The Journal of Positive Psychology

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Can contesting orientations predict grittier, more

self-controlled athletes?

David Light Shields, Christopher D. Funk & Brenda Light Bredemeier

To cite this article: David Light Shields, Christopher D. Funk & Brenda Light Bredemeier (2018)
Can contesting orientations predict grittier, more self-controlled athletes?, The Journal of Positive
Psychology, 13:5, 440-448, DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2017.1350738

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1350738

Published online: 10 Jul 2017.

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The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2018
VOL. 13, NO. 5, 440–448
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1350738

Can contesting orientations predict grittier, more self-controlled athletes?

David Light Shieldsa, Christopher D. Funkb and Brenda Light Bredemeierb
a
Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Saint Louis Community College-Meramec, St. Louis, MO, USA; bDepartment of Educator
Preparation, Innovation and Research, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Grit and self-control are highly desired qualities of character in the sport arena. This two-study Received 7 July 2016
investigation used a new theoretical approach, contesting theory, to examine whether contesting Accepted 13 June 2017
orientations could predict these characteristics among intercollegiate athletes. Contesting theory
KEYWORDS
identifies two distinct modes of cognitively processing the meaning and purpose of contesting, Grit; self-control; contesting
one rooted in a contest-is-partnership metaphor and the other a contest-is-war metaphor. Study 1 orientations; sports
(N = 799) found that contesting orientations added incremental utility beyond demographic and
control variables to the prediction of the two dimensions of grit (perseverance and consistency).
Specifically, the partnership orientation positively predicted higher grit scores. Study 2 (N = 1179)
replicated the findings of Study 1 with only minor variations and also demonstrated that contesting
orientations add to the prediction of self-control. Results are discussed in terms of the practical
implications for sport practitioners and, more broadly, the value of contesting theory to positive
psychology.

In her book, Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance,
Duckworth (2016) shares how she spent time with coach
Pete Carroll and the Seattle Seahawks shortly after their
second straight trip to the Super Bowl. From their extended
conversations, and from her own direct observations of the
team at practice, one theme emerged that, in the views of
both Carroll and Duckworth, accounted for much of the
team’s success: grit.
Grit can be defined as a combination of perseverance
and passion for long-term goals (Duckworth, Peterson,
Matthews, & Kelly, 2007). Of course, athletes are not the
only ones who can benefit from high levels of grit. The
US Military Academy at West Point has a strenuous fitness
program for its new cadets, most of whom were outstand-
ing high school scholars and athletes. Despite a careful
selection process that winnows 14,000 applicants down
to 1200 admitted recruits, nearly one in twenty drop out
within the first few months (Duckworth, 2016). Among the
vast array of variables that have been studied in an effort to
predict which cadets would survive the famously rigorous
program and thrive at the academy, research has shown
grit to be an especially robust predictor (Duckworth, 2016;
Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Kelly, Matthews, & Bartone,
2014).
While research on grit is still relatively new, proponents
suggest that it is a key contributor to achievement across
multiple domains. The majority of research has focused
on the academic domain where grit has been demon-
strated to be a significant predictor of a range of measures
of academic achievement, including GPA (Duckworth &
Quinn, 2009; Duckworth et al., 2007) and college retention
(Duckworth et al., 2007). It has also been found to pre-
dict career success (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Vallerand,
Houlfort, & Forest, 2014), lower depression (Barton &
Miller, 2015), and greater life satisfaction and happiness
(Duckworth, 2016; Singh & Jha, 2008). In the physical
domain, Joseph (2009), in a small study of collegiate volley-
ball players, found grit to have a moderately high correla-
tion with mental toughness, though it did not significantly
predict the passing and attacking efficiency scores of the
athletes. Reed (2014; Reed, Pritschet, & Cutton, 2013), on
the other hand, did find that grit predicts performance
in the area of exercise intensity and duration, and did so
better than conscientiousness or industriousness.
Grit may be particularly relevant in competitive settings
where long-term commitment to sustained practice is
essential. In a study of competitive spellers, Duckworth
and colleagues (Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein,
& Ericsson, 2011) found that those competitors with high
grit scores engaged in more deliberate practice than
their less gritty peers. Of course, deliberate practice is
critical to developing athletic ability (Ericsson, Krampe, &
Heizmann, 1993; Macnamara, Moreau, & Hambrick, 2016),
and it is reasonable to assume that athletes who are able to

CONTACT  David Light Shields  dshields32@stlcc.edu

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

sustain interest in their long-term athletic goals and persist
through obstacles and setbacks, the twin components of
grit, are likely to more fully develop their skills than those
who are lower in these qualities.
To date, we do not know if it is possible to deliberately
increase grit through intervention, nor do we have any
substantial research on predictors of grit. The growing
body of grit research has used grit primarily as a predic-
tor variable, examining how it relates to performance in
a variety of domains. In contrast, in the current study, we
examined grit as an outcome variable. We approached the
topic from a contesting theory perspective (see below),
and sought to determine if grit can be predicted from con-
testing orientations.
Contesting theory
The extent to which a person exhibits grit in sports may
depend, in part, on how they understand the meaning and
purpose of contesting. In elaborating contesting theory,
Shields and Bredemeier (2009, 2010, 2011a, 2011b) have
suggested that (a) competition is an abstract concept that
must be interpreted to have meaning; (b) its purpose is
not transparent, and people have different fundamental
interpretations of what contesting is all about; (c) contest-
ants necessarily interpret the purpose and goal of con-
tests through the use of conceptual metaphors (Lakoff &
Johnson, 1980, 1999; Landau, Keefer, & Meier, 2010); (d)
there are two basic conceptual metaphors for contesting,
one drawing from the source concept of partnership; the
other of war; (e) the interpretation typically occurs as part
of our ‘fast thinking’ (Kahneman, 2011) and, thus, happens
rapidly below conscious awareness; (f ) at any moment,
only one conceptual metaphor can be cognitively active,
but most people have both metaphors present in their
cognitive repertoire; (g) people tend to prefer and activate
more readily one metaphor more than the other (their rela-
tive preference is referred to as their contesting orientation);
and (h) the contesting orientation that is associated with
each root conceptual metaphor has important implica-
tions for motivation, goals, performance, and sociomoral
relationships.
At the heart of contesting theory is the construct of con-
ceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor is an indispen-
sable dimension of our cognitive processing, particularly
of abstract concepts and experiences. It allows a person to
understand one thing through their knowledge of another
thing. It functions within our ‘cognitive unconscious’ by
creating a conceptual mapping – a systematic set of com-
parisons – between elements of a target concept and anal-
ogous elements of a source concept (Lakoff & Johnson,
1999).
THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   441
Shields and Bredemeier (2009, 2011a) have postulated
that there are two distinct conceptual metaphors (con-
test-is-partnership and contest-is-war) that may be used
to interpret competition, each implying a different pur-
pose and goal to contesting; moreover, each conceptual
metaphor carries other entailments, including implications
for goal orientation, the relative preference for intrinsic
and extrinsic motivators, the balance of positive and
negative emotion experienced during competition, and
the approach to contesting ethics (Shields & Bredemeier,
2009, 2011a; Shields, Funk, & Bredemeier, 2016b). Empirical
research has documented several of these entailments
(Funk, Shields, & Bredemeier, 2016; Shields, Funk, &
Bredemeier, 2015a, 2015b, 2016a, 2016b, 2016c).
Though athletes usually have both metaphors in their
cognitive repertoire, only one can be activated and utilized
at any given moment (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Contesting
theory suggests that people have a tendency to activate
and utilize one metaphor more than the other; the extent
of preference for using a given metaphor is referred to as
the person’s contesting orientation (Shields et al., 2015a).
Here, we are interested in how contesting orientations may
carry different implications for grit.
All contests are structurally antagonistic. They divide
winners from losers, and every participant wants to win.
But, according to Shields and Bredemeier, people differ
in their understanding of ‘why’ we compete. When com-
petition is interpreted through the contest-is-partnership
conceptual metaphor (hereafter abbreviated partnership),
contests are construed in a collaborative light; we com-
pete to use the contest’s oppositional tension to promote
some form of excellence. Participants’ goals, tapping into
the partnership metaphor, include growth, mastery, and
the experience of those positive emotions that come with
ardent efforts to achieve a value-congruent goal. Because
grit is also oriented toward an excellence and sustains
efforts toward it, we hypothesize that the partnership ori-
entation will predict a higher level of grit.
When employing a contest-is-war conceptual metaphor
(hereafter abbreviated war), contests are interpreted in a
narrower, antagonistic light. Rather than seeing the con-
test’s goal structure as a means toward the end of excel-
lence, the contestant’s internal goal mirrors the external
conflictual goal structure of the contest and opponents
are rendered into metaphorical enemies. When viewed
metaphorically through the lens of war, the purpose of
a contest is reduced to designating a winner or winners
who receive the ‘plunders’ of war, the tangible or sym-
bolic rewards that accompany victory. When participants’
predominant approach to the contest is war, contesting
devolves into striving against others, a process Shields and
Bredemeier (2009, 2011a) have termed ‘decompetition’
442   D. L. SHIELDS ET AL.
since it is antithetical to the etymological meaning of
competition (‘to strive with’).
While the implications of a partnership orientation for
grit are relatively clear, the implications of a war orienta-
tion are more ambiguous. Because a war orientation tends
to draw heavily from extrinsic motivations and a need to
outperform others, effort may fluctuate in response to
changing outcome perceptions (Nicholls, 1989) and, thus,
may impede the perseverance associated with grit. On the
other hand, the strong sense of in-group loyalty evoked
by the war metaphor may strengthen resolve and sustain
interest. However, since grit requires not just temporary
doggedness but determination over a long period of time,
typically years, we believe that the war metaphor may
be less compatible with grit. Thus, we hypothesize that
greater endorsement of the war orientation will negatively
predict grit.
The present investigation was comprised of two studies.
The first sought to determine whether contesting orienta-
tions are predictive of grit in the manner hypothesized. In
a second study we sought to replicate the findings of the
first study with a second sample and expand the focus to
a concept often associated with grit, self-control.
Study 1
Methods
Participants
Participants were National Association of Intercollegiate
Athletics (NAIA) student-athletes (N  =  799, 47% male)
of multiple racial identities (65% White/Caucasian, 13%
Black/African-American, 14% Hispanic/Latino/a, 1% Asian/
Asian-American, 4% Multi-racial/Multi-ethnic, 3% other),
ranging in age from 18 to 23 (M = 19.1, SD = 1.30), who
had competed for a mean of 6.4 years (SD = 4.99) in their
primary sport: cross country (n = 84), football (n = 159),
soccer (n = 399), volleyball (n = 155); 2 athletes did not
identify their primary sport. Participants were drawn from
Fall sports officially-sanctioned by the NAIA, across multi-
ple NAIA member institutions.
Procedures
After obtaining approval from the Institutional Review
Board, participants were recruited through the NAIA’s
national office. The NAIA had previously implemented
an online educational program for its student-athletes
and the registration procedure was modified so that prior
to accessing the educational content, the athletes were
given the option to participate in this study. Interested
students were directed to an external site (SurveyMonkey),
which housed both the consent form and survey; those
who declined to participate were taken directly to the
program’s educational materials. Approximately 96% of
eligible student-athletes agreed to participate in the study.
All instruments were administered in a random order. All
information was collected anonymously and securely, and
no incentives were provided. After collection, data were
imported into SPSS for screening and analysis.
Measures
Demographic and control variables.  To control for
their potential effects, we collected participants’ age,
gender, primary sport, and years of participation in their
primary sport. To control for sport type, we coded as ‘0’
participants in the noncontact sport of cross country;
participants in the low to medium contact sports of
volleyball and soccer were coded ‘1’, and those in the high
contact sport of football were coded ‘2’.
Contesting orientation.  The Contesting Orientations
Scale (COS; Shields et al., 2015a) was used to assess the
degree to which participants endorsed the partnership
and war conceptual metaphors for contesting. The
COS asks participants to rate their agreement or
disagreement with twelve statements, using a Likert
scale anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly
agree). Six items reflect the war conceptual metaphor
(e.g. ‘In sport the goal is to conquer your opponent’) and
six items reflect the partnership conceptual metaphor
(e.g. ‘In tight contests, I want my opponents to be at their
best’). The scales are not bi-polar and respondents can
score high on both orientations, low on both, or high on
one and low on the other. Previous research (Shields et
al., 2015a) has demonstrated that the measure has good
factorial and concurrent validity, as well as strong gender
invariance.
Grit.  Grit was measured with the Short Grit Scale
(Grit-S; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). The Grit-S has eight
items rated on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (not at
all like me) to 5 (very much like me). In past research, the
Grit-S has demonstrated good internal consistency with
alphas ranging from 0.73 to 0.83 across four samples
(Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Though grit often has been
measured as a higher-order construct represented
by a single score, we followed the recommendations
of Credé, Tynan, and Harms (2016) and examined the
two facets of perseverance and consistency of interest
separately (each represented in the Grit-S by four items).
In previous research by Duckworth and Quinn (2009),
the Consistency of Interest subscale has demonstrated
adequate internal consistency (alphas ranging from 0.73
to 0.79); the Perseverance subscale has shown somewhat
less, but still adequate, internal consistency with alphas
ranging from 0.60 to 0.78.
 THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   443

Results Table 1.  Study 1: Descriptive statistics, zero-order correlations,

and reliabilities (N = 799).
Data screening and preliminary analyses
  1 2 3 4
Data were screened for outliers, out of range values, plau-
1. Contesting: Partnership (0.78)      
sible means and standard deviations, and missing data. 2. Contesting: War 0.14*** (0.87)    
Overall, only 3.24% of the data points were missing, with 3. Grit-perseverance 0.11** −0.02 (0.73)  
4. Grit-consistency 0.30*** 0.06 0.35*** (0.61)
no significant patterns. In line with current recommen- M 4.05 3.54 3.33 4.11
dations, multiple imputation was used to handle missing SD 0.66 0.94 0.77 0.64
data (Baraldi & Enders, 2010; Enders, 2013). Specifically, a Note: Reliability (Alpha) on the diagonal. 
Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm was used **
p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001.
iteratively to generate a series of multiple regression mod-
els, which estimated and imputed missing data based on
Regression analyses
the existing complete data. A total of twenty (20) imputed
To determine whether contesting orientations predict grit,
data sets were created, analyses performed on each data-
after controlling for age, gender, number of years com-
set, with pooled (averaged) results presented (Baraldi &
peting, year in college, and sport type, we conducted two
Enders, 2010). Prior to conducting the main analyses, the
sequential regressions, one for each dimension of grit
assumptions of multivariate regression were checked. For
(Table 2). In both cases, we first entered our demographic
all analyses, examination of collinearity statistics indicated
and control variables. Then, in the second step, we entered
no problems with multicollinearity in the data.
the contesting orientations.
In addition, prior to conducting the main analyses,
Looking first at the perseverance dimension of grit,
the internal consistency of each scale was examined.
the initial model containing only the demographic and
All scales showed acceptable (α  =  0.73) to very good
control variables (Step 1) was a significant predictor of
(α  =  0.87) internal consistency, with the exception of
perseverance (p < 0.05), though it accounted for less than
the consistency of interest subscale of grit (α  =  0.55).
2% of its variance. The model that added the contesting
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) indicated that one item
variables (Step 2) significantly increased the model’s pre-
of the consistency subscale (‘Setbacks don’t discourage
dictive ability (p < 0.05), with the full model accounting for
me’) failed to load sufficiently on the consistency factor
about 3% of the variance. An examination of the stand-
and was eliminated; the three-item consistency subscale
ardized coefficients demonstrates that of all the variables
showed improved reliability (α = 0.61) and was used for
in the model, only gender and partnership contesting
all further analyses.
orientation contributed significantly to the prediction of
the perseverance dimension of grit, with both providing
Descriptive statistics and correlations approximately equal predictive utility.
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, relia-
Looking next at the consistency of interest dimension
bilities, and zero-order correlations among the study’s
of grit, the initial model containing the demographic and
primary variables. It is worth noting from the correla-
control variables (Step 1) was a not a significant predictor
tions that it is only the partnership contesting orienta-
of this dimension of grit (p > 0.05). However, the model
tion that significantly correlates with grit, and it is the
that added the contesting orientations (Step 2) was signifi-
consistency of interest dimension of grit that correlates
cant (p < 0.001), with the total model accounting for about
most strongly.
11% of the variance. An examination of the standardized

Table 2. Predictors of two dimensions of grit (Study 1).

Analysis   Grit: Perseverance Grit: Consistency
  Predictor B 95% CI β ΔR2
B 95% CI β ΔR2
Step 1         0.02**       0.01
  Age 0.02 [−0.06, 0.09] 0.03   −0.02 [−0.08, 0.04] −0.04  
  Gender(a) −0.17 [−0.30, −0.03] −0.11*   0.09 [−0.03, 0.20] 0.07  
  Sport type(b) 0.02 [−0.08, 0.11] 0.02   0.01 [−0.07, 0.09] 0.01  
  Years competing −0.01 [−0.02, 0.01] −0.04   0.00 [−0.01, 0.01] −0.01  
  Year in college 0.02 [−0.06, 0.10] 0.03   0.05 [−0.02, 0.11] 0.08  
Step 2         0.01**       0.10***
  Partnership 0.12 [0.04, 0.20] 0.10**   0.30 [0.23, 0.37] 0.31***  
  War −0.05 [−0.10, 0.02] −0.05   0.02 [−0.03, 0.07] 0.03  
(a)
Gender was coded ‘1’ for male and ‘2’ for female.
(b)
Sport was coded ‘1’ for low-contact (cross-country, volleyball), ‘2’ for medium-contact (soccer), and ‘3’ for high-contact (football).
*
p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001.
444   D. L. SHIELDS ET AL.
coefficients demonstrates that the partnership orientation
was the only significant predictor.
Discussion
Based on the tenets of contesting theory, we hypothesized
that contesting orientations would predict differential lev-
els of grit. Endorsement of the partnership orientation,
we reasoned, should predict higher levels of grit, while
endorsement of the war orientation should negatively
predict grit. Results supported the first hypothesis, but
not the second.
Based on these results, we were encouraged to con-
tinue our investigation of contesting orientations and grit.
We sought to replicate the current findings with athletes
from other sports, and expand the outcome of interest to
self-control as well as grit.
Study 2
Success in any challenging endeavor requires more
than grit. It also requires self-control. Self-control can be
defined as ‘the capacity to override natural and automatic
tendencies, desires, or behaviors; to pursue long-terms
goals, even at the expense of short-term attractions; and
to follow socially prescribed norms and rules’ (Bauer &
Baumeister, 2011, p. 65). Self-control involves inhibiting
strong impulses that are incongruent with longer-term
goals, as well as activating and enhancing momentar-
ily weak but ultimately more desirable impulses (Fujita,
2011). Whereas grit reflects a passion for and long-term
dedication to a singular goal at the top of one’s hierarchical
goal structure, or at most to a small set of top-level goals,
self-control reflects the on-going negotiations of multiple
lower-level goals (Duckworth & Gross, 2014).
There are a number of ways self-control might contrib-
ute to athletic development and performance. Self-control
is required to show up at an arduous practice, rather than
make an excuse and join friends. It is required to spend
time in deliberate practice addressing a weakness, rather
than focus only on strengths. In the context of competition
itself, self-control is important to sport performance, in part
by enabling the athlete to minimize impulsive behaviors
that may interfere with individual or team success (Manuel
Sofia & Cruz, 2015). In fact the link between self-control and
athletic performance was confirmed in a study by Toering
and Jordet (2015) who found that soccer athletes with
higher impulse control, an element of self-control, per-
formed better than their counterparts with lower scores.
In Study 2, we sought to investigate contesting orien-
tations as potential predictors of self-control, as well as
determine whether the findings of the first study would be
replicated with collegiate athletes drawn from a different
set of sports. Similar to the hypotheses related to grit, we
anticipated that a partnership orientation would predict
higher levels of self-control, while the reverse would be
true for the war orientation. The partnership orientation
is grounded in the metaphor of people working together
to accomplish what neither could on their own. Sustaining
the partnership metaphor requires preserving a coopera-
tive cognitive frame despite the immediate goal-conflict of
the contest (Shields et al., 2015b, 2016b). Given the emo-
tional intensity of competition, this may require inhibiting
strong impulses to treat others, especially opponents, as
enemies sacrificing the long-term focus on excellence.
Similarly, if a person embraces a partnership approach, it
may entail encouraging what are initially weak impulses or
desires that are congruent with the partnership quest for
excellence even if they may be momentarily experienced
as disadvantageous. The war metaphor, by contrast, may
be easier to reconcile with the antagonistic frame of com-
petition thereby necessitating less self-control.
Methods
Participants
Participants were National Association of Intercollegiate
Athletics (NAIA) student-athletes (N = 1179, 53.6% male)
of multiple racial identities (74.5% White/Caucasian, 11.5%
Black/African-American, 7.5% Hispanic/Latino/a, 0.7%
Asian/Asian-American, 3.3% Multi-racial/Multi-ethnic, 2.5%
other), ranging in age from 18 to 27 (M = 19.2, SD = 1.38),
who had competed for a mean of 6.1 years (SD = 5.25) in
their primary sport: basketball (n = 339), baseball (n = 264),
softball (n = 204), golf (n = 106), wrestling (n = 77); track
and field (n = 71), swimming and diving (n = 40), tennis
(n = 37), cheer and dance (n = 17), and bowling (n = 14);
ten participants declined to indicate their primary sport.
Participants were drawn from Winter and Spring sports
officially-sanctioned by the NAIA, across multiple NAIA
member institutions.
Procedures and measures
The procedures used in Study 2 paralleled those used in
Study 1 and are not repeated here.
Demographic and control variables.  To control for their
potential effects, we collected participants’ age, gender,
primary sport, and years of participation in their primary
sport. For sport type, we coded as ‘0’ participants in the
following noncontact sports: track, golf, cheer and dance,
bowling, and swimming/diving. Participants in the low
contact sports of baseball, softball, and tennis were
coded ‘1’, while participants in the medium contact sport
of basketball were coded ‘2’. Finally, participants in the
high-contact sport of wrestling were coded ‘3’.

Contesting orientation and grit.  These constructs
were assessed using the same measures as employed in
Study 1.
Self-control.  To assess a person’s dispositional level of
self-control, we used the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS;
Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004). The BSCS contains
13-items such as ‘I have a hard time breaking bad habits’
and ‘I am able to work effectively toward long-term goals’.
Participants respond to each item by indicating how
much each reflects how they typically are. Responses
range from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). The total score
is calculated by averaging responses across the items.
Tangney et al. (2004) report that the BSCS has good
internal consistency with alphas of 0.83 and 0.85 across
their two studies.
Results
Data screening and preliminary analyses
The same data screening procedures were used in Study
2 as described above for Study 1. Overall, only 3.52% of
the data points were missing, with no significant patterns.
Again, a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm was
used iteratively to generate a series of multiple regression
models, which estimated and imputed missing data based
on the existing complete data (Baraldi & Enders, 2010).
Prior to conducting the main analyses, the assumptions
of multivariate regression were checked. For all analyses,
examination of collinearity statistics indicated no prob-
lems with multicollinearity in the data.
In addition, prior to conducting the main analyses, the
internal consistency of each scale was examined. All scales
showed acceptable (α = 0.70) to very good (α = 0.89) inter-
nal consistency.
Descriptive statistics and correlations
Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations, relia-
bilities, and zero-order correlations among the study’s
primary variables. It is worth noting from the correlation
matrix that the partnership contesting orientation had a
Table 3.  Study 2: Descriptive statistics, zero-order correlations,
and reliabilities (N = 1179).
  1 2 3 4
1. Contesting: Part- (0.81)        
nership
2. Contesting: War 0.31*** (0.89)       of interest dimension of grit, with partnership orientation
3. Self-control 0.18*** −0.05 (0.86)    
4. Grit-perseverance 0.10** −0.04 0.52*** (0.74)   by far the strongest. There were no significant negative
5. Grit-consistency 0.31*** 0.10** 0.49*** 0.39*** (0.70)
M 4.00 3.64 3.56 3.32
SD 0.69 0.93 0.63 0.75
Note: Reliability (Alpha) on the diagonal.
**
p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001.
THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   445
significant and positive correlation with all other variables.
The war orientation was not correlated with self-control or
perseverance, but was weakly correlated with grit’s con-
sistency of effort dimension.
Regression analyses
To determine whether contesting orientations predict
self-control and grit, after controlling for age, gender, num-
ber of years competing, year in college, and sport type,
we conducted a series of sequential regressions (Table 4).
As we did previously, in the first step of each regression,
we entered our demographic and control variables. Then,
in a second step, we entered the contesting orientations.
Results were largely, but not unequivocally, in line with
expectations.
First, when we ran the regression on the self-control
scale, we found that the initial model that included only
demographic and control variables (Step 1) was not signif-
icant. When the two contesting orientations were added,
however, the model was able to significantly predict
self-control scores (p < 0.001), accounting for about 5%
of the variance. An examination of the standardized coef-
ficients demonstrated that partnership contesting orien-
tation (positive) and war orientation (negative) were both
significant predictors of self-control.
Looking next at the perseverance dimension of grit,
the initial model containing only the demographic and
control variables (Step 1) was not a significant predic-
tor of perseverance. However, the model that added the
contesting variables (Step 2) was significant with the
model predicting about 3% of the variance. An exam-
ination of the standardized coefficients demonstrated
that, as it was in Study 1, the partnership orientation
was a significant positive predictor of perseverance. In
addition, unlike Study 1 where the war orientation did
not reach significance, the war orientation in this model
was significant, negatively predicting the perseverance
dimension of grit.
Finally, the initial model containing only the demo-
graphic and control variables (Step 1) did not make the
cutoff for significance in predicting the consistency of
interest dimension of grit. However, the model that added
the contesting orientations (Step 2) was again significant
(p  <  0.001), with the total model accounting for about
10% of the variance. An examination of the standardized
5
coefficients demonstrates that partnership contesting ori-
entation and gender positively predicted the consistency
predictors. These results are a near replica of the Study 1
4.08
0.66 results with the addition that gender rose to the level of
significance.
446   D. L. SHIELDS ET AL.

Discussion

0.09***
Everyone who competes wants to win. But the meaning

0.01
ΔR2

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
and value of contesting can still be understood quite
differently. For some, those who think about the contest

0.30***
through the lens of the war metaphor, winning is the ulti-

0.08**

0.02
−0.01

0.04
0.02
0.03
Grit: Consistency

mate goal. For others, the desire to win can be a strong

β

 
 
motivator but the ultimate goal is the strenuous pursuit
of excellence. How a person processes the meaning of the

[−0.03, 0.06]
[−0.06, 0.05]

[−0.02, 0.08]
[−0.01, 0.01]
[−0.05, 0.08]

[0.23, 0.34]
[0.03, 0.19]
contest has important implications.
95% CI

When examined together, the two studies suggest that

 
 

contesting orientations have significant predictive utility

for grit and self-control. Of the two approaches to contest-
ing, it is clearly the partnership orientation that accounts
0.29
0.02
−0.01
0.11
0.03
0.00
0.02
B

 
 

for the greater amount of variance in grit and self-control

scores. Of course, the study was correlational in design and
no causality can be inferred, but the relational pattern is
0.02***
0.01
ΔR2

significant and clear.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

While the expected positive contribution of partnership

to the prediction of grit and self-control was substantiated
0.13***
−0.11***

in this research, the anticipated negative contribution of

0.00
0.02
−0.05
0.04
−0.03
Grit: Perseverance

the war orientation was not evident in all cases. While it

β

 
 

was, as hypothesized, a significant negative predictor of

self-control and the perseverance dimension of grit in
Sport was coded ‘1’ for low-contact (cross-country, volleyball), ‘2’ for medium-contact (soccer), and ‘3’ for high-contact (football).
[−0.14, −0.04]
[−0.08, 0.08]
[−0.05, 0.08]
[−0.16, 0.02]
[−0.02, 0.08]
[−0.01, 0.01]

[0.08, 0.21]

Study 2, it was insignificant in the prediction of the con-

95% CI

sistency of interest dimension of grit in both studies and

 
 

the perseverance dimension of grit in Study 1. The more

ambiguous results with regard to the war orientation sug-
gest that it may have a less clear relationship, as suggested
0.14
−0.09
0.01
−0.07
0.03
0.00
0.00
B

 
 

in the introduction, with the outcome variables used in this

study. Still, the fact that it negatively predicted self-control
and, in one study, perseverance, suggests that it may be
0.05***
0.00
ΔR2

counterproductive for optimal performance.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Even where the regression results are significant, the

Table 4. Predictors of self-control and two dimensions of grit (Study 2).

amount of variance accounted for by contesting orienta-

0.22***
−0.15***

tions is not particularly large. When predicting the per-

−0.02
0.04
0.00
0.04
0.02

severance dimension of grit, the full regression models

β
 
Self-control

accounted for only about 2% of the variance. The vari-

 

ance accounted for rose to about 10% when predicting

[−0.14, −0.06]
[−0.08, 0.05]
[−0.04, 0.07]
[−0.08, 0.07]
[−0.02, 0.07]

[0.14, 0.26]
[0.00, 0.01]

the consistency of interest dimension, and about 5% when

95% CI

predicting self-control scores. While these are not particu-

 
 

larly robust percentages, it is noteworthy that the part-

Gender was coded ‘1’ for male and ‘2’ for female.

nership orientation consistently and positively predicted

these qualities that are associated with elevated athletic
0.20
−0.10
0.02
0.00
0.03
0.00
−0.01
B

 
 

performance.
It is also worth noting that even if contesting orienta-
Years competing

tions only make a small contribution to grit and self-con-

Year in college
Predictor

Sport type(b)

trol, doing so could still be of considerable practical

Partnership
Gender(a)
 

significance. Differences in athletic performance are often

p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001.
Age

War

quite small, and even marginal improvements can prove

 
 

decisive. If future research suggests that interventions to

Analysis

increase the use of the partnership orientation result in

 

Step 2
Step 1

even slight increases in grit and self-control, this would

(b)
(a)

**
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

be of substantial interest to coaches and other sport
practitioners. While additional research is clearly needed
to substantiate the links, there is at least some anecdotal
evidence to support the contention that the partnership
approach and grit go hand-in-hand.
At the beginning of the article, we mentioned that both
Duckworth and Carroll attributed the Seattle Seahawk’s
success in large measure to grit. That may be true, but
in reading Duckworth’s (2016) account of the Seahawk’s
culture, it is clear why grit and a partnership approach
to competition are closely linked. After noting how the
Seahawks ‘play to win’ even in practice, Duckworth (2016)
quotes Carroll, ‘If you thought of it as who was winning
and who was losing, you’d miss the whole point … It’s
really the guy across from us that makes us who we are’
(p. 262). Carroll goes on to say that people initially have a
hard time understanding his approach until they eventu-
ally come to see that competition is not about who wins
and who loses, but about why we compete. Competition,
Duckworth is told, is not really about designating a win-
ner. Rather ‘compete means excellence. … It means strive
together’ (p. 265).
When competition is cognitively processed, automat-
ically and implicitly, through the partnership metaphor
it appears to support an on-going, long-term quest for
excellence. Based on these results and related research
demonstrating that contesting orientations are among
the best predictors of prosocial outcomes such as good
sportspersonship (Shields et al., 2015a, 2016c), height-
ened moral identity (Shields et al., 2015a, 2015b, 2016b,
2016c), more intrinsic motivation (Funk et al., 2016), and
lower use of moral disengagement (Shields et al., 2015a,
2015b), contesting orientations should be of considerable
interest to those advancing the field of positive psychol-
ogy. Competition is nearly omnipresent in contemporary
life (Kohn, 1992; cf. Shields & Bredemeier, 2010) and con-
testing orientations may have far-reaching implications
for domains of activity well beyond sports, such as busi-
ness, politics, and law (Shields, 2013; Shields & Bredemeier,
2010).
Finally, it is worth remembering that this study assessed
dispositional tendencies toward activation of the partner-
ship and war metaphors. Even while this research suggests
that it is beneficial to have a general trait-like tendency
to activate the partnership metaphor in contesting situ-
ations, the research does not address whether there may
be situational advantages to the war metaphor. In the
actual moment-to-moment experience of contesting, it is
probable that participants vacillate between activation of
the two metaphors. For example, athletes who score high
on both the partnership and war orientations may have
implicitly learned to shift between metaphors depending
on context.
THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   447
Despite the clear patterns evident in this research, cau-
tion is in order. All participants were US intercollegiate
athletes and results cannot be generalized to other ages,
countries, or competitive levels. Moreover, the consistency
of interest subscale was only marginally reliable in the two
studies, and then only after deleting one item from the orig-
inal scale; thus, results related to it need to be viewed with
caution. In addition, the scale used to measure self-control
was a general measure of the construct and, since self-con-
trol has domain variability (Duckworth & Steinberg, 2015),
it may not have adequately tapped sport-specific forms
of self-control; future researchers could profitably employ
additional modes of assessment. Even with these limita-
tions, the current study provides compelling evidence of
the theoretical significance of contesting orientations and
their practical utility for understanding grit and self-con-
trol. Sport leaders interested in fostering optimal athletic
performance may want to experiment with nurturing a
partnership approach to contesting.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to extend appreciation to Kristin Gillette and
the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) for
their invaluable assistance with data collection.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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