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Function: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty sets then, 𝑓 is said to be a function from set 𝐴 to set
𝐵 written as: 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and defined as;
(i) 𝐷𝑓 = 𝐴 (ii) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 there exists only one 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓
Domain: The set of all possible inputs of a function is called domain.
*The domain of every function 𝑓(𝑥) is set of all real numbers for which 𝑓(𝑥) is defined. *The
values at which 𝑓(𝑥) becomes undefined or complex valued will be excluded from real numbers.
Domain is also known as Pre-images.
Range: The set of all possible out puts of a function is called range. Range is also known as
Images.
Types of functions
Algebraic function: Any function generated by algebraic operations is known as algebraic
function. Algebraic functions are classified below:
𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A mathematical expression that is a sum of terms , each term being a
product of a constant and a variable raised to non-negative integer. E.g., 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 +
𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ … . . + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 … . 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If the degree of polynomial function is 1, then it is called linear function
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If the degree of polynomial function is 2, then it is called quadratic
function
𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 is called identity function. It is
denoted by 𝐼
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 or 𝑦 = 𝑏 is called constant function.
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: The quotient of two polynomials such as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) where 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0 is
called rational function.
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function in which the variable appears as exponent of a constant is
called an exponential function. E.g., 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
general and natural logarithmic functions
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒄𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If 𝑦 is easily expressed in terms of 𝑥, then 𝑦 is called explicit function
Symbolically 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If the two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are so mixed up such that 𝑦 cannot be
expressed in terms of 𝑥 then this type of function is called implicit function. Symbolically
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are expressed in terms of third variable (say 𝑡 )
such as 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) then these equations are called parametric equations
𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be an even function if for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑶𝒅𝒅 𝒇𝒖𝒄𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be an odd function if for all
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
Composition of function: If 𝑓 is a function from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 and 𝑔 is a function from
set 𝐵 to set 𝐶 then composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔 is denoted by (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
Inverse of a function: Let 𝑓 be a Bijective (1-1 and onto) function from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 i.e.,
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 then its inverse is 𝑓 −1 which is surjective (onto) function from 𝐵 to 𝐴. i.e., 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴.
In this case 𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓
Limit of a function: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function then a number 𝐿 is said to be limit of 𝑓(𝑥)
when 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 (from both left and right hand side of 𝑎) , symbolically it is written as
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and read as “Limit of 𝑓 of 𝑥 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 is equal to 𝐿
Left hand limit: If lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 it means 𝑓(𝑥) takes value 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎 from
the left side (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑎) then lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is called left hand limit.
Right hand limit: If lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 it means 𝑓(𝑥) takes value 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches to 𝑎
from the right side (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 + ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑎) then lim𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is called right hand limit.
Continuous function: A function is said to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if
(i) 𝑓(𝑎) is defined (ii) lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)exits (iii) lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
Discontinuous function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if
lim𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎) *If 𝑓(𝑥) is not defined at 𝑥 = 𝑎 then 𝑓(𝑥) is also called discontinuous
*Any function which does not satisfy at least one of three conditions of continuity is
called discontinuous
CHAPTER 3 INTEGRATION
Integration: The reverse process of differentiation is called integration or anti-derivative.
* The symbol ∫ is called integral or sign of integration * The function which is
to be integrated is called integrand of the integral. * The anti-derivatives of a function is also
called indefinite integral.
𝑏
Definite integral: The symbol ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is read as the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑎 is
lower limit and 𝑏 is called upper limit.
Fundamental law of integral calculus: If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] and
𝑏
𝜑′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜑(𝑏) − 𝜑(𝑎) is called fundamental law of integral calculus.
Area under the curve: (a) If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 then curve lies above 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 so
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where 𝑎 < 𝑏 (b) If 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0 then curve lies below 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑏
so 𝐴= − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where 𝑎 < 𝑏
Differential equation: An equation which contains derivatives or differentials is called
differential equation.
Order of differential equation: In a differential equation the highest derivative is called
its order.
Degree of differential equation: The highest power of highest ordered derivative is
called degree of differential equation.
Separable equation: A differential equation which is solved by separating variables is
called separable equation
CHAPTER 7 VECTORS
Scalar:- A quantity which has magnitude only is called scalar. E.g., Time and length , area ,
volume , temperature etc.
Vector:- A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called vector. E.g., velocity ,
displacement , acceleration etc. A vector (say 𝑣) is denoted by 𝑣⃑.
Magnitude of a vector:- The magnitude of a vector is a non-negative number. It is also
⃑⃑⃑⃑
called norm or length of vector. Let 𝑣 be a vector , then its magnitude is denoted by |𝑣|
Unit vector:- A vector having magnitude 1 is called unit vector. If 𝑣⃑ is vector then its unit
⃑⃑
𝑣
vector is denoted by 𝑣̂ and is defined as 𝑣̂ = |𝑣⃑⃑|
Null vector:- A vector having magnitude zero but no specific direction is called null or zero
vector. It is denoted by 𝑜⃑
Equal vectors:- Two vectors 𝑎⃑ and 𝑏⃑⃑ are said to be equal if both have same magnitude and
both have same direction.
Parallel vectors:- Two vectors 𝑎⃑ and 𝑏⃑⃑ are said to be parallel if 𝑎⃑ = 𝑘𝑏⃑⃑ or 𝑏⃑⃑ = 𝑘𝑎⃑
Position vector:- The vector whose initial point is at origin O and terminal point is at point
P is called position vector.
Direction angles and direction cosines of a vector:- Let 𝑢 ⃑⃑ = [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧] be a
vector such that it makes angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾 along the coordinate axis then 𝛼 , 𝛽 , 𝛾 are called
direction angles of vector 𝑢 ⃑⃑, While 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 are called direction cosine of 𝑢 ⃑⃑
Scalar product/ Dot product:- When product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ results a scalar
quantity , this is called scalar product. The scalar product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ is denoted by
𝑢
⃑⃑. 𝑣⃑
Perpendicular (Orthogonal vectors):- For two non-zero vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ , 𝑢⃑⃑. 𝑣⃑ =
0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢⃑⃑ ⊥ 𝑣⃑
Vector product/ Cross product:- The vector product of two vectors 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ is
denoted by 𝑢 ⃑⃑ × 𝑣⃑ and defined as 𝑢
⃑⃑ × 𝑣⃑ = 𝑢𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛̂ where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑢 ⃑⃑ and 𝑣⃑ and 𝑛̂
is unit vector.
Scalar triple product:- The product 𝑢̂. (𝑣⃑ × 𝑤 ⃑⃑⃑ ) is called scalar triple product.
Vector triple product:- The product 𝑢̂ × (𝑣⃑ × 𝑤 ⃑⃑⃑ ) is called scalar triple product.
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