Chapter-1: Metal Casting

Introduction:-Several different methods such as casting –moulding forming powder metallurgy and
machining are available to shape metals in to useful products.
One of the oldest processes is casting
Casting:- It is process in which molten liquid metal is allowed to solidify in a predefined mould cavity.
After the solidification by breaking the mould the component is taken. This is known as casting.
Steps:-

1) Mould box

2) Insert the pattern

3) Ramming the sand

After Ramming it is called mould.

4) Now rotate the mould

Pattern removed by the draw spike.

5) Now fill the liquid metal in cavity with help of gating system.

6) Solidification

a) At mould surface due to fast rate of colling, grain growth is not that much
b) As distance is Increasing from mould surface, rate of colling decrease and from the corse grain
structure
7) Breaking the mould
After solidification the casting can be taken out by breaking the mould.
From fig (a). we can observe the casting product properties change from cross section to cross section. It
can prevent by heat treatment process [Annealing]
Advantages:-1. Complex object can be produce easily.
2. Tool used in this are less expensive.
3. Any type of material can be casted easily [hard & soft etc].
4. Large size component can produce by casting only.
Ex: Large flywheels, Turbine busing and beds.
Limitations: 1. The casting components are not having uniform Mechanical properties throughout it
cross-section.
2. Surface finish of the casting component are very poor.
3. It is a laborious process and time consuming.
4. It is difficult to produce casting without any defects.

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Pattern: Pattern is the Replica of the object to be produced.
1. Pattern size is different from casting size
Pattern size = Casting size  Allowances
Allowances: 1. Shrinkage 2. Draft 3. Machining 4. Shake 5. Distortion
Shrinkage:

If we allow the liquid metal to solidify in the mould cavity, it will be contracting due to this size of
casting will be reduced when compared to actual size of the casting.
Contraction takes place due to the thermal co –efficient of expansion.
1. If the liquid metal will cool from pouring temperatures (tp) to freezing temperature (Tf).
The shrinkage is known as liquid shrinkage.
2. During the phase transformation process the amount of shrinkage is known as Solidification shrinkage.
3. Both liquid and solidification shrinkages are expressed in terms of % shrinkage volume of the casting.
4. This is compensated by providing riser.
5. If the metal cool from freezing temperature to ambient temperature (ta) the shrinkage is known as solid
shrinkage.
6. This is compensated by increasing the size of the pattern it is expressed as percentage over dimensions.
Invar =0  mm/moc Admiralty metal=23.5  m/0c
Note: Gray cast iron if cools from freezing temperature to Room temperature it will slightly expand due
to presence of carbon in the form of graphite flukes.
To compensate (or) overcome above problem, while design of pattern the size will reduce. It is
called as negative shrinkage allowances.
1. While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40mm undergoes 3%, 4% and 5% volume shrinkage
during the liquid state, phase transition and solid state, respectively, the volume of metal
compensated from the riser is
a) 2% b) 7% c) 8% d) 9%
Sol: - (B)
Volume compensated by risks = Liquid + Phase transition
= 3% +4 %
= 7%
2. A cubic casting of 50mm side undergoes volumetric solidification shrinkage and volume for
solid contraction of 4 % and 6%respectively no riser is used. Assume uniform cooling in all
direction. The side of cube after solidification and contraction is
Sol:- (A)
Cubic side =50mm
After 1st solidification shrinkage volume of cubic= 50  50  50  0.96
= 120000 mm3
nd
After 2 solid shrinkage volume of cube = 120000  0.94
= 112800 mm2
a3= 112800
a= 48.3173 mm
3. Gray cast iron blocks 200  100  10 mm are to be cast in sand moulds. Shrinkage allowance
for pattern is 1%. The ratio of the volume of pattern to that of the casting will be
a) 0.97 b) 0.99 c) 1.01 d) 1.03
Sol:- (a)

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Draft Allowance: Making the vertical surface of pattern into
inclined is called draft allowances. It is provided for easy
removal of pattern from mould.

1) Without providing the draft allowances during removal of pattern until the last point of pattern comes
out from mould there is a contact existing between the pattern and mould.
2) Any vibration taking places to the human hand during removal of pattern may cause damage to the
mould part.
3) To avoid this if the vertical surface of the pattern is made into inclined.
Note:- If pattern is made by using material like wax, mercury, polyethylene. No draft material need not
be provided.
Machining Allowances: The extra material provided on the pattern and it can be removed by machining
from casting, after casting process is completed.
1) It is provided because of the casting component will have poor surface finish but most of application
required good (or) excellent surface finish.
2) To get this good surface finish machining must be done on casting.

Shake Allowance: [Negative Allowance]

1) During the Ramming operation the moulding sand will be stick to surface of pattern material
due to adhesive property of the moulding sand.
2) If the pattern is removed from the mould without creating any clearance between pattern and mould.
The moulding sand will be disturbed from the surface of the mould.
3) To overcome this pattern will be shaking before removing from the mould due to this some clearance
is created between the pattern and mould wall.
4) But the size of cavity will be increased to overcome this by design of pattern size will be decreased it
is called negative allowance.
Distortion Allowance: Does not required on all the casting. But it is mainly required in casting of “U”
(or) “V” shaped castings.

1) Because of Existence of different shrinkage at different location, the shrinkage forces are
acting on the legs of U (or) V.
2) The leg will bend outwards producing inclined legs of casting this called distortion.
3) To overcome this leg of the pattern will be bend inwards by an amount equal to distortion
allowances.
Pattern Properties: 1. Should not absorb the moisture [when moisture is absorbed pattern will expand
so cavity Increases]
2. Low density
3. Good surface finish
4. Easiness in fabrication
5. Cheap
Types of pattern material:
1) Wood 2) Metal 3) Plastic 4) Wax 5) Mercury
Wood: 1) Wood patterns are lower density and easy to fabricate.
2) It is used for low production rate [up to 25 pieces] material = Teak.

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Metals:1) Metals are having higher density and difficult to fabricate.
2) It is used for high production rate.
3) Manufacturing of metal patterns using casting process again the wood patterns most
used.
Material = Aluminium, Brass, Titanium etc
Plastics: This possesses all good properties which are required for a pattern material. Hence plastic
pattern are most commonly used material industry today.
Ex: Epoxy resin [Thermosetting], PVC, Nylon etc
Wax: 1) If wax can be used as pattern material because of very high softness of wax; the complex shapes
of patterns can be produced very easily.
2) Wax pattern is removed in the form of liquid so complex shape of pattern can be removed easily.
Surface finish produced is excellent.
Ex: Turbine blades, gold and silver ornaments.
Mercury:
1) Mercury will be first cooled to temp of -70 to-80oc make the pattern. By using this pattern make the
mould.
2) This mould will be left in atmospheric conditions so that the temperature of mercury will be increasing
and becomes liquid.
3) It is used in case of manufacturing of very small casting with excellent surface finish without
machining.
Types of pattern:
1) Single piece:

If the casting is having simple shape and size without complex surfaces. We can select single piece
pattern.
2) Split piece pattern:

If the complexity of the pattern will be more it is difficult to remove the pattern from the mould as a
single pieces pattern. In this case pattern can be split into individual places along the symmetry. These
splits pieces can be removed from cope and Drag Boxes separately.
3) Loose piece pattern: The complexity of the pattern will be more and the pattern is having internal
projections. It is very difficult to remove the pattern from the mould.
In this case the projection in the pattern can be separated in the form of loose pieces and they can be
removed after removing the main part of the pattern.
4) Gated pattern:

This pattern will be used to produced small size castings in mass production number of small size
pattern along with gatting element will made as a singles pattern.
This can be removed from the mould as a single uniformly so that cavities will be form along with
gating element.
5) Sweep pattern: 3-dimensional mould cavities can be created by using 2-D plane pattern. By
sweeping 2-D plane pattern inside the mould. Therefore cavity will be formed.

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By using this we can say pattern material.
6) Skelton pattern:

To save material consume in preparing solid 3-D patterns this technique can be used. A-3-D Skelton is
produced using small size wooden work pieces.
Follow board pattern:

If the pattern is having overhanging portion due to Ramming force it may get distorted to support this
pattern follow board is use after preparing the mould in place of the following board provide core to get
required shape of the mould cavity.
1. The pattern adopted for those casting where there are some portion. Which are structurally
weak and are likely to break by force of ramming are called
a) Loose piece pattern b) Follow board pattern
c) Skeleton pattern d) Single piece pattern
Sol: (B) From above figure
2. Write the reasons which result the metal to shrink during solidification and cooling in metal
casting [2 marks]
Sol: 1) During solidification of metal, the density of the material changes due to cooling of the metal
in both liquid and solid state as well as due solid to liquid phase transformation itself.
2) During the cooling, molten metal experiences thermal contraction due to lowered temperature.
3. When there is no room temperature change the total shrinkage allowances on a pattern is
independent of
a) Pouring temp of the liquid metal b) Freezing temp of the liquid metal
c) Component size d) Co- efficient of thermal contraction of solidified metal
Sol: (A) Shrinkage = A(Tf  Ta )
 = co efficient of thermal contraction A= Area of material
Tf = Freezing temperature
To =Ambient temperature
Mould Making: Moulding sand will be used for manufacturing of the mould it consist of 3 Basic
elements
1) Silica sand particle [75-80%];
It is used to producing required strength of the mould.
2) Clay [15-20%]
It is used for producing bond between the sound particles.
3) Water (or) sodium silicate [6 % to 8%]
It is used for initiating the formation of bond between the sand particles using the clay.
Types of sands:
1) Green sand = silica sand+ clay +water
2) Dry sand = Silica sand + cloy +sodium silicate
3) Loam sand = 50% silica sand + 50% clay
It is generally used for producing large casting.
1. Green sand mould indication that
a) Polymeric mould has been cured b) Mould has been totally dried
c) Mould is green in color d) Mould contain moisture
Sol: (D) Green sand =Silica sand + clay +water
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Additives:
Additive [up to 2%] are to increase properties of moulding sand they are:
1) Saw dost (or) wood powder:
They are added to increase the porosity property of moulding sand and collapsibility of moulding
sand.
2) Coal powder:
It is used for increasing the refractoriness of the molding sand.
3) Starch: t is used for increasing resistances to deformation of moulding sand.
Properties of moulding sand:
1) Porosity property: The ability of escaping the air (or) gases through the molding sand is called
porosity property.
Porosity property of moulding sand is required for escaping air (or) gases present in casting cavity
during filling of molten metal in the cavity and avoiding the defect like below holes.
If air (or) gases present in cavity it will affect the strength of casted object.
Permeability test is used for determining the porosity property of
Moulding sand:

V.H
Permeability number = Pn 
P.A.T
V= Volume of the air passing through the specimen = 2000 cm3
H= Height of air passing through the specimen.
P= Gauge pressure of air (gm/cm2) = [10 gm/cm2=stand value]

A= Cross sectional area of the specimen = D2  cm 2
y
T= Time taken by air to pass through the specimen
50.128
Pn  = standard formulas
T
cm 4
Units =
gm  min
Factors affecting porosity of a moulding sand :
1) Grain size of silica sand particle: Higher the grain size, higher the porosity.
2) Percentage of clay sand: Higher the % of clay the porosity will be less it reduces the porosity
moulding sand. Because clay will fill gaps existing between the sand particle.
3) Ramming force: Higher the ramming force, lower the porosity property.
4) Adding saw dust and wood powder the porosity property can be improved.
5) Venting holes= Porosity can be Increased
2) Strength: The strength of moulding sand like tensile, compressive and shear can be determined by
UTM.
3) Cohesiveness property: Ability to form a bond between some material particles is called as
cohesiveness property. It is determined by UTM and name of test is inter laminar shear strength test.
4) Adhesiveness: Ability of Bond formation of sand particles with other materials
5) Refractoriness: Ability of withstanding higher temperature without losing it strength
and Hardness.
6) Collapsibility: Ability of breaking the mould with little amount of force application measured using
vibration mesh.

1) By leaving sand specimen over vibrator mesh and vibration is applied.

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2) By slowly increasing the vibration of mesh, it is possible to determine of what vibration mould can be
broken.
3) Based on this vibration, the force at which mould is breaking can be determined.
4) As force required for breaking mould is reducing collapsibility property of mould is increasing.
7) Flow ability: Ability of flowing of moulding sand into each and every corner of the mould is called
flow ability. It can be measured using orifice meter.
 Effect of water (or) moisture content on strength and permeability:

If the water content is less the voids will be filled with smaller sand particle which results in lower
permeability. By increasing the water content, smaller sand particles are also combined together, this
increase permeability. Once the percentage of water goes beyond 8% .Water start accumulating in these
void and sand become pasty. This decreases permeability and decreases in strength of the mould.
Moulding Methods:
Moulding methods are two types:
1. Hand moulding  Bench
 Floor
2) Machine moulding :a) Jolting b) Squeezing c) Jolt & Squeezing d) Sand sinking
Hand Moulding: If two forces required for ramming (or) compressing of moulding sand is obtained by
human hand, it is called hand moulding.
a) Bench moulding-: The moulding takes place on a beach then it is called bench moulding. It is used to
produce small size mould only.
b) Floor Moulding:- The moulding takes place on the floor, then it is called floor moulding, used to
produce medium size moulds.
Advantages: 1. It is cheaper methodology.
2. Human being knows where the projection and extension are present on the pattern.
Hence he can apply lesser amount of force to avoid damage taking to the pattern.
Limitations: 1. Non –uniform strength and hardness of mould can be obtained.
2. Time taken for making one mould will be higher.
3. Production rate is low.
Machine Moulding: If machine is used for producing required ramming force it is called machine
moulding.
a) Jolting: Sand filled mould is raised to certain height. So that it is possessing potential energy (P.E)
when it is leaving freely on the ground the P.E of the mould is converted into impact energy and impact
load which is acting on the ground the equal and opposite reaction force offered by ground is acting on
the mould which is used for ramming of molding sand .
The reaction force produced by ground cannot be transferred up to the top of mould. Hence top of
mould is having lower strength. Therefore jolting may not be sufficient for making the mould.
b) Squeezing:

Force is applied using mechanical (or) hydraulic press on to the plate the plate is squeezing (or)
transforming force to the moulding sand for ramming .
Because force may not be transmitted up to the bottom of the mould, there is variation in strength of
mould.
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 Top of mould is higher strength , where one bottom of mould is having lower strength.
To overcome above problem we used jolt and squeezing method.
c) Jolt and squeezing: By combining jolt and squeezing operation it is possible to get higher strength
and hardness of top and bottom of mould uniform strength and hardness can be obtained, if the height of
mould is < 200mm
Sand sinking: Small quantity of moulding sand will be thrown in to the mould
with certain amount of force using a machine. Sand sinking is very costly
equipment and it can’t be used with pattern having projection and extension.

1. Hardness of green sand increases with

a) Increase in moisture content beyond 6% b) Increase in permeability
c) Decrease in permeability
d) Increase in both moisture content and permeability
Sol: (C)
2. In solidification of metal during casting, compensation during solid contraction is
a) Provided by the oversize pattern b) Achieved by properly placed riser
c) Obtained by promoting direction solidification
d) Mode by providing chills
Sol: (A)
3. Draft on pattern for casting is
a) Shrinkage allowance b) Toper to facilitate if removal from mould
c) Increase in size of cavity due to sinking of pattern
d) Machining allowances
Sol: (B)
4. Strength and permeability of green sand are related
a) Grain size b) Moisture content c) Elay-content d) Type of sand
Sol: (B)
5. Shrinkage allowance is made
a) Adding to external and internal dimensions
b) Subtracting from external internal dimensions
c) Subtracting from external dimensions and adding to internal dimensions
d) Adding to external dimensions and adding subtractions from internal dimensions
Sol: (D)
6. Jolt machine produce
a) Uniform ramming about the pattern b) Uniform ramming about the flask
c) Uniform distribution throughout d) Pack sand loosely all around
Sol: (A)
7. Negative allowance is provided on the pattern to take care of
a) Distortion allowance b) Draft allowances
c) Machining allowance d) Shake allowance
Sol: (D)

Core: Cores are bodies are used in casting process for producing Hollow casting.

Properties which must be possessed by core material:

1. Non metal 2. Free from moisture 3. Core material should have high strength
4. High collapsibility
To satisfy the above four properties of core material, the commonly used material for manufacturing of
core is dry sand with co2 bonding

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Core making process:
1. Take the dry sand [silica sand+ clay +sodium silicate]
2. CO2 is supplied in to dry sand of high pressure. It is chemically reacting with sodium silicate and
produces silica gel.
3. On drying the silica gel for 1 to 2 minutes, it give very high strength to the core.

4. Now by opening container, the core can be taken out and used in casting process.
5. Whatever high strength of core obtained due to formation of silica gel and drying will
not be lasting for longer period [ 2 to 3 hours].
6. After 5 hours it is found that the core becomes like a loose sand which can be removed
very easily.
Core is placed in the cavity: When core placed in the cavity due to Buoyancy force the position of core
is changed.
To overcome above problem recess provided in the mould for locating, positioning and support core is
called core print. Core print can be produced by providing extension on the pattern as shown in figure.

Net Buoyancy force on the core:

= Weight of liquid displaced – Weight of core
= v  1  g  v  2  g
=  vg 1  2  v= Volume of core
g= Acceleration due to gravity
1 = density of molten metal
2 = density of core
Load which is supported by core print = 350A newtons
A= Surface area of core print in m2
Unsupported load = Net buoyancy force – 350 A
If  0 no additional support is required.
If > 0 additional support is required.
Additional support required in casting process which is obtained by using chaplets.
Chaplets: Main purpose of chaplets is to support the core. Chaplets are made by using same material as
that of casting to be produced. Because it is becoming an Integral part of casting and it would not be
removed.
Precautions: 1. Chaplets must be properly cleaned before placing them into the casting cavity. Because
to avoid the weak joint formation between solidified metal and chaplets.
Directional solidification: Chaplets basically provided as an addition support. But chaplets also provide,
the directional solidification.

Elements of gating design:

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 Molten metal is always poured into the casting cavity using a system called gating system. It
consists of 4 basic elements, 1. Pouring basin 2. Sprue 3. Runner 4. Ingate
Characteristics of Gating system: 1. The time taken for pouring (or) filling of molten metal into the
cavity should be as minimum as possible. This is due to no part of casting cavity should start to solidify
before complete filling of casting cavity.
Volume of cavity(v) V m3
Pouring time    3  sec
Flow rate Area  Velocity m
sec
2. Velocity of molten metal should be selected in such way that velocity of molten metal in the gating
system must ensure the Laminor flow.
3. The flow of molten metal in the gating system should always full.
4. The gating system should be designed such that any impurities present in molten metal can be
separated without entering into casting cavity.
5. The gating system should be designed such that no sand erosion can take place in gating system.
6. No aspiration effect will take place during filling of molten metal into the casting cavity.
Pouring basin:

Pouring basin is as a reservoir for supplying the molten metal to the casting cavity.
1. Pouring basin separates the impurities present in the molten metal
2. Size and shape of pouring basin will not have much effect on the flow rate (or) pouring time of molten
metal.
Sprue: It is connecting passage between pouring basin and runner. It is always vertical with straight
tapered circular cross section.

h = height of sprue, As = Cross section area of Bottom sprue

1. Basically velocity of molten metal in gating system v  2gh . Height of sprue is mainly responsible
for producing velocity of molten metal in gating system. Height is selected in such way that velocity
of molten metal ensures Laminor flow.
2. Straight tapered sprue is selected to avoid the aspiration effect in the gating system.
Runner: It is connecting passage between bottom of sprue and ingate. It is always horizontal with
uniform trapezoidal cross section.
Mainly used for minimizing the sand erosion in casting process.
Qact  cd  Q th , Cd= Co-efficient of discharge, A r  cross area of runner
Trapezoidal cross section has highest value of Cd. So, it is selected.
Q. Why Trapezoidal is not selected for sprue?
Ingate: It is the lost point of gating system, from here the molten metal is entering into the casting cavity.
 It is also horizontal and uniform trapezoidal cross section.
Function: There is an offset between runner axis and Ingate axis [offset < 5 mm]it is provided to remove
impurities.
AG = cross section area of Ingate
Depending on the position of gate with respect to mould cavity they are four types:-
1. Top gate 2. Bottom gate 3. Parting line gate 4. Step gate

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Top gate:

1. Liquid metal will enter into the cavity directly from bottom of sprue at atmospheric pressure.
2. Velocity of liquid metal which is entered into the mould cavity will be very high.
3. There is a possibility of turbulence, splashing of the liquid metal and mould erosion.
4. It can be used for ferrous material.
5. Time taken to fill the cavity will be less.
6. There is favourable temperature gradient of the liquid metal in the mould cavity.
Ag Vg dt = Amdh [According to continuity equation]
As time changes, there is change in height.
ttf hm
AV dt  A dh A m  mould area
g g 
t 0
m 
0
tf h h m  mould height
A g Vg  t t 0  A m  h 0 m
A g  Gate area
A g vg t f  A m h m
vg  Gate velocity  2gh t
A h
tf  m m t f  time required for filling mould
A g vg
v m  Volume of mould
v
tf  m
A g vg
Bottom Gate: Gate is provided at bottom of mould cavity.

1. Velocity of liquid metal in the cavity will be very less and will become zero.
2. There is no possibility of turbulence, splashing liquid metal and mould erosion.
3. It can be used for casting of non- ferrous materials.
4. Time taken to fill the mould cavity will be maximum.
According to continuity equation
A g v g df  A m dh
at t  0 h0
t  tf h  hm
A dh
dt  m
A g vg
Integrating on both sides,
t  tf A h hm dh
t 0 dt  Amg h 0 2g  h  h 
t
hm
 1
1

Am 1 h t  h  2  2A m 1 
tf 
Ag

2g   1  1
  1  
Ag 2g 
 ht  hm  ht   1

 2 0

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 2A m 1 
tf  h t  h t  h m 
Ag 2g 

2A m 1 2A m h t h 2A m ht
If h t  h m , t f  . ht ,  .  t , .
Ag 2g Ag 2g ht Ag 2gh t
t fbottom  2.t top
Q. A casting of size 100 cm × 100 cm × 25 cm was filled by top and bottom gates with
manometric height in pouring basin to be 25 cm. Compare the time to fill the casting by different
gates. The area of gate is 5 cm2.
Solution: Casting Area A = 100 ×100 = 104 cm2 , Casting height H = 25 cm
Manometric height = ht = 25 cm, Gate area = Ag = 5 cm2
Top gate:
AH 104  25
t f1    225.7 sec ond
A g 2gh t 5  2  9.81 25
Bottom gate:
2A m 1
t f2     25  25  25   451.5 sec ond
Ag 2  9.81 
Short cut: t f2  2t f1 If pouring basin = height of casting
Q. In below example determine the total time required to fill the entire casting and riser.

Solution:
It is the horizontal gate section ‘A’ of the mould will be filled like top gate
2

t f1 
 30 
 6.86sec ond
 10
5  2  9.81 35
Section ‘B’ of the mould will be filled like bottom gate
2

t f2 
 30  
 35  35  20   16.60sec
5  2  9.81  
Riser will be filled like bottom gate
 2
35
 20  dh
t f3   4
20 5 2g  35  h 
 2 25
t f3  2   20   h t  H  20
4
 2.83  35  35  35  20 
 2.83  35  20  10.98sec
Total time to full the casting
t f1  t f 2  t f3  16.60  10.98  6.86  34.4 sec

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3. Parting line gate:

Gate will be provided along the parting line such that cavity above the parting line can be filled by
assuming bottom gate and cavity below parting line can be filled by assuming top gate.
To get advantages of both top and bottom gate it is most commonly used type of gating.
Note: - Pouring time increasing order are top, parting and bottom gating system.
Step gating system: Providing more than one Ingate in a given horizontal plane for filling large casting
cavity in a shorter duration is called as step gating system.

Air aspiration effect: If the atmospheric gases will be absorbed into the gating elements they will mix –
up with the liquid metal and form gas defects is called as Air- Aspiration effect.

1. Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 2 and 3, we get

P2 v 22 P v2
  h 2  3  3  0    (1)
Pg 2g Pg 2g
2. Point ‘3’ is open to atmospheric and if the cross section area of the sprue is same, then by applying
continuity equation we can write
A 2 v 2  A 3 v3  A2  A3 
v 2  v3    (2)
P3  0  Guage pressure    (3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in equation --- (1)
p2
 h2  0
pg
p2
 h 2
pg
3. It means that at point (2) in the sprue there will be vaccum and it capture atmosphere into liquid metal
through the sand voids.
4. This will produce blow holes in the casted part this phenomenon is called aspiration effect which is not
desirable.
5. To avoid this phenomenon the cross section area of sprue is changed to have uniform atmospheric
pressure throughout the sprue.
6. Let us again take equation (2) if pressure throughout sprue is uniform.
p 2 v 22 p v2
  h 2  3  3  h 3    (2)
p g 2g p g 2g
p 2  p3 , h 3  0
v 22 v2
 h 2  3      (3)
2g 2g
- 13 -
7. According to continuity equation
A 2 v 2  A 3 v3
A
v 2  3 v3 , R = Area ratio
A2
 Rv 3    (4)
Put equation –---- (4) in the equation ------ (3)
R 2 v32 v32
 h2 
2g 2g
v2
h 2  1  R 2  3 v32  2gh t
2g
2gh t
h 2  1  R 2 
2g
h
1 R2  2
ht
h
R2  1 2
ht
h  h 2 h1
R2  t 
ht ht
h1
R
ht
This should be the area ratio in the sprue to avoid aspiration effect.
8. Parabolic taper sprue is used, all along the length of the sprue; the pressure is equal to zero guage
pressure.
Limitations of parabolic sprue: Manufacturing is difficult. So, instead we take straight tapered sprue.
Accessories: In order to increase the efficiency of pouring of molten metal into casting cavity. Some
additional accessories are also used in gating system.
1. Strainer: It is always kept in sprue only. It is used for separating the impurities present in molten
metal.
2. Splash core: It is used for avoiding sand erosion from bottom of sprue.
3. Skim bob: It is semicircular cut given in the runner. it is used for separating light impurities present in
molten metal.
Gating ratio: It is the ratio between areas of the sprue to area of runner to area of the gate.
Asprue : Arunner : AGate 1: 2:4 [General]
1. Un-pressured gating system As: Ar: AG = 1: 2: 3 (or) 2
2. Pressured gating system As : Ar :AG = 2: 2: 1
Solidification time: - [ts]. It is the ratio of heat to be removed to the heat transfer.
According to Chvorinov’s principle:-
2
 V  s
ts   V = Volume, S.A = surface area, k = solidification factor = 2
 S.A  m
2
 V 
ts  k 
 S.A 
Note: In the design of casting solidification time of riser must be greater than solidification time of
cavity.
 t s riser   t s casting

- 14 -
 V a3 a
1. Cube  2 
S.A 6a 6

4 3
r
V 3 r d
2.Sphere  2
 
S.A 4r 3 6

 2
dh
V 4
3.Cylinder 
S.A 2  d 2  dh
4

V lbh
4. Slab 
S.A 2  l b  bh  lh 
Q. With a solidification factor of 0.97  106 s m 2 , the solidification time for a spherical casting of
20 mm diameter is
a) 539 b) 1078 c) 4311 d) 3233
Ans: - [B]
Solution:- Given data, k = 0.97  106 , D = 200 mm, r = 100 mm = 0.1 m
4 3
2
   0.1 
 V  6 3
ts  k    0.97  10  2 
 1077.78  1078sec
 S.A   4  0.1 
 
2
d
Short cut:- t s  k    1078sec
6
Q. A cube shaped casting solidification in 5min.The solidification time in min for a cube of
same material, which is 8 times heavier than the original casting, will be
a) 10 b) 20 c) 24 d) 40
Ans: - [B]
Solution:- t s1  5 min
m 2  8m1 m = mass = density. Volume
2
3 3 3  V  V a
v 2  8v1 , v 2  8v1 , v  a , a  8a ,2 1 a 2  2a1 , t s  k   
 S.A  S.A 6
2 2
 a  t s1 a1 a 22 2
ts     2 t s2  2 t s1   2 5  20 min
 6  , t s2 a 2 a1
,
Q. Volume of cube of side ‘L’ and volume of sphere of radius ‘r’ are equal. Both the cube and
the sphere are solid and of same material they are being cast, the ratio of solidification time
of the cube to the same of sphere is :
3 6 2 2 3 2 4
 4   r   4   r   4   r   4   r 
a)     b)     c)     d)    
 6  L  6  l   6  l  6  L
Ans: - [B]
Solution: - Given data, 1. Vc  Vs 2. Material same
2 2 2 2 4
2
 V  t sL  A s   4r   4   r 
ts  k  ,    2  
 S.A  t ss  A c   6L   6   L 

- 15 -
Q. Light impurities in the molten metal are prevented from reaching the mould cavity by
providing
a) Strainer b) Bottom well c) Skim bob d) All of the above
Ans: - [C]
Q. Chaplets are placed between mould in order to
a) Promote directional solidification b) Help alloying the metal
c) Facilitate easy removal of core from casting
d) Prevent core movement due to buoyancy
Ans: - [D]
Riser design: Riser is acting as reservoir for supplying the molten metal to the casting cavity for
compensating the liquid shrinkage taking place during solidification.
Conditions to be satisfied:
1. VR  3VS [Volume of riser should be at least 3 times the shrinkage
volume of casting .]
2.  Ts R   Ts c The solidification time of molten metal in the riser
must be at least equal to the solidification time of molten metal in the
casting cavity.
3. Shape of the risers
2
 V 
ts   , ts must as large as possible.
 S.A 
Volume = fixed, surface area = variable
‘S.A’ is as minimum as possible, for high ‘ts’.
Out of available shapes, spherical shape of riser is giving minimum surface area exposed for heat
transfer. Next minimum surface area is for cylindrical shape.
Note:- t scube  t ssphere  t scyclinder
Types of riser:
1. Side riser

Total surface area exposed to heat transfer S.A = 2. d 2  dh [Neglect small circle] ----- (1)
4
d  S.A 
To minimize the surface area S. A 0
d d
 4v
v  d 2 h  h  2      (2)
4 d
Substitute equation ---- (2) in equation -----(1)
 4v
S.A  2 d 2  d 2
4 d
d  S.A 
0
dt
  1 
2 2d  4v   2   0
4  d 
4v
d  2
d

d 3  4. d 2 .h
4
dh
V d
Note: - d = h, 
S.A 6

- 16 -
2. Top Riser:

 2
Surface area = d  dh        (1)
4
d  S.A 
For reduce the heat transfer, 0
d d
 2 4v
v d h  h  2      (2)
4 d
 2 4v
S.A  d  d 2
4 d
d  S.A 
0
dt
  1 
2d  4v   2   0
4  d 
d 4v

2 d2

d 3  8. d 2 .h
4
d  2h
V d
Note: - d =2h, 
S.A 6
Q. Determine the dimension s of a cyclindrical side and top riser used for casting brass cube o
20cm dimensions, the volume shrinkage can be taken as 9%.
Solution: - Cube side = 20 cm Volume shrinkage = 9%
For side Riser: For optimum condition of side riser h = 2r,where ‘h’ is height and ‘r’ is the radius.
Initially let us take riser volume to be 3 times the shrinkage
3
v r  3vs  3  0.09   20   2160
v r  r 2 h  2160
r 2 .2r  2160
r  7.005cm, h  14.07cm
Confirming these dimensions of riser
V d r
 A   6  3  2.33
riser
3
V

 20   3.33
 A  2
casting 6   20 
V V
 A    A 
casting riser

So, riser will solidify prior to casting, so these dimensions are not correct since at least riser
should solidify along with casting. So,
V V
 A    A 
R C

r
 3.33, r  9.99  10cm
3
h  20cm  20cm

- 17 -
Top riser: The bottom area of riser coming in contact with casting will not be considered in the design
analysis because there is no heat transfer through that area
V r
 A   3
riser

v r  2160  r 2 h
For optimum condition, h  r
r 3  687.54 , r  8.8cm , h  8.8cm
V r
 A   3  2.94
riser

V 203
 A    3.33
casting 6  202
V V
 A    A 
C riser
So, again this riser dimension is not correct and therefore optimum riser dimension for top riser is
r
4
3
r  12cm , r  h  12cm
Conclusion: Top riser dimension radius = r = 12 cm, height = 12 cm
Side riser dimension radius r = 10 cm, height = h = 20 cm
Q. A casting of size 100 mm × 100 mm × 50mm is required. Assume volume shrinkage of
casting as 2.6%. If the height of the riser is 80 mm and riser volume desired is 4 fim the
shrinkage is casting .What is appropriate riser diameter in mm?
a) 14.38 b) 20.34 c) 28.76 d) 57.52
Q. Wood floor is added to core sand to improve
a) Collapsibility of core b) Dry strength of core
c) Shear strength of core d) Tolerance in casting
Methods Riser design:
1. Caine’s method:-
It is used to calculate the size of riser. The equation of caine’s curve
a
X c
yb

 V A r
X = Freezing ratio =
 V A c
v 
Y = volume of ratio =  r 
 vc 
a, b and c are constant.
2. Modified caine’s method:
Novel research method: - Drawing graph between volume ratio[Y] and shape factor.
v
Volume ratio = r  Y
vc
LW
Shape factor = , L = length, W = width, h = height
h

- 18 -
  V 
3. Modulus method: Modulus =  m
 S.A 
m riser  1.2mshrinkage casting
Concepts of chills & padding:
Chills:

At minimum surface area in the mould cavity to maximize the heat transfer rate metallic object will be
provided these are known as chills.
1. If the chill is in contact with liquid metal then it is called contact type of chill. It is made up of same
material as casting.
2. If the chill is away from the cavity, it is known as non –contact type chill. It is made up of high thermal
conductivity material.
Note: By providing the chills uniform solidification and directional solidification can be achieved.
Padding:

At a critical cross section in the mould cavities to minimize the heat transfer rate, Insulating material is
provided this is known as padding. Padding also provides additional support at critical cross section.
Note: - Both chills and padding are used to provide uniform solidification and directional solidification.
Q. Directional solidification in casting can be improved by using:
a) Chills and Chaplets b) Chills and Padding
c) Chaplets and Padding d) Chills, Chaplets and Padding.
3.6. DIE CASTING
In this process the mould is made up of some permanent material like cast iron, die steels, copper
and aluminum. Two halves can either be placed horizontally and when liquid metal is poured under
gravity it is called gravity die casting and when liquid metal is injected into this permanent mould, it is
called pressure die casting. It is having following advantages
a) Same mould can be reused again. This increases the production rate as high as 150-250 casts per hour.
b) Dimensional tolerance is of the order of 0.001 to 0.003 inch.
c) Rapid cooling produces high strength
d) Better section sensitivity but after some amount of usage, mould contamination takes place i.e. a
portion of metal will stick to the mould. This has to be removed by abrasive jet machining (AJM). If
atmospheric gases are trapped within the liquid metal, it cannot come out, because these moulds have
zero permeability. In gravity die casting there are high chances of atmospheric gases getting trapped
Pressure die casting:

Fig 3.15: Cold chamber die casting Fig 3.15: Hot chamber die casting

- 19 -
 In pressure die casting the water cooled dies are lubricated and then damped together. The molten
is then injected under pressure. This pressure creates turbulence in the liquid metal and as a result of that
air will be trapped within the liquid metal. In cold chamber die casting metal is liquefied separately and
brought to die using crucible and ladle. Since liquid metal comes in contact with atmosphere the chances
of air trappment is very high.
In hot chamber die casting process furnace is a part of die and liquid metal is not exposed to
atmosphere. But since a major portion of the assembly is dipped into the liquid metal, this arrangement is
suitable to cast materials which has low melting point. Hot chamber die casting offers fast cycling time
(up to 15 cycles/min). Hot chamber die casting cannot be used casting aluminium alloys because the
material has a tendency to pick up some iron due to extended contact with the casting equipment
3.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
3.7.1 TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING: In this process a metallic mould (in two parts with flange) is
rotated at 3000 rpm using a rotating deice. Liquid metal is then poured into it at the centre. The mould is
slightly inclined from the horizontal so that the liquid metal covers the entire working length of the
mould. Percentage yield in casting is defined as the ratio of useful material to the total liquid material
poured into the cavity i.e. useful material after removing risers, gate etc, The percentage yield of true
centrifugal casting is around 95-98% because neither riser nor cores are used is casting and only lighter
impurities which settles at the inside surface are removed. Coarse grains settle down at the outside
surface due to higher centrifugal force. The grains towards centre will be finer and finer. Such surfaces
are called jagged surface. Composite pipe, large ceramic and cast iron pipes are made by this process.
Due to permanent material of mould, higher cooling rates will be experienced by the material which
produces relatively fine grain structure. So casting will be strong.

Fig. 3.17: True Centrifugal Casting

3.7.2. Semi centrifugal casting: In this process mould is placed on the horizontal plane and it is rotated
along the vertical axis. The outer portions of the mould will be filled by purely centrifugal action and as
the liquid metal approaches towards centre, the centrifugal component decreases and gravity component
increases. The central portion is purely filled by gravity. The speed of rotations and percentage yield is
lower than true centrifugal casting. Wheels, pulleys etc. are made by this process.

Fig. 3.18: Semi centrifugal casting

3.7.2. Centrifuging: As shown in figure 3.19 that a number of casting are placed on the periphery of a
drum and are connected to central sprue through individual gates. After the solidification, gating system
is disconnected to get the casted part. The percentage yield in this case is only 5-10% and speed of
rotation is much lower. The castings need not to be axis symmetric and the process is primarily used in
making patterns for investment casting.

- 20 -
 Fig. 3.19: Centrifuging
3.8 SLUSH CASTING: Gold jewellery, lamp bases, statue and other brass items are made by this
process. Liquid metal is poured into the die cavity and solidification will start from the surface, without
completely solidifying the liquid metals, the mould is inverted and excess metal is removed from the
cavity.
3.9 BLOW MOULDING: Glass and plastic bottles, bulb etc are moulded by this process. Glass or
plastic in the semi viscous from (called job) is placed in the die and air blown into the die. As a result of
that material takes the shape of die.
3.10. SODIUM SILICATE (CO2) MOULDING: The thumb rule is that harder the mould better will be
the finish and dimensional tolerance and minimum will be the defects such as blow holes. While
preparing the mould around 3-4% Na2Sio3 (also known as water glass) as mixed with the sand. CO2 gas is
then passed through the mould and following reaction takes place.
Na2Sio3+CO2  Na2CO3+SiO2 (Colloidal)
This produces very hard mould. Liquid metal is then poured into the cavity and after solidification
mould is broken to get the final product out although harder mould is having advantages but it should be
noted that the collapsibility to such moulds will be very poor.
3.11. SHELL MOULDING: Shell moulding produces better surface finish and close dimensional
tolerances. The process involves following steps.
1. A pattern made up of some permanent material cast iron is heated to around 230-3150C. It is then
clamped over a box containing silica, phenolic resins and Alcohol. No water is used in preparing the
sand mixture.

2. The box is then inverted and the sand is allowed to fall over the pattern. Depended upon the dwell time
a thickness of sand will stick to the metal pattern. The thickness of shell is proportional to the dwell
time.
3. The pattern along with shell is backed in an oven at around 3000C. This curing process makes the shell
rigid.
4. There are ejector pins over the pattern and by hitting them to ground, shell is taken out.
5. Two or more such shells are joined together either by thermo setting plastic are clamped together.
6. Liquid metal is then poured into the shell cavity. This shell provides easy escape of gases which
develops due to mould-metal reaction.

- 21 -
3.12. INVESTMENT CASTING: Investment casting produces better tolerance compared to shell
moulding. This process is also used to produce intricate shapes which are not symmetrical. One of the
application of this process is in making jet engine blades. The pattern is made of either wax or mercury.
When it is made of wax, it is called lost wax method and when the pattern material is mercury, it is called
mercast process. This process can be understood by following steps.

Fig: 3.21. Investment casting procedure

1. Wax is initially injected into a die to make the pattern.
2. A Number of these patterns are joined together with a central sprue is the form of a tree.
3. Since workers handle these patterns, it may become dirtly. This pattern tree is dipped into alcohol to
clean it.
4. Pattern tree is dipped into slurry which contains water. After removing it from slurry it is dried. The
tree is again dipped and then dried. By repeating this procedure for sometimes a layer of sand (shell)
will appear over the pattern.
5. Shell is heated to remove wax from it.
6. The shell is then furnace at 550-11000C. This ensures complete removal of wax and also gives strength
to the shell.
7. Pour the liquid metal when the shell is still hot otherwise will catch moisture from the surroundings
8. After solidification shell is broken to get final product.
3.13. TYPES OF CASTING DEFECTS: In the previous discussions, defects like cold shut, misrun, hot
tear, shrinkage cavity, sand inclusion, below holes, pin hole porosity and gas holes are discussed.
Following are some other important defects.

Drop: Irregular projections on the top of casting caused by dropping of sand from cope.
Brckle: - v-shaped depressions occurring on flat castings due to expansions of sand at the mould face
before liquid metal solidifies.
Scab: Protruding surface of casting at roof.
Swell: Liquid metal displaces the sand at the wall regions due to hydrostatic pressure.
Penetration: Due to improper ramming of sand, liquid metal penetrates into the sand.
Mould shift: Due to misalignment between the two halves.
3.14. TYPES OF FURNANCES
1. Open –heart (acid and basic)
2. Electric-arc (acid and basic)
3. Converter (acid side-blow)
4. Electric induction (acid and basic)
The distinction between acid basic practices is in regard to the type of refractories used in the
construction and maintenance of the furnace. Furnaces operated by the acid practice are inclined with
silica base (SiO2) refractories, and the siags employed in the refining process have relatively high silica
content. Basic furnaces, on the other hand, use a basic refractory such as magnesite or dolomite practice
base or dolomite base and have a high lime (CaO) content in the slag. The choice of furnace and melting
practice depends on many variables, including:
1. The plant capacity or tonnage required
- 22 -
2. The size of the castings
3. The intricacy of the castings
4. The type of steel to be produced, i.e., whether plan or alloyed, high or low carbon, etc.
5. The raw materials available and the prices thereof
6. Fuel or power costs.
7. The amount of capital to be invested
8. Previous experience
Generally, the open-hearth furnace is used for large tonnages and large castings, and the electric
furnace for smaller heats or where steels from widely different produced. Special steels or high-alloy
steels are often produced in an induction furnace. The converter is used where space is limited and almost
continuous pouring is desired.

- 23 -