temperature difference
between the hot and cold side increases. As a result, the hot TABLE II
temperature side became steady when it achieved 331 deg-C, EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR THE THERMOACOUSTIC ENGINE AND
and then, the pressure amplitude became steady. Figure 4(b) RESULTS.

shows a typical pressure amplitude after achieving the steady- Resonance tube length, LE 0.66 m
state condition at position 3, shown in Fig. 2(a). The sound Heater input for regenerator’s hot side 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 W
waves are rather steady inside the resonance tube. After that, Room temperature 24 deg-C
heat is converted into sound energy using the thermoacoustic Sound velocity, vs 346 m/s
Resonance frequency, f 135 Hz
engine.
Wave length, λ 2.56 m
International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)
Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

Figure 5 shows the local pressure amplitude in a resonance TABLE III

EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND RESULTS FOR THERMOACOUSTIC
tube for a heating quantity to the hot side of the regenerator.
REFRIGERATOR.
The pressure amplitude increased, as well as the heater input.
This means that the acoustic intensity increases when the Resonance tube length, LR 0.720 m
temperature gradient inside the regenerator increases. On the Channel radius of regenerator 0.397 mm (900 cell/in2)
other hand, the pressure amplitude decreases if the measuring Room temperature 21 deg-C
Resonance frequency, f 120 Hz 240 Hz
position is far from the regenerator.
Sound velocity, vs 345 m/s 345 m/s
The focus of this research was to develop a thermoacoustic
Wave length, λ 2.87 m 1.44 m
sound generator. Hence, the acoustic intensity was Gas temperature inside
theoretically estimated based on the experimental results, as 22 deg-C 22 deg-C
resonance tube, TR3
shown in Fig. 6. Here, a two-sensor method is applied to
estimate the acoustic intensity[5, 6]. The sound intensity, The temperature difference of each side of the regenerator is
which is work intensity, increased when the pressure amplitude shown in Fig. 7. The position of the regenerator in the tube is
increased. The estimated work intensity will be able to changed by LR/20 steps. After the steady-state condition is
estimate the efficiency of a thermoacoustic engine. achieved, the local temperature will be measured. The
6.0 maximum temperature difference, ∆TR = (TR1 − TR 2 ) , was
Qin (W) obtained at around xc/LR ≈ 0.20 for f = 120 Hz, or xc/LR ≈
Pressure amplitude pE3 (kPa)

5.0 250 0.20 and 0.80 for f = 240 Hz. For instance, the temperature
200
4.0 150
difference, which is the temperature gradient, reverses between
100 both edges of the tube when f = 240 Hz. This means both hot
3.0 and cold temperatures are obtained in this system by only
50
Regenerator

2.0 moving the position of the regenerator. However, the

maximum temperature difference decreases even if the
1.0 resonance frequency increases.
0.0
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
xE/LE
7.0
Fig. 5. Local pressure amplitude of resonance tube.
6.0

1,000 5.0
Work intensity I34 (W/m2)

4.0
Temperature difference

800
3.0
600 2.0
1.0
400
0.0
200 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
xc/LR
(a) f = 120 Hz
0
0 100 200 300 3.0
Heat input Qin (W)
2.0
Fig. 6 Work intensity (xE/LE = 0.159)
1.0
Temperature difference

B. Thermoacoustic refrigerator 0.0

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
The temperature difference between the edges of the -1.0
regenerator, which moved inside the resonance tube, was
-2.0
measured. The experimental conditions are shown in Table III.
The resonance tube length was LR = 0.720 m, and the -3.0
resonance frequency was estimated as multiples of 120 Hz. xc/LR
The experiment was conducted at f = 120 Hz and 240 Hz. If (b) f = 240 Hz
the frequency was set as 120 Hz, the resonance tube length Fig. 7. Local temperature difference at any xc/LR position of each regenerator’s
corresponded to a 1/4 wave length. On the other hand, it side.
corresponded to a 1/2 wavelength for 240 Hz. The temperature
difference of each side of the regenerator became higher if the
honeycomb density became high. Therefore, the results
obtained from the regenerator density of 900 cell/in2 with 35
mm length are shown.
International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)
Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

The temperature’s progress of each regenerator’s side is
shown in Fig. 8. TR1 and TR2 positions are shown in Fig. 3,
while TR3 is the bulk temperature of gas in the tube. The results
obtained from optimum position xc/LR = 0.20 and 0.80 are
exhibited in this paper. The temperature of each regenerator’s
side changed quickly since the experiment was begun. It can
be found that the gas temperature, TR3, was unstable, because
the molecular oscillation, which was close to the speaker,
influenced to heat generation. After a steady-state condition
was achieved, the temperature difference for this experimental
condition was obtained. The temperature difference, ∆TR , was
still steady, even though the local temperature and bulk
The experimentally obtained pressure amplitude profiles in
the resonance tube are shown in Fig. 9. In this case, the
regenerator was set at xc/LR = 0.20 and xc/LR = 0.80, where the
maximum temperature difference was obtained. The position
of the regenerator is also shown in this figure. The pressure
amplitude was gradually reduced when the XR increased, and
the pressure amplitude obtained for f = 240 Hz became
approximately half of the result for f = 120 Hz. There was no
effect on the pressure profiles of the regenerator’s existence.
1,000

Pressure amplitude pR (Pa)

temperatures fluctuated. 800

600
30.0
Edge temperature TR (deg-C)

Regenerator
TR1 400
25.0
TR3
20.0 200
TR2
15.0 0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
10.0 xR/LR

5.0

0.0
(a) f = 120 Hz, xc/LR = 0.20
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time t (sec)
Pressure amplitude pR (Pa) 500

(a) f = 120 Hz, xc/LR = 0.20 400

30.0
300
Edge temperature TR (deg-C)

25.0 TR1 Regenerator

200
20.0
TR3 TR2
100
15.0

10.0 0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
xR/LR
5.0

0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time t (sec) (b) f = 240 Hz, xc/LR = 0.20

(b) f = 240 Hz, xc/LR = 0.20 500

Pressure amplitude pR (Pa)

30.0 400
Edge temperature TR (deg-C)

25.0 TR2 300

20.0
TR1
Regenerator

TR3 200
15.0
100
10.0

5.0 0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
xR/LR
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time t (sec) (c) f = 240 Hz, xc/LR = 0.80

(c) f = 240 Hz, xc/LR = 0.80 Fig. 9. Experimentally obtained pressure amplitude inside the resonance tube.

Fig. 8. Progress of temperature difference of each regenerator’s side. The focus of this research is to develop an acoustic
refrigerator. Hence, the cooling performance is theoretically
International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)
Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

evaluated based on the acoustic intensity. Then, two-sensor

method is applied to estimate the acoustic characteristics[5, 6]. 500
Here, the pressure amplitude and work intensity are estimated Two-sensor method

Pressure amplitude pR (Pa)

based on the experimentally obtained results. For the 400 Experiment
estimation, local pressure amplitude, phase difference of these
300
pressures located side by side on the tube wall, the distance
between these pressures are obtained from the experiment.

Regenerator
200
Figure 10 shows the pressure amplitude and the work
intensity. The estimated pressure amplitude using two-sensor 100
method is in good agreement with the experimentally obtained
value. The work intensity dramatically changes between front 0
and back side of the regenerator. The work intensity close to 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
xR/LR
the edge of resonance tube has negative value. Moreover, it is (c) Pressure amplitude (xc/LR = 0.20, f = 240 Hz)
difficult to estimate work intensity with good accuracy,
20
because of the observed phase differences of sound contains

Work intensity I (W/m2)

very small values. However, these results show the energy 15
consumption at a regenerator. The estimated work intensity
will be available to estimate the efficiency of thermoacoustic 10
refrigerator.

Regenerator
5
Two-sensor method
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
-5
xR/LR
(d) Work intensity (xc/LR = 0.20, f = 240 Hz)
1,000
500
Pressure amplitude pR (Pa)

800
Two-sensor method
Pressure amplitude pR (Pa)

400 Experiment
600
300
Regenerator

400

Regenerator
200
200 Two-sensor method
Experiment 100
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0
xR/LR
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
(a) Pressure amplitude (xc/LR = 0.20, f = 120 Hz) xR/LR
(e) Pressure amplitude (xc/LR = 0.80, f = 240 Hz)
40
Work intensity I (W/m2)

20
30 Two-sensor method
Work intensity I (W/m2)

15
20
10
Regenerator

10
Regenerator

Two-sensor method 5
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 0
-10 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
xR/LR
-5
(b) Work intensity (xc/LR = 0.20, f = 120 Hz) xR/LR
(f) Work intensity (xc/LR = 0.80, f = 240 Hz)

Fig. 10. Pressure amplitude and work intensity.

International Conference and Utility Exhibition 2014 on Green Energy for Sustainable Development (ICUE 2014)
Jomtien Palm Beach Hotel and Resort, Pattaya City, Thailand, 19-21 March 2014

VI. CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of a
thermoacoustic refrigerator with a thermoacoustic engine. The
characteristics of the engine and refrigerator were
experimentally and theoretically evaluated. In the experiment,
the temperature progress, pressure amplitude and their phase
differences were measured. At the same time, work intensity
was theoretically estimated based on the experimental results
using the two-sensor method.
The performance of the thermoacoustic engine was
estimated for the input energy, and the optimum position of the
regenerator for an acoustic refrigerator inside a resonance tube
was proposed.
If the performance of a thermoacoustic engine and
refrigerator are combined, the generated thermoacoustic sound
may be useful as an energy source for the refrigerator. As a
result, a refrigerator without refrigerant may be created using
these configurations.

VII. REFERENCES
[1] G. W. Swift, “Thermoacoustic engines”, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 84,
No. 4, pp. 1145-1180, 1988.
[2] Y. Kitaide, N. Maruyama, Y. Iwasaki, M. Saito, K. Takiguchi, S.
Ishida, T. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamagami, M. Hirota, “Characteristics of
thermoacoustic sound generator and its application to refrigerator”, in
Proc. of 11th International Energy Conversion Engineering
Conference 2013, Paper No. AIAA 2013-3811, 2013.
[3] N. Maruyama, Y. Iwasaki, M. Saito, Y. Kitaide, K. Takiguchi, S.
Ishida, T. Tsuchiya, Y. Yamagami, M. Hirota, “Principal
characteristics of thermoacoustic sound generator”, in Proc. of
International Symposium on EcoTopia Science 2013, Paper No. P-3-
16, CD-ROM, 2013.
[4] N. Maruyama, Y. Iwasaki, M. Saito, Y. Kitaide, K. Takiguchi, S.
Ishida, T. Tsuchya, Y, Yamagami, M. Hirota, “Principal characteristics
of thermoacoustic refrigerator”, in Proc. of The Fifth International
Conference on Science, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable
Well-Being, Paper No. MME20, CD-ROM, 2013.
[5] A. M. Fusco, W. C. Ward and G. W. Swift, “Two-sensor power
measurement in lossy ducts”, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., Vol. 91, pp. 2229-
2235, 1992.
[6] T. Biwa, Y. Tashiro, H. Nomura, Y. Ueda and T Yazaki, “Acoustic
intensity measurement in a narrow duct by a two-sensor method”, Rev.
Sci. Instrum., Vol. 78, 086110, 2007.

VIII. BIOGRAPHY

Naoki Maruyama is an Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Mie

University, Japan. He obtained a BS and MS degree in Mechanical
Engineering from Mie University in 1986 and 1988, respectively, and earned
his Doctorate of Engineering at Nagoya University, Japan in 1998. He began
his career as a research associate at Mie University in 1988. His current
research interests include heat and flow visualization, two-phase flow, energy
conversion, environmental engineering and life-cycle assessment. Among
others, he is a member of the JSME (Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers),
AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics), ASME
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers), and HTSJ (Heat Transfer
Society of Japan).